Introduction:

Plants are living organisms which tend to act as factories by converting the solar
energy into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis and storing it as carbon
compounds in the plant which accounts to two major events happening in the life cycle of
every plant namely, growth and development. For a plant to achieve growth and development
the very important process called photosynthesis is truly necessary and this process can take
place only in the presence of sunlight. Hence, the influence of solar energy in the growth and
development of plants should be considered. Growth is defined as ‘quantity and irreversible
changes in the length, area or weight of individual organs’. Development is defined as
‘progression through a series of discrete changes in the structure and number of individual
organs’. Solar energy is ‘the light and radiant heat from the sun that influences earth’s climate
and weather and sustains life’.[1] This solar energy on the plant’s growth and development
could be studied by focusing on the photoperiodism, thermal time, degree days, interception
of solar radiation, harvest index, and many more aspects.

Solar radiation transferred to biomass:

Plants gain energy from the solar radiation as autotrophs and use this it to fix
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates (CH2O) by the process of photosynthesis. (refer
figure 1) Photosynthesis connects the effect of solar energy on the growth and development.
The productivity of the plant can be defined in terms of the efficiencies with which the solar
resource is captured and converted into biomass. [9] The accumulation of carbohydrate in the
plant increases the size of the plant. Therefore, solar radiation is said to drive the growth in
plants. It is the photoperiod and temperature that determines the duration of any
developmental stage and it is the interception of solar radiation that determines the amount of
growth. The biomass and the intercepted radiation can be can be expressed as W= ɛs∑fIodt.
[9] Es is the efficiency with which the crop uses the sunlight to produce the dry matter, f is
the product of the fractional interception and Io is the daily total incident radiation.

Photoperiodism:

Photoperiodism is simply defined as ‘the growth response to varying lengths of

daylight and darkness. These responses may include flowering dates, vegetative growth,
formation of rosette foliage in plants, formation of tubers, bulbs, rhizomes and buds,
formation of abscission layers in petioles and dormancy’.[2] It also explains why certain
plants tend to grow only in some particular latitudes. Photoperiodism is controlled by using a
pigment called phytochrome, cryptochrome, phototropin. These are some kind of unstable
pigment protein found in very small amount in almost all photosynthetic plants that keeps the
plant sensitive to the wavelength of red, far-red and some blue regions [3] of the
photosynthetically active radiation of the visible spectrum. It also controls other stages of
growth such as the germination of seeds, elongation of seedlings, the size, shape and number
of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the straightening of the epicotyl or hypocotyl
hook. [4] With respect to this, the plants are classified as three major categories.
1. Short day plants: In these plants, flowering occurs only during short days. Itother words,
flowering, the first step in the reproductive phase of development requires a day length less
than a critical value. (Example: chrysanthemum, tobacco)

2. Long day plants: In these plants, flowering occurs only during long days. It means,
flowering requires a day length that exceeds a critical value. (Example: wheat, turnip)

3. Day neutral plants: In these plants, flowering has no dependence on the day length. The
duration of light and darkness does not affect both phase and vegetative phase. (Example:
cucumber, sunflower)

Light intensity:

Intensity of light differs seasonally. On a bright sunny day, light intensity is very
high. As evening approaches, the Light intensity is said to limit the rate of photosynthesis.
(refer graph 1). Obviously, when there is no light, the plant will be unable to photosynthesis
as light is the source of energy for the reaction to occur. Over the first part of the curve in the
graph, the rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to light intensity. Because of this, we
can describe light intensity as limiting the rate of photosynthesis over this part of the curve
and having reached the critical point, the graph line tends to be flat as there seems to be no
changes.

Radiation use efficiency:

Radiation use efficiency (RUE) is the efficiency with which solar radiation is
used in photo system (PS) to assimilate the carbon dioxide. It has been found that the C4
plants are more efficient than the C3 plants. It has been estimated that the C3 plants convert
the solar energy with an efficiency of 1.4g MJ-1 and the C4 plants with an efficiency of 2g MJ-
1
approximately. The rubisco enzyme found in the C3 plants, under high light and heat, instead
of capturing C02, grabs oxygen enabling respiration to take place and thus slows down the
production of sugars from photosynthesis. This process is called photorespiration. C4 crops
generally have higher rates of photosynthesis due to the absence of rubisco enzyme which is
seen in C3 plant. Photosynthesis is not light saturated in c4 plants even under ful exposure to
direct sunlight. Whereas, C3 plants are light saturated at 50-75% under full sunlight. The
overall efficiency of capturing the solar energy is ɛ= ɛgɛaɛpɛiɛ sɛqɛrɛh. [9] Here,
ɛg is a geometric ratio,
ɛa is the atmospheric transparency,
ɛp is rhe spectral ratio,
ɛi is the interception efficiency of the foliage,
ɛs is the convertion effeciencyof intercepted radiation,
ɛq is the photochemical efficiency,
ɛq is the photochemical efficiency,
ɛr is the respiration efficiency amd
ɛh is the yield effeciency.
Thermal time:

‘For the plants to progress to the next stage of development, certain plants have
to accumulate a certain time called thermal time’ (growing degree days). Thermal time for a
crop keeps accumulating throughout the lifespan of the crop. Thermal time is expressed as
Thermal time, = ∑ (T-Tb). Here, T is the mean temperature and Tb is the base temperature.
It is measured in degree days. It drives the plant development. It is used to compare the
development of crops in different locations and in different seasons. Specially, determinate
crops which have a clearly defined point at which seeds physiologically mature. Particularly,
flowering date in the day neutral plants could be estimated from its thermal temperature.
Certain plants require vernalisation. Vernalisation is a process that indicates the development
in a plant. It is defined as ‘the promotion of flowering by a period of low temperature’.

Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR):

Solar light has many kinds of light with various wavelengths. Plants have
evolved pigments that can absorb or reflect certain wavelength of light. When the rays of
sunlight fall on the leaf, reflection, transmition and absorbtion occurs. Reflection and
transmission depends on wavelength of the rays. Solar spectrum of light consists of a visible
region called the PAR which covers up the rays which have their wavelength in the range
between 400nm and 700nm. Light comprises of many small energy particles called photons
and it is found that photons with wavelengths between 400nm and 700nm only are used in
photosynthesis. Usually, only the visible region absorbed by the plant is measured in the case
of photomorphogenesis. Photomorphogenesis is the light mediated development and hence
the visible solar spectrum has the name Photosynthetically active radiation.

Light interception:

Solar energy gives out heat and light. Heat passes by air. Light is transferred
through air, reaches the plant, captured by chlorophyll and initiates the photosynthesis
process. As the earth’s atmosphere has the ability to absorb most of the infrared and
ultraviolet rays, most of the light that reaches the earth’s surface is visible light. Out of the
solar radiation that falls on the leaf canopy, only 1-5% is used in photosynthesis and this is
trapped by the pigments seen in the plants, specially the chloroplast. In this chloroplast, it is
the thylakoid which is responsible for light capture. Beer’s law is an empirical relationship
that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is
travelling.I/Io = e –kL. Here, I= radiation within the canopy, Io = irradiance, L= leaf area index,
K= extinction coeffecient for radiation. Beer’s law and the fractional interception are linearly
related. ( refer graph 2 )Fractional interception f= 1- exp(-kL) where, K= extiction coeffecient
and L= Leaf area index.

Leaf angle:

The angle of the sun in the different seasons of the year, latitude, time of each
day determines light availability. Cloud cover also can reduce the light radiation reaching the
crops. Under low light intensity, the crop tends to have longer internodes, thinner leaf , more
chlorophyll number and thinner cuticle. Under high light intensity, the crop tends to have
small and thick cuticle, curled or less leaf area, less stomata number, and the leaf orientation
is heliotropic. Heliotropism is the diurnal motion of plant parts in response to the direct
exposure to sunlight. Leaves change their position to capture or to avoid the direct solar
radiation and this is called diaheliotropism and paraheliotropism respectively.

Canopy:

Light interception depends on the ground cover. Ground cover also called as the
canopy which is ‘the amount of soil surface that is covered by leaves. New leaves compete
with the older leaves for solar energy, nutrients, water and assimilate. Different plants have
different adaptations to capture the solar radiation. As the crop grows, leaf area and light
interception increases. This is followed by increased compactness of the canopy and mutual
shading of leaves leading to the death of older leaves at the bottom. Basically, there are two
types of canopies namely, flat leaved and erect leaved canopy.

1. The flat leaved canopy: It comprises of the plant bearing branches with leaves. In this
case the leaves on the top, act as a barrier for the solar light to reach the leaves at the far
bottom of the plant. Hence the light intercepted in the flat leaved canopy is almost zero at the
bottom of the plant. Example: beans, ground nut.

2. The erect leaved canopy: It comprises of the plant which bears the leaves erect. In this
case the leaves are arranged vertically. There is no overlapping of the leaves. Hence no leaf
hinders the solar light reaching other leaves. Hence, the erect leaved canopy has more
efficiency in trapping the solar radiation. Example: Cereals, onions.

Leaf area index ( LAI):

Atmospheric factors account for the increase and decrease in the amount of
radiation available to the plant canopies. PAR controls the radiation available for growth and
the non- PAR controls the radiation available for development. The amount of intercepted
radiation can be increased by one main way. That is to plant the seedling 2 or 3 weeks prior to
the sowing date so that, the plants have time to grow and expand their leaves. The reason why
the plants need to expand their leaves to increase the intercepted radiation is that, when the
leaf area is bigger, the light intercepted will be high and when smaller, the light intercepted is
low. ‘The ratio of the leaf area of the crop to the ground area’ is called the leaf area index
(LAI). LAI = Np x Ns x As . Here, Np is the number of plants, Ns is the number of leaves per
plant and As is the mean area per leaf. The more leaf area a plant has the more sunlight the
plant absorbs for photosynthesis. If the maximum size of the plant itself is small, then the
radiation is utilized more in producing the grain contributing to the yield, rather than in stalks
and leaves. Critical leaf area index is approximately 4. Large increase in the LAI will do not
result in increase in the crop growth rate. Chemically, the radiation interception can be
increased by transplanting, seed priming, nitrogen application and many more.

Harvest index (HI):

Following the interception of radiation by the crop, photosynthesis takes place

wherein the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and stored as carbohydrates in
some part of the crop causing the yield. When we speak about the yield, it is definitely
necessary to mention the harvest index. HI is defined as ‘the ratio of the economic yield to
the biologic yield’. Economic yield is the weight per unit area of the edible portion of the
crop and the biologic yield is sum of the economic yield and all other supporting structures
that are not consumed. Yield is a measure of the output per unit area of land under cultivation.
[5]

Stomatal mechanism affects photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is temperature sensitive. The openning and closure of the

stomata affects both the leaf temperature and transpiration. The guard cells become turgid
making the stomatal pores open. Due to the heat produced by the solar energy some of the
water is lost to the surrounding air from the plant through stomata. Hence, the pressure in the
leaves fall due to transpiration. This leads to the rise in the water through the roots from soil.
This hydrostatic pressure plays a major role in water transport making efficient
photosynthesis to occur which is driven by the heat produced by the solar energy. If there is
lack in water supply to the plant, it will lead to closure of stomata in order to avoid
transpiration. But, stomatal closure limits the co2 intake. Water stress reduces rate of
photosynthesis. The opening and closure of the stomata are related to the transportation of
water through the plant which results in growth. This opening and closure of the stomata
work in accordance with the temperature produced due to the solar energy.

Adaptation and acclimatization:

The optimal photosynthetic temperatures are influenced by the genetic and

environmental factors which are called as the adaptation and acclimatization respectively.
An adaptation is a characteristic of an organism that has been favored by natural selection
and increases the fitness of its possessor. Adaptations enable living organisms to cope with
environmental stresses and pressures. Certain plants have thick cuticle to protect themselves
from water loss due to sun’s heat. Example: Xerophytes. Acclimatization is the process of an
organism adjusting to chronic change in its environment, often involving temperature,
moisture, food, often relating to seasonal climate changes. Example: lowering the freezing
point of the sap during extremely cold temperatures. The stems of plants raised in the dim
light, elongate much more rapidly than normal, and this phenomenon is called etiolation. It is
a mechanism that increases the probability of the plant reaching the light. [6] The plant seems
to have more distance between the internodes.

Conclusion:

Solar energy is harvested by the plants and the end product is assimilated in the
crops. Later, turns into energy we use and dissipate as heat. Re-cycling is not seen anywhere
here. As light is essential for the process of photosynthesis to occur, it is obvious that the
potential growth and development of plants depend on solar energy which acts as a source of
light, though there are some more limiting factors like Co2, water, nutrients ect..

References:

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power - cited on 2nd November

2. http://www.globalgardens.com/photo-a.html - cited on 4th November

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototropin - cited on 4th November

4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytochrome - cited on 4th November

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield- cited on 5th November

6. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/E/Etiolation.html- cited on
5th November

7. Graph 1 &2: Lecture notes

8. Figure 1: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis -cited on 2nd November

9. Principles of tropical agronomy. Azam Ali, S.N. Squire. Chapter 2: Solar radiation,
2002.

10. All the Quoted definitions are from the Lecture notes.
Graph 1: Relationship between rate of photosynthesis and light intensity

Graph 2: Relationship between Beer’s law and fractional interception

Figure 1: Overall reaction of photosynthesis