The Hindu Cosmos Classical Hinduism takes its form from the uniting of two different (and indeed

opposing) worldviews. This unification is the result of a long religious and intellecutal confrontation (roughly 500 to 300 bce) between the Vedic Religion and the worldviews of Jainism and Buddhism. From the Vedic Religion, it took the life-affirming perspective ("life is good") and from Jainism and Buddhism, along with the lateUpanishads it developed a lifenegating view ("life is bad"). Both of these views were fit into the understanding of the cosmos that Hinduism developed out of the Vedas. To explain how this works, we must start with two intertwined descriptions of the cosmos, from which we will then move to the life-is-good and life-is-bad approaches to the human problem. The Hindu Cosmos #1: The Real Estate and its Inhabitants. A) The Vedic Gods The sacrifices and rituals of the Vedas involve a number of gods and goddesses. There is Indra, for example, the warrior god who can be seen as the leader of the gods. With his band of Maruts, he defeated the demons of darkness each morning so that the sun could rise. The Vedic literature contains a number of stories about his exploits and successes. There is also the sky god Dyaus and a few goddesses, such as Aditi and Ushas. Although the Vedas comprise the most sacred literature of Hinduism, the divine pantheon in them is essentially ignored in later Classical Hinduism. Only one god important in this period continue his significance later. This is Agni, who is both the god of fire, and the sacred fire itself. He continues to be worshipped in the daily rituals of each Hindu home. Every morning, an offering of clarified butter (ghee) and some grain cakes is shared communion-style between Agni (i.e., the fire) and the members of the household. B) The Gods of Classical Hinduism Hinduism has always had a remarkable ability to absorb new influences and ideas within its amorphous structure. This is true of the gods as well. One sage observed that there were 330 million divine beings in Hinduism. But if one looks for the most important gods, the usual answer is that there are three main gods, the "trinity" of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. But this answer is unsatifactory, for Brahma--the emination of Brahman into the realm of maya--receives little regular worship. Indeed, if we determine the of importance of gods by the number of their temples, Brahma has almost none. Instead, a group of female gods appear much more important. So the following discussion will focus on Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddesses. Much of the information about these gods comes from the two epics of the Mahabharata and theRamayana, as well as from the Puranas. Vishnu is a mighty male god, who plays several roles for his followers. He is at once the creator of the cosmos, its sustainer, and its destroyer. His most common female consort is Lakshmi. (For a picture and description of Lakshimi, go here.) The followers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavites. On earth, he has appeared in the form of ten different avatars, i.e., forms or manifestations. Some of the avatars in which he appeared were animal, such as a fish or a boar. But the most common avatars are Krishna and Rama, forms in which he continues to be worshipped. (For a picture of some of Vishnu's avatars, go here andhere. There are three main stages in Krishna's worldly life. First, Krishna is born in a prison where his royal parents are being held by a rival king. His father works out a scheme to enable the baby Krishna to escape to a nearby village and replace him with another child. Krishna grows up as a mischevious boy within this village of cowherds, playing tricks on his family and friends. Second, as a youth, Krishna woos all the gopis (female cowherds) in the village with his good looks, charms, and attentions. Although Radha is his favorite, he dallies with the other gopis as well. (For a picture of Krishna and Radha, go here or here or here.) Occasionally he even divides himself (makes copies, remember Multiplicity?) so that he can pay attention to several of the girls at once. These stories, while making good tales on the surface level, are also interpreted on a spiritual level. For an example of how this works, see this picture of Krishna and the gopis, along with its explanation. Third, as an adult, Krishna regains his kingdom in northern India by killing King Kamsa, an act seen as the restoration of dharma. In the story of the Mahabharata, he then helps Arjuna (by serving as his chariot driver, [for a picture of Krishna and Arjuna drinking soma on the chariot, go here]) and his brothers (the Pandava brothers) in a war to regain their rightful kingdom. On the night before a major battle, Krishna and Arjuna have a long discussion about the nature of dharma and the cosmos, which is preserved within the Mahabharata as the Bhagavad Gita (for a picture of the discussion, go here). At the end of the discussion, Krishna reveals himself to Arjuna as Vishnu. The exploits of Krishna are told and rehearsed in the Vishnu temples and in the annual festival of the Ras Lila.

The other major avatar of Vishnu is Rama, the central figure of the Ramayana. In keeping with the actions in the story, Rama (i.e., Vishnu) bears the attributes of trust, faithfulness, and strength. Along with Sita, his faithful wife, Vishnu as Rama continues to be worshipped in temples and in the annual festival of the Ram Lila. (For a picture of Rama and Sita, go here.) Shiva, by contrast, has no avatars, but he has a family of wives and children. Shiva was originally seen as the destroyer, but has since added the attributes of creator (destroy to make things anew), and sustainer. In fact, the figure of the dancing Shiva who sustains the world is a common Hindu image. Shiva's worshippers are known as Shaivites. The tales of exploits are mentioned in the Ramayana, but appear much more fully in the Puranas. Shiva's primary depiction is as a meditating sadhu, but due to the attentions of Parvati, one of his wives, he also has a familial side. The main symbol of shiva is a lingam, a phallic shaped object. This symbol is placed as the central image in a Shaivite temple and often made from a valuable material, such as silver. It is usually two to three feet tall, and constitutes a focus of worship for his followers. For a picture of Shiva with a lingam (decorated as if in a temple) and explanation, click here (note: this picture takes a while to load). For a faster-loading picture of Shiva with Parvati, the child Ganesha, and a lingam, click here. Shiva's "wives" are the symbols of feminine powers, called sakti. They are often worshipped within Shaivism, but can be worshipped on their own in a form of Hinduism called Saktiism. Although there are numerous female figures associated with Shiva, four stand out: Parvati, Umma, Durga, and Kali. Parvati is the goddess of love and romance. She is young, beautiful and full of life. As such, she represents union with Shiva, a representation that has distinct sexual overtones. Indeed, they are often depicted in the act of intercourse, the combination of their male and female (sakti) energies sustaining the universe. (For a picture of Parvati, go here.) Parvati is also the mother of Ganesha (see below). Although Shiva intially tried to kill Ganesha, he ultimately adopted him and the three of them are a favorite family scene. Umma is the wife who represents motherhood. She is seen as kind, caring, nurturing, and displaying other features of motherhood. Durga represents the attribute of justice. She rides a tiger and carries the weapons of battle. In this character, she is unafraid to kill to reestablish justice. (Go here for a standard depiction of Durga.) Kali is wild, terrible, and unpredictable, and is usually associated with death. She is usually depicted naked, wearing a necklace of human heads and a skirt of human arms. Blood drips from her sword. Death is thus connected with her activities. In fact, she is sometimes depicted dancing upon the prone form of Shiva, symbolizing the strength of wild and unpredictable power. The city of Calcutta (=Kali Ghat) is named after her. (For a picture of Kali, go here or here.) Shiva also has two sons. The first, Ganesha, has the head of an elephant and is the god of overcoming obstacles, which links him to good luck and prosperity. ( Go here or here for a picture of Ganesha. For the stories about how Ganesha was created and how he got his elephant head, go here.) The second, Skanda, becomes the divine warrior and thus the god of war. The Hindu Cosmos #2: What's really there? Although Christianity holds that God is immanent (that is, everywhere throughout the universe), that is usually not meant in physical terms. God is near all humans (perhaps his spirit is in the air), but he is not in physical objects; God created, but he is not his creation. For example, he is not a chair nor is he in a chair. Hinduism provides a radically different idea, one which goes against the evidences of human senses. The idea is quite simple: Brahman (the "creator" god) IS his creation. The cosmos is not so much a creation, but more an emanation from him. His essence lies in all created objects, including human beings. This means that the multiplicity of the cosmos--with all its gods, goddesses, humans, animals, and other beings and objects--is actually a unity; it is one divine being. The multiplicity that hides the cosmos' unity is called maya; that is the reality humans perceive with their senses everyday. The overcoming of maya to perceive true reality (Brahman) thus constitutes an important task in Hinduism. This simple notion has a stunning ramification: the soul of each individual human being--called atman--IS Brahman. The soul of each person is thus Brahman, the entirety of creation. This is a difficult concept to comprehend, for how can the "small" soul of each person be identical with the "large" god of the cosmos? But it is the comprehension of this very idea that becomes a central goal in the panoply of human life and in the resolution of the human problem. [See below.]

The Human Problem and its Solution: The Life-Affirming View For the part of Hinduism rooted in the Vedas that views life as good, the human problem is how to enjoy life, or, more precisely, how to enjoy one's lives. Since the samsara system continually causes people to be reborn after their deaths, every life should be lived to maximize one's enjoyment both in the present life and in future lives. In terms of one's present life, enjoyment comes from working towards the first three goals of life: dharma (virtue), artha (success), and kama (pleasure). Success and pleasure clearly can bring about enjoyment in-and-of-themselves, but so can practicing virtue. But the real reward for following virtue, fulfilling the duties of one's varna and jati, one's stage in life, (etc.), comes in future lives. The more a person leads their life according to dharma, the greater a store of good karma they develop. Good karma of course leads to a higher position in rebirth, while bad karma can lead to a lower position, possibly even one below the human race (like a goat or a bug). The more virtuous a person is in in their present life, the higher they will be reborn in the next. And of course, the higher one is born, the more enjoyable life will be. The Human Problem and its Solution: The Life-Negating View The part of Hinduism that views life as bad defines the human problem in a different way. Since life is not a good experience, many lives are definitely not pleasant. The problem therefore is how to stop living. A person could kill themselves of course, but that would only cause a rebirth. The problem is obviously how to get out of the system of samsara, how to die without being reborn. The solution is to gain moksha, namely, release. The simple characterization of this goal is for a person to realize the true nature of the cosmos. That is, they must come to the understanding, with every fiber of their being, that atman and Brahman are one and the same. The key is to realize this with "every fiber of their being"; head knowledge does not count. The more complex characterization of this goal is actually a fuller version of the previous one. First, recall that each person is reborn on the basis of their karma: good karma enables a higher birth, while bad karma results in a lower birth. But what if there is no karma at all? In this situation, there would be nothing attached to the individual that could determine where they would be reborn. This, in turn, would prevent rebirth and thus take the person out of the system. The Four Stages of Life Hinduism recognizes four main stages of life. Like the goals of life, these can be divided into three plus one, with the three deriving from the "life is good" strand of Hinduism, and the one deriving from the "life is bad" strand. The first three are the student, the householder, and the retired person, while the fourth is the ascetic (also known as a sannyasin or a sadhu). Progressing through Life: The Three Stages The three stages of life that come from the life-affirming, Vedic side of Hinduism, were intially designed with the caste system in mind (of course). In particular, they were set up to apply to members of the three TwiceBorn varnas: the Brahmin, the Kshatriya and the Vaishya. Other castes and jatis have adopted them in different ways, transforming them to meet their needs. The first stage is that of the student, during which a boy traditionally is expected to go to live and study with a teacher (a guru) for several years. Today only a few Brahmin families follow this tradition to the full extent. A boy enters into student-hood at adolescence (ages 8-12), and spends most of his maturing years studying. For Brahmins, this would mean studying and memorizing large portions of the Vedas and accompanying texts, along with training in the various rituals. Members of all castes learn how to set up and maintain their own household worship, centered on the holy fire of Agni. For the Twice-Born castes, the ritual (samskara) of becoming a student contains great significance, for it is the means by which a person becomes reborn. This ceremony--often called the thread ceremony because of the red thread which the initiate wears over his left shoulder--symbolizes the entrance of the boy into Hinduism. Originally, it was at this point that the initiate was first permitted to hear the words of the sacred Vedas and learned his first mantra. Once initiated, the boy became, like other Twice-Born males, responsible for maintaining the balance of the cosmos. After student-hood, the next stage of life is that of householder, usually entered into through an elaborate, manyday marriage ceremony. It is during this stage that a man has children (with his wife), forms a family, establishes

himself in a career or job, and strives to be an active member of his community. He will establish his own household, with its own worship. Indeed, with his wife, the householder is now responsible for ensuring that the rituals of domestic life are carried out at their proper times and in the proper manner. This stage is important because it carries the responsibilities of looking after and supporting people at all other stages, both male and female. The third stage of life is that of retirement. When a man reaches old age and his son has a family and is ready to take over the leadership of the household, he and his wife will retire. On the one hand, their household responsibilities--both religious and secular--diminish significantly. On the other hand, they become free to contemplate the meaning of their coming death and rebirth. They may choose to withdraw into a secluded area-perhaps become a "hermit"-- or they may involve themselves in more active worship (bakti) of Hinduism's pantheon of gods and goddesses. Each of these three stages is preceded by a samskara, a ritual that brings a person from the previous stage of life into the new one. While these are the most important stages of life, brought on by the most elaborate samskaras, there are many other samskaras performed during one's life. Traditionally, a person may undergo anywhere from 10 to 18, even up to 40, samskaras during their lifetime. The majority of these will be performed before a baby is even six months old, with many of them done before birth. These are believed to help a person leave their previous life behind and to enter successfully into their new one. Each samskara advances a person further along the path of life, initiating them into a new aspect or stage. It is clear that the three main stages of life are designed for males and do not include women. Traditional Hinduism, like many religions, places women in a dependent role. In the traditional view, women always need the protection of a responsible male, whether father, husband or adult son. This does not mean that women have no religious life. On the contrary, women are actively involved in worship, both in support of their family and on their own. On the one hand, a married woman is responsible for carrying out many of the domestic rites along with her husband. Many rituals cannot be performed with her involvement or in some instances leadership. On the other hand, women are often active practioners of forms of bakhti yoga, that is, the worship of the gods and goddesses. In the modern period, this subordination has begun to change and women have gained more active roles in public life. Indira Ghandi, for instance, was a Prime Minister of India for many years (women have yet to gain a corresponding position in the United States). Rejecting Life: The Fourth Stage The fourth stage of life breaks the progression of the other three; it is that of the ascetic, who in Hinduism are called the sadhu or the sannyasin. This is a rejection of life and all that it means in exchange for a search to attain moksha, that is, release from the cycle of samsara. A person may enter into this stage of life at any time. The rejection of life, especially as defined by the life-affirming strand of Hinduism, is complete. It requires rejection of the household duties and responsibilities of all stages of life. It also requires the rejection of the religious beliefs. Indeed, the ceremony making one a sannyasin includes the burning of copies of the Vedas, a symbolic rejection even of one's role in maintaining the cosmos, and of one's red thread, the symbol of their status as Twice-Born. It is such a powerful rejection that a person even loses their caste affiliation; even a shudra can become a sannyasin and lose their low-caste identity. The sannyasins become wandering hermits, living life without any shelter or possessions. They eat when they can acquire food, but never enter into any work to acquire it; it must be given or found. They become holy men, seeking spiritual enlightenment and power, striving to achieve the true wisdom of the cosmos. Some may become kind and give blessings to those around them, while others may become wrathful and powerful and wield magic against those who cross them. Source: http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu