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Robbers and Incendiaries:

Protectionism Organizes at the Harrisburg Convention of 1827
W.KeslerJackson (W.KeslerJacksonisaPh.D.candidateinHistory andaMaxwellFellowatSyracuseUniversity)

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On13November,1860,thefieryRobertToombs,eminentSenatorfromGeorgia, thunderouslycondemnedtheMorrillbilllegislationthatwouldsignificantlyincrease importtariffrates.Toombsrailedagainstthetariffasthemostatrocioussuchbill thateverwasenacted,andlambasteditastheresultofacoalitionofprotectionists andabolitionists:therobberandtheincendiarystruckhands,andunitedinjointraid againsttheSouth,hedeclared.1Beforeclosinghisremarks,heaskedhisstate legislators,Shallwesurrenderthejewelsbecausetheirrobbersandincendiarieshave brokenthecasket?Isthisthewaytopreserveliberty?Iwouldaslifesurrenderitback totheBritishcrown2ForToombs,then,thesectionalismbetweenNorthandSouth whichwoulderuptlessthanfivemonthslaterinthenationsbloodiestarmedconflictto datewasntjustaboutslavery;itwasaboutNorthernprotectionism,too.Andthe HarrisburgConventionof1827,afull34yearsbeforeConfederateartillerywouldtake aimatFortSumter,markedthefirsttimeinUnitedStateshistorythataunited, protectionistfront,formedalongsectionallines,presenteditselfinanorganized manneronanationalleveltheNortharrayedagainsttheSouthinapitchedbattle overtariffsandeconomicphilosophyingeneral.Organized,nationallobbyingfor federalmoneyhadbeenbornand,togetherwiththeSouthernfearofNorthern abolitionism,wouldeventuallysparkwaranditallstartedinthemodest Pennsylvaniacapitalwithaneventscarcelyrememberedtoday. Bythetimetheconventionconvenedin1827,legislatedprotectionisminthe UnitedStates,likethecountryitself,wasstillrelativelyyoung,thoughtheideahadbeen bouncedaround(toardentoppositionfromrepresentativesofbothNorthernand Southernstates)evenduringtheConstitutionalConvention.AdamSmithsAnInquiry intotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationshadbeenpublishedin1776,arguing thatGreatnationsareneverimpoverishedbyprivate(but)bypublicprodigalityand misconduct.3Inotherwords,Smithasserted,governmentinterventioninthe

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marketplaceasinthecaseofaprotectivetariff,whichwould,amongotherthings, artificiallyraisethepriceofcertainproductsisgenerallydetrimentaltothehealthof theeconomyinwhichthatgovernmentoperates.Thesubsequentdebatebetween thinkerslikeAdamSmithontheonehandandFriedrichListontheotherarguably foundnomoreheatedabattlefieldthantheonerevolvingaroundprotectivetariffsin 19thcenturyAmerica.NowherewastheNorthernprotectionistagendamoresuccinctly delineatedthaninHarrisburg. TheprotectionistfracasintheUnitedStatesmayhavebegunwhenAlexander Hamiltonpropoundedhisdoctrineofimpliedpowers,whichincludedtheideathatthe federalgovernmentshouldenactatarifffortheexpresspurposeofsubsidizing Americanmanufacturers.4ButHamiltonstariffcameupagainstfierceopposition,and notjustfromtheJeffersonians.Thetariffinandofitselfwasnttheissueindeed,up untiltheCivilWar,tariffswerethefederalgovernmentschiefsourceofrevenue.5But Hamiltonstariffwouldnthavebeeninstitutedtogarnerrevenueforthegovernment;it wouldhavebeenputinplacesolelytoprotectcertainindustries,anewideaaltogether. DemocraticRepublicansarguedthattheHamiltoniansweremerelycombining economicinterventionismwiththeirquestforconsolidatedormonopolistic governmentalpower.6In1791HamiltondeliveredhisReportonManufacturesto Congress,callingforpecuniarybountiesformanufacturers(apracticeknowntoday ascorporatewelfare,noteseconomistandHamiltonscholarThomasDiLorenzo)and citingtheGeneralWelfareClausetojustifyhisposition.7Intheend,Hamiltonstariff wasdefeated,viewedasextremeevenbysomefellowFederalists.8 TheWarof1812changedprevailingattitudestowardstariffs.Bereftoftrans Atlantictrade,Americans(almostexclusivelyNortherners)hadestablishedtheirown manufacturingcenterstoproduceneededarms,tools,andthelike.Afterhostilities wereendedandtraderesumed,Americanmanufacturersweresuddenlyfindingithard tocompetewithpricesoverseasandSoutherners,onwhomtheNorthern

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manufacturersdependedtopurchasetheirwares,beganrelyingheavilyontheseless expensiveimports.Theinterestssurroundingthemanufacturers(distributors, transporters,owners,employees,suppliers,etc.)beganorganizingandlobbyingin Washingtonforsubsidiestosavetheirflounderingindustriesandthusbegan protectionismonamajorscaleintheUnitedStates.Thetariffof1816wastheresultof thispoliticalindustrialalliance,andinthewordsofhistorianH.W.Brands,itwasthe firstexplicitlyprotectivetariffinAmericanhistory.9Nolongerwasthetariffsimplya sourceofrevenueforthefederalgovernment;ithadbecomeameansoffinancially benefittingselectprivatecitizensoraparticulargeographicalregion.Government moneywasupforgrabsinterestedpartiesneededonlytoapplypressurein Washington. ThiswastheeraofHenryClaysgrandioseAmericanSystem,ofwhicha protectionisttariffwasthelifeblood.Putsimply,theAmericanSystemcalledforatariff toprotecthomeindustries,settingthestageforincreasedprosperity.Furthermore, revenuefromthetariffwouldbeusedtotackleinternalimprovementslikeroadsand canals,whichinturnwouldsparkanincreaseincommercewithfoodstuffsandraw materialsstreamingnorthandmanufacturesfloodingsouth.10ThetrueAmerican policyisthis:first,protectandcherishyournationalindustrybyawisesystemof finance,CongressmanandardentAmericanSystemsupporterAndrewStewart (nicknamedTariffAndy11)toldtheHouseinaspeechaboutthistime.Second,adopta systemofnationalimprovements.12Intheory,atleast,itseemedlikeawinwinplan, butSouthernersfearedNortherntrickery.Moreover,theveryconstitutionalityofthe internalimprovementsconceptwasstillinquestion;atleastthreepreviouspresidents (Jefferson,Madison,Monroe)hadinsistedthat,sincenoexpressrighttofunnelfederal fundstosuchprojectswasfoundintheConstitution,anamendmentmustbeadded beforecarryingthemout.Southerners,notablyJohnC.Calhoun(thoughonlyafter goingthroughaproprotectionistphaseofhisown),seizedthisstrictconstitutionalist

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logictobuoyuptheirarguments,evenasmanyNorthernerslabeledsuchdetractorsof thetariffasquibblersandhairsplitters.Meanwhile,manyintheyounger,Western statesassertedthatfederalsubsidiesgarneredviaatariffwerenecessaryiftheywere tokeepupwiththemoreestablishedeast.13 TheTariffof1824followed.Advocatesforthetariffarguedthatwithoutit, Americawouldbeleftdefenselessandunabletoproducemuchneededarmsduring conflict(recollectionoftheWarof1812stillsmolderedinAmericanscollective memory).AndrewJackson,notanardentprotectionist,nonethelessarticulatedtariff advocatessecondmajorcontention,thatwehavebeentoolongsubjecttothepolicyof theBritishmerchants.ItistimeweshouldbecomealittlemoreAmericanized."14To Jackson,then,thetariffwasnotaboutbenefittingindustryforprofitssakeitwastobe consideredonlywithintheframeworkofAmericanindependenceanddefense.One northernnewspaperlamented,WhilethefriendsoftheAmericanSystemsupporttheir viewsandmeasureswithvolumesoffacts,andthemostunanswerablereasoning,they aremetinreplywithnothingbutdeclamation,clamour[sic]andinvective.15Onthe otherhand,manySouthernersalmostunanimouslyopposedtoprotectionist legislationviewedtheseimportdutiesaslopsidedaffairs,solelybenefittingNorthern manufacturerswhileraisingcostsdramaticallyforSouthernagrarians.Inotherwords, theyargued,thebulkoffederalgovernmentexpenseswasbeingpaidforbytheSouth evenasthebulkofgovernmentexpenditureswastakingplaceintheNorth.As economistThomasDiLorenzocorrectlypointsout,Asearlyas1823southernerslike SenatorJohnTaylorsuspectedthatnorthernpoliticianswereconspiringtousethe powersofthecentralgovernmenttotaxoneportionofthecountrytheSouthforthe benefitoftheirownregion.16 Naturally,then,thegeneralfeelingintheSouthtowardstheHarrisburg Conventionof1827borderedonhostile.Anintelligentpeoplecannotlongbeduped bysuchmanagementandfinesse,oneSouthernnewspaperdeclared,addingthatin

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themeantime,theCitizensofCharlestonaredeterminednottobeshornquietly,likeso manysheep.17Threeweeksaftertheconventionadjourned,Calhoun,inaletterto VirginiaSenator(andsoontobegovernor)LittletonWallerTazewell,wrotethatthe Harrisburgconventionisindeedaportentoussignofthetimes,andmustbefollowed withthemostmarkedconsequences.Tothereflectingmind,itclearlyindicatesthe weakpartofoursystem,andthecorruptiontowhichitmustlead,unlessspeedily corrected.18Inapreviouslettertwomonthsbefore,CalhounexpressedtoTazewell thateventhough,inhisopinion,thepresidentialracebetweenJacksonandAdamswas farthemostimportantthathadsofartakenplacesinceAmericanindependence,his biggestconcernforthenationlaynotinthatcontestbutonanotherpointentirely theprotectivetariff.19 Thelanguageemployedbypartisansinthenationaldebateoverprotectionism wascouchedinsectionaldivisionanddireimport.ThePennsylvaniameeting[the HarrisburgConvention]cannotbuteventuateinanincreasedstrengthto[the protectionists]cause,aNewJerseypaperdeclared.Webelieveitisthecauseofthe country[and]itishopedthatshortsightedsectionaljealousy,willneverbeinterposed totheinjuryofoursolidinterestsforthebenefitofforeignrivals.20Thislastsentiment was,ofcourse,pureListfocusedonamarketplaceofcompetingnations,asopposed toSmithsmarketplaceofindividuals.Amajorshiftintheperceptionoftheroleof government(atleastintheUnitedStates)hadtakenplace,anditseemsthatthe temptationtoraisetariffrateswassimplytoostrongnowthatthetariffwasntdesigned strictlyforgarneringgovernmentrevenuebutalsoforsubsidizingcertainbusiness interests(severalSouthernstatesmenhadwarnedforyearsagainstopeningthese floodgatesthemanufacturers[will]comebackagainandagainwithincreased demands).21 Sureenough,the1828tariffsawthoseratesskyrockettopreviouslyunforeseen heights.ThustheTariffof1828,vehementlyopposedbySouthernersandderidedas

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theTariffofAbominations,wastheprotectionistsgreatestvictorytodate,despite Jacksonsmaneuverings.NeverbeforehadSouthernersbeentaxedsomuchforwhat theyconsumed,evenastheprotectionisttarifffailedtoprotectvirtuallyeverything theyproduced.22Letthemhaveanunrestrictedexchangeofproductions,withthose whoconsumetheirproducts,andtheyfearnocompetition,wroteCalhouninaprivate lettertoSamuelD.Ingham(AndrewJacksonsnewTreasurySecretary)in1829, referringtoSouthernagrarians.Theyarenowcripplednotsomuchbythelowprices oftheirproducts,asthehighproportionalpriceoftheirsupplies,occasionedbythe restrictivesystem.CalhounwouldgooninthelettertodescribetheTariffasleadingto theSouthernagrariansutterruinandtheconsummationoftheSoutherneconomy. Thusregarding[thetariff],Calhounconcluded,[theSouthernagrarian]willconsider hisruin,astheworkoftheGovernment,forthebenefitofamorefavoredportionofhis fellowcitizens.23Theseedsofsectionalanimosity,withparticularmistrustdirected towardwhatwasseenasaneverencroachingfederalgovernmentinWashingtonD.C., werebeginningtotakeroot. ThatthetariffwasthemostcontroversialpoliticalissueofitstimeintheUnited Stateswasnotedbyatleastonehighprofileoutsideobserver.Thequestionofatariff hasmuchagitatedthemindsofAmericans,wrotedeTocquevillejustafewyearsafter theHarrisburgConvention.Foralongtimethetariffwasthesolesourceofthepolitical animositiesthatagitatedtheUnion,hepenned,aperhapsrevealingstatementwhen consideringthearmedconflictthatwouldfollowjustafewdecadeslateralong preciselythesamelines.TheFrenchmannotedthatwhiletheNorthattributeda portionofitsprosperitytothetariff,theSouthblameditonnearlyallitssufferings.24 Talkofsecessionsoonbegantocropup,andthestateofSouthCarolinavotedtonullify thetariff,refusingtocollectitatCharlestonharbor.PresidentJacksonevenconsidered theuseofforcetopreservetheUnion,evenasSouthCaroliniansarguedtheirrightto nullifywhattheydeemedtobeunconstitutionallegislationfromWashington.Jacksons

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threatsseemedtoquietofficialoppositionintherestoftheSouth,thoughstateslike VirginiaandGeorgiaexpressedacertainlevelofsupportandsympathyforthestates rightscause.25Theconflictwaspreventedfromgettingmoreoutofhandonlywhenthe federalgovernmentfinallyreducedthetariffin1833.26Thefoundationsforfuture NorthSouthconflictwerethuslaidinabattleoverprotectionisttariffs.Amidthis heatednationaldebate,withlinesdrawnbetweenNorthernmanufacturersand Southernfarmersandplantationowners,theHarrisburgConventionof1827convened intheshadowsofthePennsylvaniaCapitol.AhundredoftheNorthsmostinfluential manufacturersandpublicservantswereassembledtodraftamemorialtoCongress, imploringthatbodytopassaprotectionistbilltosavetheirindustriesfromwhatthey viewedaseventualruin.Meanwhile,mostlyintheSouth,antiprotectionistopinion continuedtosurge.TheHarrisburgConventionof1827wouldleadtothepassageof thatmosthatedpieceofprotectionistlegislationtheTariffofAbominationsof1828. Thecallforanationalconventionofmanufactureandwooleninterestscame

fromPhiladelphiainmidMay1827atameetingofthePennsylvaniaSocietyforthe PromotionofManufacturesandtheMechanicArts(thoughsomeSoutherners,like Calhoun,suspectedthattheschemeofageneralconventionofthemanufacturing interestatHarrisburghadoriginatedwiththoseinpowerandnot,asseemedtobe thecase,asagrassrootseffort).27TheSocietywishedtodeliberateonwhatmeasures arepropertobetakeninregardstothepresentstateofthewoolgrowingandwool manufacturinginterests,andothersuchmanufacturesasmayrequireencouragement. TheorganizationcalledondelegatesfromeverystateintheUniontogatherat HarrisburginJulyofthatyeartoproduceajointstatementtothecitizensoftheUnited StatesonprotectionismthelifebloodoftheAmericanSystem.28Itwasunderstood thattheconventionsprimaryaimwastoencouragetheadoptionofahighly protectionistbill.29CopiesoftheSocietyscallforaconventionwerecirculatedwidely, reprintedonbroadsidesandinnewspapersacrossthenation.Almostimmediately,

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stateconventionswereselectingdelegatestoattendthenationalconventionin Harrisburg.AgreatconventionofthefriendsoftheManufacturingInterest,andof DomesticIndustrygenerally,[is]tobeheldinHarrisburg,Pa.onthe30thofJulynext, proclaimedtheMiddlesexGazette,aConnecticutnewspaper.Thepeopleareawake, andthisimportantsubjectisbeginningtoseeitstruelightandwehopeConnecticut willnotfailtoberepresentedinaConvention,theproceedingsofwhichwillbeso pregnantwithinteresttotheAmericanpeople.30TheHallandGallerieswerefilledto overflowing,reportedaRichmond,Virginianewspapercorrespondent,abouta gatheringinBostontoselectdelegatesfromMassachusettsfortheHarrisburg Convention,andamorerespectableandimposingassemblage,probablywasnever witnessedinMassachusetts.31 WhentheconventionfinallyopenedonMonday,30July1827,delegations

representingthirteenstatesandcomprisingclosetoonehundredindividualshad gatheredtogetherattheappointedplace.RepresentativesfromConnecticut(7), Delaware(4),Kentucky(4),Maryland(8),Massachusetts(7),NewYork(18),New Hampshire(5),NewJersey(9),Ohio(7,thoughthisnumberwouldrisetoeightonthe fourthdayoftheconventionwhenthestatesgovernor,JeremiahMorrow,arrived)32, Pennsylvania(15),RhodeIsland(4),Vermont(5),andVirginia(2)wereinattendance. Thus,theNorthernandMiddleStateswereheavilyrepresented,whiletheSouthern stateswereallbutabsent. ThetotallackofrepresentationattheHarrisburgConventionbySouthern

delegatesdidnotgounnoticed,ofcourse,andsectionalistsentimentranstrong.During thecourseoftheevent,forexample,NewYorkrepresentativeAlvanStewartwarned fellowdelegatesthattheprotectionistshadmanyenemiesthankstoAdamSmiths work,whichhadpoisonedthemindsofthenation.StewartblamedSmithforthe sectionalprejudicesatworkintheUnitedStates,adding,ifwelookedoverourown country,weshoulddiscoverthatallthesouthernstateswerelookingwithaneyeof

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jealousy,andthattheywerenotwillingtosenddelegatestothisconventionthatthere weretenorelevenstatesdisposedtocontendagainstthegreatintereststobehere advocated.Evidentlyinformedthattheseatinwhichtheconventionschairperson wassittingwastheverychairfromwhichtheDeclarationofIndependencehadbeen signed,Mr.StewartlikenedthefightagainstthefreetraderstotheRevolutionaryWar, expressinghopethatasecondedition[oftheRevolution]wouldcomeoutofthe convention.Wefoughtthenforliberty,heisreportedtohavesaid,andmustnow fightforclothes.Wehadbeencreepingalongforfiftyyears,withoutsufficientcourage tosaythatwewillclotheourselves;andifattheendofhalfacenturywecoulddoso much,itwouldbeagreatpointgained.33 Obviously,therelativelynewideasofAdamSmithandotherfreemarket economistswerewellknowntotheconventionsparticipants.Indeed,manymight haveagreedwiththetheoriesintheirentirety(thoughMr.Stewart,itwouldseem,was notoneofthem)buttheproblem,astheysawit,wasthatafreemarketeconomy demandedthateveryplayerplaybytherules.Weacknowledgethetheoretical excellenceofthedoctrinesofthepoliticaleconomistsoftheage,aNortherneditorial explained,andwereallnationsoftheworldtoassenttoanunrestrictedintercourse, shouldbethefirsttoadvocateamostrigidadherencetotheprinciplesofSmith,&Say, andothers,ofthatschool.However,theeditorialwentontolabelthepursuitofafree tradepolicytheheightofmadnessaslongasothernationsrefusedtodothesame. Freetradeinsuchanenvironment,theyargued,wasparamounttoforcingtheseStates toprostratethemselvesandtheirindustry,forthesakeofabstractandimpracticable theoriesoffreecommerce,etc.34Thetaskwasnottoprovefreetradetheoriesfalse, buttoensurethatdomesticindustrywouldbeprotectedinaworldthatfailedtoadhere tosuchtheoriesinpractice. Theconventionbeganwiththeselectionofsecretaries;JohnC.WrightofOhio,a

lawyerandU.S.Congressman35,andRedwoodFisherofPennsylvania,aPhiladelphia

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merchantwhowouldlatergainsomeprominenceasanewspapereditorandwriter36, werethuschosen.37Eachdelegatewassubsequentlycalledforthbyname,atwhich pointhewasexpectedtoproduceanofficialcertificateofappointment.JosephRitner,a statelegislatorwhowouldlaterbecomeGovernorofPennsylvania38,wasthenelected theconventionschairpersonandpresident.ThemotionforRitnerwasmadeby MathewCarey,aPennsylvaniadelegateandoneofthecountrysmostsuccessful publishers39;incidentally,CareyssonHenry,apublicistforthePennsylvaniasteel industry,wouldlaterbecomeasignificanteconomicinfluenceonAbrahamLincolnin favorofprotectionism.4041Finally,twoVicePresidentswereunanimouslyelected: JesseBuel,aninventiveagriculturalist,stateassemblyman,andfuturecandidatefor governorofNewYork42,andFrisbyTilghmanofMaryland,astatelegislator,justice, militialeader,andsociallyactivefarmerandbanker.43 Followingtheappointmentofofficers,thewordsoftheoriginalcallfora

protectionistconvention,writtenanddistributedbythePennsylvaniaSocietyforthe PromotionofManufacturesandtheMechanicArts,wasreadaloud.Theresolutionfor farmers,manufacturers,andfriendsofbothbranchesofindustrytogatherand deliberateonwhatmeasuresarepropertobetakeninthepresentpostureoftheir affairswasthenreferredtoacommittee,ostensiblytobeusedtocreateanofficial statementofpurposefortheconvention.Itisinterestingthattheconventionwas framedasaneventforthefriendsofmanufacturersandfarmersthisdespitethefact thatthemostagrarianstatesinthecountryelectednottoshowupatall. This26membercommittee,thefirstorganizedattheeventandmadeupof regulardelegatesfrommanystates,presentsausefulcrosssectionofthekindsof peoplewhoparticipatedintheHarrisburgConventionof1827,perhapsprovidinga clueastotheimporttowhichtheeventwasgrantedacrossthecountryandthe conventionspotentialforfuturesocialandpoliticalinfluence.Thecommittees membersincluded,innoparticularorder,GeorgeTibbits,aformerNewYorkstate

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legislatorandU.S.Congressman,authorofthefinancialplanresponsibleforraising capitalfortheErieCanal,futurecandidateforlieutenantgovernorofhisstate,future mayorofTroy,andfamousprotectionistessayist44;SamuelM.Hopkins,alawyer, formerNewYorkstatelegislator,andformerU.S.Congressman45;ArnoldNaudain,a surgeon,formermilitiamanandveteranoftheWarof1812,memberoftheDelaware statehouseofrepresentatives(wherehedservedashousespeakertheyearbeforethe convention),afuturecandidatefortheDelawareGovernorship,andasoontobeUnited StatesSenator(1829)46;AndrewGray,probablythesameAndrewGraywhohadserved asaDelawarestatesenatorfrom1817to182147;HezekiahNiles,aBaltimorebased newspaperman,oneofthemostinfluentialjournalistsofthe1820sandearly30s,and renownedeconomistwhousedhispaper,theNilesWeekly,toattempttopersuade Southernerstodiversifytheiragriculturalcapabilities,buildup(protected) manufacturingintheregion,andgrantuniversaleducationtoblacksasasteptowards eventualemancipation48;OthoH.Williams,likelyasonofthefamousRevolutionary Warheroofthesamename;IsaacAndruss,anofficerveteranfromtheWarof1812and prominentcitizenofNewark49;RobertG.Johnson,who,itisrumored,convincedthe worldthattomatoeswerentlethalbyeatingtwentyofthematonceonthestepsofthe Salem,NewJerseycourthousein1820,evidentlywithoutanyilleffects50;CharlesJ. Ingersoll,oneoftheconventionschieforganizers,aformer(andfuture)Congressman, whorubbedshoulderswiththelikesofDanielWebsterandNicholasBiddle51andwho wouldlateracceptapositionofresponsibilityintheAdamsadministration52;Walter Forward,alawyer,formerCongressman,andthefutureTreasurySecretaryintheTyler cabinet(wherehewasinstrumentalindevelopingthehighlyprotectionistTariffof 1842)53;SamuelSprigg,attorneyonretainerbythestateofVirginiaandoneofthemost famouslawyersofhistime54;JesseEdgington,ahighlyrespectedlawyer,Virginiastate senator,andanassociateofHenryClay55;GeorgeRobertson,alawyer,Kentuckystate legislator(whereheservedasspeakerofthehouseofrepresentatives),formerU.S.

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Congressman,andsoontobeKentuckysecretaryofstate(1828)56;SamuelSmith,likely thesameSamuelSmithwhoservedasaU.S.CongressmanrepresentingthestateofNew Hampshire57;EzekielWebster,brotherofthefamed(andardentlyprotectionist)Daniel Webster,whoattendedtheconventionattheinsistenceofhisbrother5859;andGideon Wells,anewspaperman,Connecticutlegislator,andLincolnsfutureSecretaryofthe Navy(wherehedberesponsibleforimplementingtheblockadeportionofthe AnacondaPlan,effectivelyshuttingdownSouthernports).60 Theforegoinglistofbiographicalsketchesisincomplete;tenothersservedon thisinitialcommittee,nottomentionthescoresofotherswhoparticipatedinthe conventionasdelegates(seeaddendumatendofarticle).Still,thehighlevelofsocial, professional,andpoliticalaccomplishmentofwhichthesesixteenmenareillustrative is,certainly,instructive.Who,afterall,wassenttotheHarrisburgConventionof1827? Highlyregardedstatesmen,legislators,writers,merchants,bankers,lawyers,and others.Congressmen(includingfoursitting).Senators(includingtwositting). Governors.FuturemembersofpresidentialCabinets.Asonenewspaperreportedthe dayaftertheconventionended,Wemayventuretoassert,withlittlefearof contradiction,thatitembracedmenofthegreatesttalent,everassembledinour legislativehall,orindeedperhaps,inanydeliberativenationalassembly,sincethe congressof76.61 WhileitmayhavebeentruethatsuchagatheringofVIPshadneverbeen witnessedintheUnitedStatessince1776ortheConstitutionalConventionof1786,the differencewasthattheHarrisburgConvention,thoughpoliticalinmanyregards, representednopoliticalentityororganization.Itwas,inessence,thefirstnational attemptatlobbyingthefederalgovernmentforfederalmoney,foritrepresentedthe interestsofcertainprivatecitizensor,atbest,meresegmentsofthecountrysentire population.Itsgoalwastoraisethetariff,andnotforthepurposeofgarneringrevenue forWashingtonbuttofurtherthebusinessinterestsofcertaingroups(groupsthat

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happenedtobealmostexclusivelylocatedintheNorth)andithadbroughttogethera formidableassemblytodojustthat. Thenextmorning(Tuesday31July),theconventionreconvenedandthe aforementionedcommitteesrecentlydrawnupstatementwasreadbeforeall delegates.Itsmessage,inshort,wastenfold:(1)Congressshouldraisedutieson importedwoolenitems;(2)acommitteeofnineshouldbeformedtocomposea memorialtoCongressoutliningthereasonsforthepresentdepressionbeing experiencedbymanufacturersandothersandsuggestingmeasurestoimprovethese conditions;(3)acommitteeofnineshouldbeformedtocomposeasimilarmemorial, writtentothepeople,addressingthesameconcerns;committeesshouldbeformedto researchandreportupontheneedforprotectionistmeasurestobetakeninregardto (4)theironindustry,(5)thehempandflaxindustries,(6)theglassindustry,(7)the cottongoodsindustry,(8)thecopperindustry,and(9)thedistilledspiritsindustry;and (10)acommitteeshouldbeformedtoreportonthestateoftradebetweenstates.62 Thislastresolutionisespeciallyinteresting;afterall,Northernmanufacturerswanted theagrarianSouthtopurchaseneededgoodsfromthem.Perhapsthisresolutionwas calculatedtodemonstrateSouthernrelianceonforeigngoods,toNorthernlossand perhaps,too,todiscoverhowmuchgainwastobehadshouldahighlyprotectivetariff beadoptedinWashington. Intheafternoon,committeeswereorganized.Thenextseveraldayswerespent attendingtocommitteedutiesandreportingtothegeneralbodyofdelegates.Finally, theeventsseminalpurposethedraftingofmemorialswascompleted,andthe HarrisburgConventionof1827adjournedon3August. ThememorialtoCongresswasanimpassionedcryforasignificantlyraised protectionisttariff.Withoutprotection(meaningprotectionistlegislation),thepetition argued,manufacturingandfarminginterestsinthecountrywouldfaceimminentand utterruin.Furthermore,theissueofadoptingmoreprotectionistpoliciestowards

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domesticmanufactureswasdefinedasofthefirstimportancetothegeneralwelfareof theUnitedStatesnotlightlanguage.63Thisissuewas,tothehighlyrespected delegatesrepresentingtheNorthasabloc,thenationstoppriority,astancethat certainlyshedslightonthegreatweightwithwhichthismatterwasdebatedatthetime bybothsides.Thiswasnomeanjamboreeofafewbusinessmendiscussingprofit marginsandsalestechniques;itwasagatheringofsomeofthemostrespectablemenin thecountrytofacewhattheydeclaredwasthenationsmostpressingproblem. TheneedofprotectionforNorthernmanufacturerswasframedinthe memorialasanationalissue,acommoncause,importanttothegeneralwelfareof thepeopleofAmerica.WhileaSouthernfarmermighthavearguedthatprotectionist tariffsbenefittedonesegmentofcitizenrytothedisadvantageofanother,the HarrisburgConventionpresentedtheissueassomethingthecountryasawhole [stood]inneedof.Thememorialsubsequentlydisavowedanysectionalistviews, assertingthataprotectionisttariffforAmericanmanufactureswasofprimarynational importance,oneoftheprincipalelementsoftheindependence,prosperity,and greatnessofthisrepublic.This,again,waspureFriedrichListthatforthebenefitof thenationasawhole,acertainportionofthepopulationmustsuffer.Themarketplace wasacompetitionamongnations,notindividuals.Supportingprotectionismwas,as thememorialtoCongressputit,everyAmericancitizenspatrioticduty.64 Theconventionsproceedingswerepublishedwidelyinnewspapersacrossthe

countrybothintheNorthandintheSouthandthememorialtoCongresswas deliveredtothatbody. ThefactthattheHarrisburgConventionof1827wasamajornationalevent

knownandfollowedbythecountrysbrightestpoliticalstarsisdifficulttodispute. DanielWebsterspromotionofthegatheringtohisbrotherEzekiel,encouraginghimin morethanonelettertoattendasaNewHampshiredelegate,hasalreadybeen mentioned.FivedayslaterWebsterwroteseveralotherletterstoprominentcitizensof

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NewYork;oneofthemwasaddressedtoCongressmanJohnTaylor65,urginghimand otherstoattendtheHarrisburgConventionasdelegatesasamatterofgreat importance.66 AccordingtoCharlesM.Wiltse,theDartmouthhistorianwhoeditedthepapers

ofWebster,duringthegreattariffdebatesoftheTwentiethCongresswhenthetariff wasfarandawaythemajorissueofthedaytheAdamsadministrationandits supportersstrovetobringdutiesintolinewiththerecommendationsoftheHarrisburg Conventionof1827.67InaconfidentialletterinAprilof1828toDanielWebster,Boston merchantPeterPaulFrancisDeGrandamanwiththewholeCaucussing[sic] MachineryofthemanufacturingconcernbehindhimurgedWebsterandallofthe friendsoftheAdministrationnottomoveoneinchfromobtainingtheHarrisburg Platform.68Thus,thegreatmeetinginthePennsylvaniastatecapitalprovidedthe blueprintforlegislatorsovertheproceedingyearincraftingtheTariffof Abominations. Significantly,fouryearslater(1831)theSoutherninterestwouldrespondtothe

HarrisburgConventionof1827withaconventionofitsown,againinPennsylvania(this timeinPhiladelphia).NearlytwiceasmanydelegatesashadattendedtheHarrisburg Conventionwoulddeliberatethetariffatthisreactionary,antiprotectionist1831event, manyofthemwellknownpoliticalandsocialfigures.69Thus,regardlessofwhetheror nottheHarrisburgConventionof1827playedanysignificantroleinthepassageof subsequentprotectionistlegislation,itdemonstratedaunitedprotectionistfront,drawn alongsectionalboundaries,againstthefreetradersoftheSouthafronttowhichthe Southernersfeltcompelledtorespond.Delegateswerenotmerefarmersoreven businessmen;theywerebyandlargehighlyrespectedsocialandpoliticalleaders, includingGovernors,Representatives,Senators,andfutureCabinetmembers.Manyof themwouldultimatelyfindlisteningearsinfuturepresidents,andsomewouldardently pushforandevenpersonallydrafthighlyprotectionistfuturetariffsthatwouldbecome

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U.S.law.Neverbefore,itmightbeargued,hadNorthandSouthstoodsofirmlyand formallyagainstoneanotherasduringtheHarrisburgConventionof1827almost certainlylayingthefoundationforafuturewar,nottoofardistant,dividedalongthe verysamelines.

DelegatestotheHarrisburgConventionof1827notmentionedabove,organizedbystate: VERMONT HemanAllen(VT),astatelegislatorandfutureCongressman70; ElijahPaine(VT),aRevolutionaryWarveteran,Senator,lawyer,businessman, secretaryofthestateconstitutionalconventionin1786,statelegislator,judgeon thestatesupremecourt,and,atthetimeoftheConvention,aUnitedStatesjudgeof thedistrictofVermont71; RollinMallary(VT),alawyer,Vermontsattorney,secretarytotheGovernor, Congressman,and,relevantly,thechairmanoftheCongressionalCommitteeon Manufactures72; WilliamJarvis(VT),PresidentialElectorforthestateofVermont.73

Otherdelegates:WilliamJarvis. RHODEISLAND DavidWilkinson(RI),amechanicalengineerandinventorofthesliderestlathefor cuttingscrewthreadsimmenselysignificanttothemachinetoolindustry74; Asher(orAshur)Robbins(RI),aU.S.Senator.75

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Otherdelegates:JamesRhodes,JohnFarnum. PENNSYLVANIA WilliamClark(PA),PennsylvaniastatetreasurerandfutureCongressman76; DanielMontgomery,Jr.(PA),aformerCongressman77; WilliamP.Maclay(PA),anotherformerCongressman78; DavidTownsend(PA),aprominentbankerandWestChesterCounty Commissioner79; JosephPatterson(PA),ayoungbusinessmanwhowouldlaterplayapivotalrolein loaninghundredsofmillionsofdollarsingoldtotheUniongovernmentduringthe CivilWar80; JonathanRoberts(PA),aformerCongressmanandSenatorwhohadplayedamajor roleinthepassageofthewarbillin1812andwouldgoontobecomeoneofthe countrysmostardentprotectionists81; CharlesHuston(PA),asuccessfullawyerandmemberofthePennsylvaniaSupreme Court.82 Otherdelegates:JamesTodd,SamuelBaird,AlexanderReed. OHIO BezaleelWells(OH),founderofSteubenvilleandaninfluentialmillerandbanker83; WilliamR.Dickinson(OH),anotherprominentcitizenofSteubenvillewho,lessthan twomonthsbeforetheconvention,had,alongwithelevenothers,invitedHenryClay toOhiotoboostsupportforwhathehadcalledthegreatcauseoftheAmerican System84;

 19
ThomasEwing(OH),asoontobeSenator,futureTreasurySecretaryunderWilliam HenryHarrison,andfutureSecretaryoftheInteriorunderZacharyTaylor.85 Otherdelegates:JohnMcIlvam,DavidBegges,JamesWilson. NEWJERSEY JamesMatlack(NJ),aformerCongressman86; CharlesKinsey(NJ),asuccessfulpapermanufacturerandCongressman87; JohnColt(NJ),asuccessfulmanufacturerandmillerand,bythe1830s,theonly supplierofsailclothtotheUnitedStatesNavy88; WilliamHalstead(NJ),asuccessfullawyerandfutureCongressman,NewJersey DistrictAttorney,andcolonelintheCivilWar.89 Otherdelegates:LooeBaker,PhilipFine,Jr.,A.Godwin,Jr. NEWHAMPSHIRE SamuelBell(NH),formerGovernorofNewHampshireand,atthetimeofthe convention,aSenator90; AsaFreeman(NH),astatesenator91; IchabodBartlett(NH),asuccessfullawyer,Congressmen,andfuturecandidatefor NewHampshiresgovernorship.92 NEWYORK CyrenusChapin(NY),arespectedBuffalomedicaldoctor93; RichardKeese(NY),aCongressmanandoneoftheonlyJacksonianstoattendthe convention94; EnosThroop(NY),alawyerandsoontobeGovernorofNewYork95;

 20
PeterS.Smith(NY),asuccessfulmerchant,furtrader,andlandspeculator96; DavidRussel(NY),astatelegislatorandfutureCongressman97; RobertDenniston(NY),afuturestatesenatorandNewYorkComptroller98; PeterSharpe(NY),aformerCongressman99; FrancisGranger(NY),futureVicePresidentialcandidate,Congressman,and PostmasterGeneralintheCabinetofWilliamHenryHarrison100; AlvanStewart(NY),ahighlyrespectedlawyer,futurefounderoftheNewYorkAnti SlaverySociety,andfuturecandidateforGovernor101; JohnB.Yates(NY),alawyerandformerCongressman102; AbrahamH.Schenck(NY),aformerCongressman103; JamesTallmadge(NY),aformerCongressman,abusinessman,andaleading protectionistwriterandorator104; EleazarLord(NY),asuccessfulbusinessman,founderoftheManhattanFire InsuranceCompany,andsoontobefirstpresidentoftheNewYork&Erie Railroad.105 Otherdelegates:E.B.Sherman,JohnBrown,CyrenusChapin. MASSACHUSSETTS AbbottLawrence(MA),awellknownBostonmerchant,futureCongressman,and futureU.S.MinistertoGreatBritain106; SamuelD.Colt(MA),aprominentPittsfieldwoolensmerchant107; BezaleelTaft,Jr.(MA),anearlymemberoftheTaftpoliticaldynasty,astatesenator, andpresidentoftheBlackstoneNationalBank.108 Otherdelegates:JosephE.Sprague,JosephStrong,JamesShepperd,JonasB.Brown.

 21
MARYLAND EdwardGray(MD),likelythesuccessfulmillfounderofthesamename109; JamesSykes(MD),aprominentmemberalongwithHezekiahNilesofthe MarylandInstituteforthePromotionofMechanicArts.110 Otherdelegates:JohnPatterson,WilliamMietteer,FranklinAnderson. KENTUCKY JamesCowan(KY),aprominentattorney111; RichardH.Chinn(KY),asuccessfulattorney112andclosepersonalfriendofHenry Clay113; JohnHarvie(KY),sonoftheprominentpoliticianofthesamename,brotherof PresidentThomasJeffersonsprivatesecretary114,andastatelegislator.115 DELAWARE JohnHiggins(DE),acolonelinthestatemilitiaandastatelegislator.116

Otherdelegates:PhilipRibold. CONNECTICUT Otherdelegates:HenryWatson,ThomasS.Perkins,JohnATainter,FrancisMcLean,James McClelan,LemuelHurlbut.

 22 Notes Toombs,Robert.SpeechtotheGeorgiaLegislature.GeorgiaStateParksandHistoricSites.2009.GeorgiaDepartment
1

ofNaturalResources.<http://gastateparks.org/net/content/go.aspx?ran=692663408&s=1339590.1.5>(2May2009),6. 2Toombs,14. 3Fox,Frank.TheAmericanFounding(Boston:PearsonCustomPublishing,2003),483. 4Fox,343. 5Brands,H.W.TheMoneyMen:Capitalism,Democracy,andtheHundredYearsWarOvertheAmericanDollar(NewYork: AtlasBooks,2006),107. 6DiLorenzo,Thomas.HamiltonsCurse(NewYork:ThreeRiversPress,2008),18. 7Ibid,2930. 8Brands,59. 9Brands,H.W.AndrewJackson:HisLifeandTimes(NewYork:AnchorBooks,2005),333. 10Bailey,ThomasA.TheAmericanPageant(Boston:D.C.HeathandCompany,1961),225. 11Hadden,James.AHistoryofUniontown(Uniontown,PA:JamesHadden,1913),777. 12Stewart,Andrew.TheAmericanSystem:SpeechesontheTariffQuestionsandonInternalImprovementsPrincipally DeliveredintheHouseofRepresentativesoftheUnitedStates(Philadelphia:HareyCareyBailey,1872),4. 13VonHolst,Dr.H.TheConstitutionalandPoliticalHistoryoftheUnitedStates,Vol.1.Chicago:CallaghanandCompany, 1889.388393. 14Brands,AndrewJackson,381. 15DomesticManufactures.MiddlesexGazette[Middletown,CT]27Jun.1827:2. 16DiLorenzo,HamiltonsCurse,19. 17HarrisburgConvention.CarolinaGazette[Charleston,SC]13Aug.1827:3. 18Calhoun,JohnC."ToL.W.Tazewell.Pendleton,25thAugust1827."ThePapersofJohnC.CalhounX18251829.Ed.Clyde N.Wilson.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1978.300302. 19ThePapersofJohnC.CalhounX18251829.Ed.ClydeN.Wilson.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1978.246 247. 20DomesticManufactures,2.Italicsadded. 21AttributedtoTylerofVirginiain1820,inVonHolst,Dr.H.TheConstitutionalandPoliticalHistoryoftheUnitedStates, Vol.1.Chicago:CallaghanandCompany,1889.403. 22Brands,AndrewJackson,433. 23Calhoun,JohnC."ToS.D.Ingham,Private.Pendleton,26thSepr1829."ThePapersofJohnC.CalhounXI18291832.Ed. ClydeN.Wilson.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1978.7879. 24DeTocqueville,Alexis.DemocracyinAmerica,Vol.1.NewYork:VintageClassics,1990.193194. 25Brands,AndrewJackson,480. 26DiLorenzo,Thomas.TheRealLincoln:ANewLookatAbrahamLincoln,HisAgenda,andanUnnecessaryWar(NewYork: ThreeRiversPress,2002),63. 27Calhoun,JohnC."ToLt.JamesE.Colhoun,BostonSloopofWar.Pendleton,26thAugust1827."ThePapersofJohnC. CalhounX18251827.Ed.ClydeN.Wilson.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1978.304. 28Ingersoll,C.J.andFisher,Redwood.AtameetingofthePennsylvaniaSocietyforthepromotionofmanufacturesandthe mechanicarts,heldinPhiladelphia, onthe14thdayofMay,1827.PennsylvaniaIntelligencer[Harrisburg,PA]29May1827:3. 29DomesticManufactures,2. 30Ibid,2. 31FromOurCorrespondent.Boston,June6.TheRichmondEnquirer.[Richmond,VA]51Jun.1827:2. 32HarrisburgConvention,3. 33FromtheU.S.Gazette,August4.CityGazette.[Charleston,SC]14Aug.1827:2. 34DomesticManufactures,2. 35JohnCWright.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001. <http://famousamericans.net/johncwright/> 36RedwoodS.Fisher.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001.14Apr.2009. <http://famousamericans.net/redwoodsfisher/> 37OfficialProceedingsoftheGeneralConvention.PennsylvaniaIntelligencer[Harrisburg,PA]7Aug.1827:2. 38Wilson,JamesandFiske,John.AppletonsEncyclopediaofAmericanBiography.(NewYork:D.AppletonandCompany, 1888),262. 39MathewCarey.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001. <http://famousamericans.net/mathewcarey/> 40MathewCarey. 41DiLorenzo,TheRealLincoln,71. 42JesseBuel.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001. <http://famousamericans.net/jessebuel/> 43Herrin,Dean.FromSlavetoAbolitionist:JamesW.C.PenningtonofWashingtonCounty,Maryland.Frederick,MD: MillenniumCrossroadsConference,FrederickCommunityCollege.30Sep.2001. 44GeorgeTibbits.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001.1May2009. <http://famousamericans.net/georgetibbits/>

 23
45SamuelMilesHopkins.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001.5May2009. <http://famousamericans.net/samuelmileshopkins/> 46Naudain,Arnold,(17901872).Biography.BiographicalDirectoryoftheUnitedStatesCongress,1774Present.United StatesCongressWebsite.3May2009.<http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=N000010> 47Munroe,John.Chapter2:TheFoundingofNewarkCollege.TheUniversityofDelaware:AHistory.AboutUs,The UniversityofDelawareWebsite.<http://www.udel.edu/aboutus/munroe/chapter2.html> 48Kovarik,William.TheEditorwhoTriedtoStoptheCivilWar:HezekiahNilesandtheNewSouth.Papers,William Kovarik.RadfordUniversity.Summer1992.6May2009.<http://www.radford.edu/~wkovarik/papers/niles.html> 49Ogden,aryDepue.Gifford,ArcherandCharlesL.C.,AttorneysatLaw.EssexCountyNJArchivesBiographies.1917.6 May2009.<http://files.usgwarchives.org/nj/essex/bios/giffordac.txt> 50RomaTmatoes.ProduceOasis.POPInteractive,Inc.2009.7May2009. <http://www.produceoasis.com/Items_folder/Vegetables/Roma.html> 51Breck,Samel.TheDiaryofSamuelBreck,18231827.ThePennsylvaniaMagazineofHistoryandBiography103(1979), 85113. 52Klein,PhilipShriverandHoogenboom,Ari.AHistoryofPennsylvania.(UniversityPark,PA:PennStatePress,1973),138. 53WalterForward(18411843).HistoryoftheTreasury:SecretariesoftheTreasury.UnitedStatesDepartmentofthe TreasuryWebsite.2001.4May2009. <http://www.ustreas.gov/education/history/secretaries/wforward.shtml> 54HistoryoftheUpperOhioValley,VolumeI.(Madison,WI:BrantandFuller,1891),533. 55DeathofHon.JesseEdgington.SteubenvilleWeeklyHerald[Steubenville,OH]8Aug.1866. 56Robertson,George(17901874).Biography.BiographicalDirectoryoftheUnitedStatesCongress,1774Present. 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UnitedStatesCongressWebsite.10July2009.<http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000079> 73Jarvis.IndextoPoliticians:Allen,Jarvis.ThePoliticalGraveyard.2009.10July2009. <http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/jarvis.html> 74Wilkinson,David.UZBiographies,MechanicalEngineeringBiographiesThroughoutTime.ASMEInternational.2009. 10July2009.<http://www.asme.org/Communities/History/Resources/Wilkinson_David.cfm> 75Robbins,Asher(17571845).Biography.BiographicalDirectoryoftheUnitedStatesCongress,1774Present.United StatesCongressWebsite.16September2009.<http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=R000297> 76Clark.IndextoPoliticians:Clark,UtoZ.ThePoliticalGraveyard.2009.16September2009. <http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/clark9.html> 77Montgomery,Daniel,Jr.(17651831).Biography.BiographicalDirectoryoftheUnitedStatesCongress,1774Present. UnitedStatesCongressWebsite.16September2009.<http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000864> 78Maclay.IndextoPoliticians:MaclachlantoMaday.ThePoliticalGraveyard.2009.16September2009. <http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/maclaffertymadar.html> 79NotesforDavidTownsend.RashsSurnameIndex.PennocksofPrimitiveHallWesbite.16September2009. <http://www.pennock.ws/surnames/nti/nti28533.html> 80JosephPatterson.VirtualAmericanBiographies.Virtualology.AppletonsEncyclopedia,2001.16September2009. <http://famousamericans.net/josephpatterson/>

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112 Applications,Recommendations,January7[1827].ThePapersofHenryClay,Volume6:SecretaryofState.Ed.MaryW. M.HargreavesandJamesF.Hopkins.Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1981.28. 113 RegisteroftheKentuckyStateHistoricalSociety.Ed.JennieC.Morton.Frankfort,KY:TheFrankfortPrintingCo.,1910. 89. 114 RegisteroftheKentuckyStateHistoricalSociety,Vol.15No.43.Ed.JennieC.Morton.Frankfort,KY:TheStateJournal Company,January1917.96. 115 RegisteroftheKentuckyStateHistoricalSociety,Vol.15No.43.Ed.JennieC.Morton.Frankfort,KY:TheStateJournal Company,January1910.91. 116 Scharf,J.Thomas.AHistoryofDelaware,16091888,Vol.2.Philadelphia:L.J.Richards&Co.,1888.960.