ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS SOURCES AND IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION Health impacts of air pollution Since the onset of the

industrial revolution, there has been a steady change in the composition of the atmosphere mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels used for the generation of energy and transportation. Air pollution is a major environmental health problem affecting the developing and the developed countries alike. The effects of air pollution on health are very complex as there are many different sources and their individual effects vary from one to the other. It is not only the ambient air quality in the cities but also the indoor air quality in the rural and the urban areas that are causing concern. In fact in the developing world the highest air pollution exposures occur in the indoor environment. Air pollutants that are inhaled have serious impact on human health affecting the lungs and the respiratory system; they are also taken up by the blood and pumped all round the body. These pollutants are also deposited on soil, plants, and in the water, further contributing to human exposure. As you read on you can learn about health impacts of specific air pollutants. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION Common atmospheric pollution sources and their pollutants Category Agriculture Source Open burning Emitting pollutants Suspended particulate matter, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds

Mining and Coal mining; Suspended particulate matter, sulphur quarrying crude oil and gas dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volatile production; stone organic compounds quarrying Power generation Electricity; steam gas; Suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, sulphur trioxide, lead Suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, lead Suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, lead

Transport

Combustion engines

Community service

Municipal incinerators

Air pollutants consist of gaseous pollutants, odours, and SPM, (suspended particulate matter) such as dust, fumes, mist, and smoke. The concentration of these in and near the urban areas causes severe pollution to the surroundings. The largest sources of human-created air pollution are energy generation, transportation, and industries that use a great deal of energy sources. Depending on their source and interactions with other components of the air, they can have different chemical compositions and health impacts. Since these pollutants are generally concentrated in and around urban areas, the outdoor urban pollution levels are far higher than in the rural areas. Fires are another major source of air pollution and can lead to severe problems if the smoke is inhaled for a period of time. These fires can either be forest fires, oil well fires, burning of leaves in the backyard or as in the case of rural areas, large-scale burning of agricultural waste. Other sources include industries and power plants located in these areas. IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HEALTH The magnitude of the London fog of 1952, which affected such a large number of people, was the first incident that made people aware of the damage done to the atmosphere due to industrialization. The SPM levels increased manifold and resulted in over 4000 deaths. Indoor air pollution can be particularly hazardous to health as it is released in close proximity to people. It is stated that a pollutant released indoors is many times more likely to reach the lung than that released outdoors. In the developing countries a fairly large portion of the population is dependent on biomass for

their energy requirements. These include wood, charcoal, agricultural residue, and animal waste. Open fires used for cooking and heating are commonly found in the household both in the rural and the urban areas. The stove is often at floor level, adding to the risk of accident and the hygiene factor. In addition, they are often not fitted with a chimney to remove the pollutants. In such households the children and women are most likely to be affected, as they are the group that spends more time indoors. The main pollutant in this environment is the SPM. In fact, death due to indoor air pollution, mainly particulate matters, in the rural areas of India are one of the highest in the world. Many of the deaths are due to acute respiratory infections in children; others are due to cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases in adults. If emissions are high and ventilation is poor, household use of coal and biomass can severely affect the indoor air quality. Pollutant emissions per meal are also very high compared to those of other fuels. Household use of fossil fuel is also fairly common in the developing countries, particularly coalboth bituminous and lignite. These are particularly damaging as they burn inefficiently and emit considerable quantities of air pollutants. If emissions are high and ventilation poor, then the exposure levels to the gases emitted are far higher. The most harmful of the gases and agents that are emitted are particulate matter, carbon dioxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde. The indoor concentrations of these are far higher than the acceptable levels and is cause for concern in rural areas. HEALTH IMPACT OF SPECIFIC AIR POLLUTANTS Some of these gases can seriously and adversely affect the health of the population and should be given due attention by the concerned authority. The gases mentioned below are mainly outdoor air pollutants but some of them can and do occur indoor depending on the source and the circumstances. Tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is a major cause of ill health, as it is known to cause cancer, not only to the smoker but affecting passive smokers too. It is well-known that smoking affects the passive smoker (the person who is in the vicinity of a smoker and is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from burning sensation in the eyes or nose, and throat irritation, to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung function. Biological pollutants. These are mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay fever, and other allergic diseases. Volatile organic compounds. Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye, nose and throat. In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of coordination. In the longer run, some of them are suspected to cause damage to the liver and other parts of the body. Formaldehyde. Exposure causes irritation to the eyes, nose and may cause allergies in some people. Lead. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive problems, and in some cases cause cancer. It is especially hazardous to small children. Radon. A radioactive gas that can accumulate inside the house, it originates from the rocks and soil under the house and its level is dominated by the outdoor air and also to some extent the other gases being emitted indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk of lung cancer.

Ozone. Exposure to this gas makes our eyes itch, burn, and water and it has also been associated with increase in respiratory disorders such as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia. Oxides of nitrogen. This gas can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in the winters. Carbon monoxide. CO (carbon monoxide) combines with haemoglobin to lessen the amount of oxygen that enters our blood through our lungs. The binding with other haeme proteins causes changes in the function of the affected organs such as the brain and the cardiovascular system, and also the developing foetus. It can impair our concentration, slow our reflexes, and make us confused and sleepy. Sulphur dioxide. SO2 (sulphur dioxide) in the air is caused due to the rise in combustion of fossil fuels. It can oxidize and form sulphuric acid mist. SO 2 in the air leads to diseases of the lung and other lung disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Long-term effects are more difficult to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often combined with that of SPM. SPM (suspended particulate matter). Suspended matter consists of dust, fumes, mist and smoke. The main chemical component of SPM that is of major concern is lead, others being nickel, arsenic, and those present in diesel exhaust. These particles when breathed in, lodge in our lung tissues and cause lung damage and respiratory problems. The importance of SPM as a major pollutant needs special emphasis as a) it affects more people globally than any other pollutant on a continuing basis; b) there is more monitoring data available on this than any other pollutant; and c) more epidemiological evidence has been collected on the exposure to this than to any other pollutant. Air Pollution We are surrounded by air - we see, feel, smell and hear it every day, and breathe it every few seconds. Most of us take our air for granted, forgetting how important its characteristics are to the state of our environment. Humans have significant impacts on indoor and outdoor air quality through the introduction of chemical and particulate pollutants. Respiration and Pollution With every breath, we take in from 200 to 500 cm3 (12 to 30 in3) of air depending on our anatomy and level of exertion. Thus, in our lifetime we will probably inhale between 126 and 315 million liters of air. Even if there is only one part per million of a pollutant in the air, that would mean breathing in between 126-315 kg over a lifetime or 275-700 # (1-3 Hulk Hogans!) Childrens lungs are much smaller than adults, with smaller alveoli (bronchial endings) that are easily blocked, irritated or damaged (why asthma is a common childhood illness). Some Facts About Air Pollution Air pollution is not stationary - sources and impacts are often geographically separate. Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly from pollution sources (emissions). Secondary air pollutants are those subsequently produced in the atmosphere (from some combination of primary air pollutants and natural factors). Pollutants: Gases, liquids or solids (particulates). Pollution Origins

AIR POLLUTION: Unwanted atmospheric constituents in some way harmful to humans or other organisms. AIR POLLUTION BY ORIGIN I. Point sources (smoke stacks, tailpipes, etc.) II. Non-point sources (a large forest fire, wetland, etc.). Some non-point sources are so numerous that collectively they must be considered nonpoint (e.g. all the cars moving in a freeway system or all the backyard barbecues in a neighborhood). Sources of Air Pollution Contaminants can come from natural sources - vegetation, decay, fire, volcanoes, etc. and these create the natural background conditions. Air pollution is an issue of concentration which is a function of whether diluting processes like diffusion, turbulence and convection occur post emission. Motor vehicles and industrial sources are the two biggest anthropogenic contributors of primary air pollutants into our outdoor environment. Indoor air pollution comes from many sources - building and furniture materials, cleaners, smoking, household fuel, etc. Indoor air pollution should probably be of more concern to most of us because we spend so much time indoors and breath most of our air from there. Major Primary Air Pollutants Particulates (soot, smoke, dusts and mists) they create problems of visibility, corrosion, irritation, etc. (especially those less than <10 m). Nitrogen oxides (NOxs - NO2 and N2O)- from combustion create problems of acidification, plant growth inhibition, and heat adsorption. Sulfur oxides - principally from coal create problems of acidification, corrosion, irritation of lungs. Carbon oxides from carbon fuels - heat absorber (CO2), poisonous (CO). Hydrocarbons from solvents, unburned fuels, etc. create problems of visibility, irritation, carcinogenic. SMOG (smoke and fog) Can be a cold climate phenomena like the London SMOGs of old (still the case in China, etc.) In the US it is more a summer &/or Southwest problem caused by a photochemical soup of primary and secondary pollutants metamorphosed by sunshine. SMOG is made particularly harmful by ground level ozone (O3) which is formed if hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides are present in strong sunshine.

Key smog contributors - cars, power plants, dry cleaners, leaf blowers, lawn mowers, barbecues, gas pumps, paints, some types of plants (isoprene). SMOG is the factor in CA clean air legislation and pollution control programs (Spare the Air) and the reason why we use MTBE in gas (less HCs put out). TYPES OF POLLUTION There are a number of different types of pollution that have a large cumulative impact on our local environment. Traditional forms of pollution have included: Air pollution Water pollution Land contamination. Modern forms include: Thermal pollution, which is the discharge of heated water and is an aspect of water pollution Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise and barking dogs Light pollution, which includes light trespass and over illumination, lighting such as floodlighting on sports fields, can be a source of noise pollution Visual pollution, which includes the presence of overhead power lines, billboards, scarred landforms and the open storage of junk. Pollutants are known to be a factor in many illnesses and diseases including cancer, immune diseases, allergies and asthma. The general public have become more aware of the potential harm posed by the more traditional forms of pollution. However, awareness of the consequences of the more modern additions is less well known. The amount of pollution that has entered our environment has been greatly increased by human activity and can have a negative impact on human quality of life and the health of the environment. Noise pollution, for example, can cause serious damage to human hearing over time and cause sleep disturbance and stress. Water pollution can seriously degrade our waterways, which causes a loss of biodiversity, health of the waterway and also causes visual pollution. IMPACT The impacts of air pollution affect everyone, not just the polluter. For example, it's easy to list the direct costs of choosing to drive a car: that is, the cost of the vehicle, registration, insurance, petrol, maintenance, parking, and so on. But we often overlook the indirect costs congestion, noise, water and air pollution. If we had to pay all these costs each time we got into our cars, we might choose another way to travel. Consider too, the billions of dollars the Government is spending each year to tackle these issues which could be spent elsewhere if everyone did more to improve air quality. Understanding this true cost can help us to make better choices about the way we live. Traffic congestion Transport is one of the main sources of air pollution. The impacts of congestion created by excessive traffic are all around us. For example: Many of us structure our day to avoid peak hour traffic by leaving home earlier and/or working later. This affects our leisure and family time. Stop-start driving conditions can increase our stress levels and our car's fuel consumption and emissions.

Congested roads are generally less pleasant or safe to walk or cycle along. The efficiency of the public transport system can be affected as congestion disrupts public bus schedules. The value of property is higher in areas closer to the city (and lower on busier roads), as living near the city offers reduced travel times and better access to transport. These high costs can sometimes actually lead businesses and households to move further out of the city, contributing to urban sprawl and increasing our dependence on cars. URBAN ENVIRONMENTS Particle pollution includes both fine and coarse particles. Coarse particles are heavier than finer particles so they don't stay in the air for as long. Instead, they fall across the local landscape, sometimes soiling or damaging materials. They can create that grimy look which many busy roads and urban centres have. Ozone is also damaging, especially to materials like natural and synthetic rubber, surface coatings (such as paints and varnishes) and textiles. Combined with other pollutants, ozone can even damage metals and stone. NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS Pollution deposits on the leaves of plants affect their ability to photosynthesise Air pollution contaminates land, affecting plants and other animals, who breathe in toxic chemicals just as we do. Pollution also deposits on the leaves of plants and affects their ability to photosynthesise (turn carbon dioxide into oxygen), inhibiting their growth. High ozone concentrations can also lead to fungal diseases in plants. Meanwhile, pollution can be washed out by rain from both the air and off buildings and roads. It enters our water ways, polluting our water and affecting fish and other marine life. AIR POLLUTION HEALTH EFFECTS Polluted air contains one, or more, hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant that creates a hazard to general health. It is usually measured in terms of "particulate matter", or, the number of particles of these potentially hazardous substances as a percentage of air. According to the National Resources Defense Council, some 64,000 people in the USA may be dying prematurely each year from cardiopulmonary causes linked to air pollution. This link was made when the National Resources Defense Council applied findings from a 1995 study by the American Cancer Society and the Harvard Medical School. Air pollution from coal-fired power plants accounts for about 30,000 premature deaths in the USA each year. It is estimated that in the most polluted cities, lives are shortened by an average of one to two years.

Sources of some Click on image to enlarge

major

pollutants

Particulate matter includes a wide range of pollutants road dust, diesel soot, fly ash, wood smoke, nitrates in fertilizers, sulfate aerosols, lead, arsenic, etc. The principal source of such particle emission is the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline,

and wood. Air pollution from coal burning in electric utilities is a dominant cause of smog, deadly soot, global warming, pollution in our National Parks, toxic contamination of fish and polluted estuaries.

What is "Unhealthy Air?" The suggested Federal limit of an "average" of 50 micrograms of "particulate matter" per cubic foot of air (in a one year period) is considered poor air quality. There is evidence that the daily peak levels that contribute to the year average, can have significant impact on an individuals health. The elderly and those with heart, lung, or asthma problems are most at risk. The exact impact of poor air quality on health is not thoroughly understood, but long term exposure to particulates may increase susceptibility to infections. Those with chronic lung diseases or heart disease may also have their conditions exacerbated. Monitoring the daily pollution forecasts may be useful for those with chronic conditions, so that outside exposure can be limited on bad days. See Health Effects of Air Pollution These young boys, like everything else in Copsa Mica, Romania, are covered with coal dust one of the many pollutants spread into the air and water by humans. Burning coal releases particulates, lead, mercury, arsenic, radioactive elements, and other toxic elements into the air. The particles and Click on image to gasses often drift thousands of miles. Pollution from coal has enlarge. increased birth defects and contributed to many diseases by weakening immune systems. Mercury poisoning can cause birth defects and other problems Son With Birth Defects Birth defects, brain damage, weakening of immune systems and Due to Mercury many other severe problems were traced to a factory that dumped Poisoning mercury contaminated waste into the bay at Minamata, Japan. The mercury became reconcentrated as it worked its way through the food chain back to people. Mercury is released in gaseous form when coal is burned. It falls to earth and enters the food chain. Most humans have already

Click on enlarge.

image

to accumulated mercury in their bodies while breathing, drinking, and eating.

Lung Function Tied to Pollution Level In the first long-term study of the effects of air pollution on children, researchers reported Wednesday that children and teenagers in Southern California communities with higher levels of air pollution were more likely to have diminished lung function. In their study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine, James Gauderman of the University of Southern California and his colleagues followed 1,759 children ages 10 to 18 in a dozen Southern California communities. The pollutants they considered came primarily from car exhaust, they said. The investigators found that 7.9 percent of the 18-year-olds in the highest pollution areas had lung capacities that were less than 80 percent of what they should have been. Among those subjected to the least-polluted air, 1.6 percent had underperforming lungs. The investigators added that the lung effects were similar to those that occur when children live in the home of a mother who smokes. "This is some of the most convincing evidence that air pollution has chronic effects," Dr. Gauderman said. "We see the effects in all kids. And it's an unavoidable exposure. It's not like smoking, where you can advise people to stop." In an accompanying editorial, Dr. C. Arden Pope III noted that the air quality in Southern California and elsewhere had improved considerably since the 1990's, when the study was done. There will be debate, Dr. Pope said, over the costs and benefits of making additional improvements, but "continued efforts to improve our air quality are likely to provide additional health benefits." What can We do to reduce exposure? The American Lung Association recommends three steps to protect yourself indoors: Use a heat recovery ventilator or an energy recovery ventilator to quietly provide the fresh filtered air you need while quietly removing stale polluted air. Seal leaks in the building shell to block entry of unfiltered outdoor air during the heating and air conditioning seasons. NOTE: Sealing leaks also blocks entry of dust and insects. Use space and water heating systems that cannot put combustion gasses into the building interior. Individuals can contribute to cleaner air by choosing cleaner sources of energy and using energy more efficiently. For instance, carpooling or taking public transportation, maintaining automobile emissions controls on ones cars, walking or biking to work or school can make a difference. Limiting the use of fireplaces or wood and coal burning stoves, and seeking out more efficient heating and cooling systems can also contribute to cleaner air. RADIATION Radiation is energy traveling in the form of particles or waves in bundles of energy called photons.

Alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays, X rays, and neutrons are all types of radiation that are evaluated for radiation protection. Spontaneous decay of specific radioactive atoms, such as radium, plutonium, uranium, and radon, causes Alpha rays. It can only pass a short distance in water. Actually, a single piece of paper can stop an alpha ray. Internal exposure is really the only way health effects occur from this form of radiation. Beta rays are produced through spontaneous decay of radioactive materials, such as tritium, carbon-14, phosphorus-32, and strotium-90. The distance that beta rays travel depends on its energy. Like alpha rays, concern for health effects is after their ingestion. Gamma rays are similar to ordinary visible light except in its energy and wavelength. A gamma ray is much shorter compared to ultraviolet and is higher in energy. They are produced like beta rays. The types of radioactive materials that cause gamma rays are cobalt-60 and cesium-137. X rays are much like gamma rays except that they are produced differently. They are produced when electrons at high speeds hit metal atoms; these stop the electrons and release energy in the form of an electromagnetic wave. Neutrons are released after an atomic nucleus splits and produces large amounts of energy; this is called a nuclear fission. Nuclear fission generally occurs with plutonium and uranium. They hardly damage cells; however, because the biological cells do not carry electrical charges. However, we do have large amounts of hydrogen in our bodies and if a neutron hits the nucleus of hydrogen it causes ionization in the body. This leads to various types of damage to the body. RADIATION SCALES AND IMPACT Radiation is a quantifiable unit of energy given off by atomic particles. There are several various units of measure for radiation. The two often used are the rem and the sievert. The average person in the United States receives a dose of about 360 millirem of radiation per year. Eighty per cent of that exposure comes from natural sources: radon gas, the human body, outer space, and rocks and soil. The remaining 20 per cent come from man-made radiation sources, primarily medical x-rays. One sievert is approximately 100 rem. Most doses are relatively small and so are measured in the millirem or millisievert. RELATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS LEVELS OF RADIATION SOURCES DOSE BIOLOGICAL EFFECT Nuclear bomb blast or exposure in a 100,000 nuclear facility. rems/incident 10,000 rems/incident X-rays for cancer patients 1000 rems/incident 100 rems/incident Immediate death Coma, death within 1 day Nausea, lining of intestine damaged, death in 1-2 weeks Increased leukemia. probability of

10

10 rems/incident Upper limit for occupationally exposed 5 rems/year people X-ray of the intestine Upper limit for release from nuclear installations (except nuclear power 0.5 rem/year plants) Natural background radiation

Early embryos abnormalities

may

show

Effects difficult to show.

1 rem/procedure Effects difficult to show Effects difficult to show

0.2-0.3 rem/year Effects difficult to show.

Upper limit for release by nuclear 0.005 rem/year Effects difficult to show. power plants. Source: Environmental Science: A Study of Interrelationships (p. 175): NATURAL RADIATION SOURCES RADON You cannot see it, smell it, or taste it, but radon is the leading source of natural radiation exposure and the second leading cause of lung cancer. Where does it come from? Well, usually from soil, but it is found everywhere. The ground that we all walk and build our homes upon contains varying levels of naturally occurring radioactive elements that decay into radon gas, which can seep into homes and become a health concern. COSMIC (SPACE) RADIATION Outer space is full of various types of radiation, such as heavily charged particles and gamma rays. Fortunately, Earth has an atmosphere that helps absorb and filter them out and protect us from high doses of cosmic radiation. However, some radiation is able to make it through. The dose of cosmic radiation that you receive varies depending on the altitude of the area in which you live. Since air is thinner at higher elevations, less cosmic radiation is filtered out than it is at lower altitudes with thicker air. OTHER NATURAL RADIATION SOURCES Other natural sources, such as radiation naturally present in our own bodies and radiation from elements in the ground ("Terrestrial" in addition to radon gas), are also all around us. The following chart from the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) shows all sources of natural radiation exposure and the percentage of our annual dose that comes from each source: http://www.ncrponline.org/images/160_pie_charts/Fig3-19.pdf MANMADE RADIATION EXPOSURE MEDICAL RADIATION EXPOSURE The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) published a study in 2009 that found that nearly half of the radiation to which the US population is exposed comes from medical sources such as CT scans, x-rays, and nuclear medicine. While individual exposure from medical sources varies considerably depending on the number and types of procedures that one undergoes, the NCRP has indicated that medical radiation exposure is much more common now than ever before. Thanks to

11

advancements in modern science and medicine, doctors are now better able to diagnose ailments and save lives through the use of these procedures. OTHER MANMADE SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE The primary source of manmade radiation exposure is from medical sources. However, there are various other sources that expose us to small amounts of radiation A LIST OF RADIATION EMITTING PRODUCTS Cabinet X-Ray Products Cell Phones Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) CT (Computed Tomography) Fluoroscopy Laser Light Shows Lasers - Non-medical (Non-medical (Includes Industrial, Scientific, and Consumer Laser equipment, Laser Light Shows, In Vitro laser devices, Veterinary laser devices, and Laser Pointers) Mammography Medical Lasers Medical Ultraviolet Lamps and Products Medical X-Rays Mercury Vapor Lamps Microwave Ovens Radiofrequency and Microwave Products Other than Microwave Ovens (including Microwave Diathermy and Microwave Blood Warmers) Radiography Security Systems Sunlamps and Sunlamp Products (Tanning Beds/Booths) Televisions and Video Display Monitors Ultrasound Imaging Ultrasound Products Other than Diagnostic or Therapy Ultrasound Therapy X-Ray & Particulate Products other than Medical Diagnostic or Cabinet SOIL CONTAMINATION Soil Contamination What kind of contamination is it?

Soil contamination is either solid or liquid hazardous substances mixed with the naturally occurring soil. Usually, contaminants in the soil are physically or chemically attached to soil particles, or, if they are not attached, are trapped in the small spaces between soil particles. How did it get there? Soil contamination results when hazardous substances are either spilled or buried directly in the soil or migrate to the soil from a spill that has occurred elsewhere. For example, soil can become contaminated when small particles containing hazardous substances are released from a smokestack and are deposited on the surrounding soil as they fall out of the air. Another source of soil contamination could be water that

12

washes contamination from an area containing hazardous substances and deposits the contamination in the soil as it flows over or through it. How does it hurt animals, plants and humans? Contaminants in the soil can hurt plants when they attempt to grow in contaminated soil and take up the contamination through their roots. Contaminants in the soil can adversely impact the health of animals and humans when they ingest, inhale, or touch contaminated soil, or when they eat plants or animals that have themselves been affected by soil contamination. Animals ingest and come into contact with contaminants when they burrow in contaminated soil. Humans ingest and come into contact with contaminants when they play in contaminated soil or dig in the soil as part of their work. Certain contaminants, when they contact our skin, are absorbed into our bodies. When contaminants are attached to small surface soil particles they can become airborne as dust and can be inhaled. How can we clean it up? There are three general approaches to cleaning up contaminated soil: 1) soil can be excavated from the ground and be either treated or disposed; 2) soil can be left in the ground and treated in place; or 3) soil can be left in the ground and contained to prevent the contamination from becoming more widespread and reaching plants, animals, or humans. Containment of soil in place is usually done by placing a large plastic cover over the contaminated soil to prevent direct contact and keep rain water from seeping into the soil and spreading the contamination. Treatment approaches can include: flushing contaminants out of the soil using water, chemical solvents, or air; destroying the contaminants by incineration; encouraging natural organisms in the soil to break them down; or adding material to the soil to encapsulate the contaminants and prevent them from spreading. Soil contamination Last updated, 12/04/2008 Comments (2) | Soil contamination is caused by environmental pollution from many sources. Improper disposal of toxic wastes, chemical spills, and underground storage tank leakage often result in soil contamination. Mining operations, oil storage, chemical manufacture, pesticide manufacture and disposal are among other causal activities. Contaminated soil is a health risk to people exposed to the chemical contaminants. Secondary pollution of ground and surface water is also a concern. Clean-up of contaminated soil is expensive and in the US a government program, the Superfund, was established to help clean up toxic waste sites. Over the last twenty years more than 700 toxic waste sites were cleaned up with Superfund assistance. Today EPA Brownfields grants help communities assess and plan remediation of contaminated sites.

13

Soil contamination despoils open spaces, ruins agricultural land, and makes urban "brownfields uninhabitable without remediation. Some of the alternatives for clean up of contaminated soil include: bioremediation, excavation, and thermoelectric treatment. Bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms, fungi, or green plants to convert specific contaminants. For example, heavy metals can be removed from soil by growing plants that bioaccumulate the contaminants, and disposing of the biomass, leaving cleaner soil behind. Excavationremoval of the soil to a toxic waste dumpis generally not a favored alternative because the contaminants are merely being shifted from one place to another. However, sometimes excavation is used for offsite treatment rather than disposal. Thermoelectric treatment works by introduction of heat. Soil temperatures are raised high enough high to vaporize chemical contaminants out of the soil and subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the vapor. CONTAMINATION 7. Water Contamination and its Impact on Vegetable Production in the Rmac River, Peru Document(s) 11 of 17 Henry Juarez 1

INTRODUCTION The rapid growth of population in Lima is leading to an expansion of unplanned informal settlements which lack many basic urban services such as waste management, clean water and drainage. Combined with poor farming practices, these settlements create the perfect conditions for large amounts of run-off. This run-off contains waste products, for instance from overflowing septic systems, that affect surface waters, the environment and ultimately the health of food producers and consumers. The latter face risks from waterborne diseases, while the farmers are also affected by skin ailments and intestinal problems. Due to the scarcity of clean water and lack of adequate treatment of domestic sewage, the use of contaminated water is a common practice which sustains farmers livelihoods in urban and peri-urban areas. Lima is merely one of many international cities located at the mouth of a large river, many of which face the same environmental problems that directly impact on water quality. Typically, such waters are polluted by excessive quantities of nutrients, plus they are contaminated with pathogens and toxic chemical substances that affect both the ecosystem and the publics health (Lee-Smith and Prain, 2006). The Rmac River basin is one of the most important in Peru. It provides enough drinking water for approximately 60 percent of Limas population of 7.7 million people. The river supplies a large population with a wide range of socio-economic activities including mining, an industry established long ago in the upper and middle part of the basin. In addition, hydroelectric generation occurs along the river, as well as agricultural irrigation. Water contamination of the Rmac River historically has been related to the discharge of mining waste in the upper and middle part of the basin (Castro, 1993; Infante and Sosa, 1994; MEM-DGAA, 1997; Bedregal et al, 2002). In addition, the disorderly growth of human settlements around areas of crop production where 35 percent of the vegetables marketed in Lima are produced aggravates this situation, contaminating the horticultural products with enteric pathogens (Castro and Senz, 1990; Moscoso and Len, 1994; Moscoso, 1998; Acosta et al, 2001; Manrique et al, 2002a, b).

14

To date, it has not been clear whether vegetable production sites irrigated with contaminated water have also been affected by heavy metals (HM) and enteric pathogens to the same magnitude. Information about plant uptake of HM, patterns of water quality in the river basin and causes and sources of contaminants are lacking, as well as farmers awareness of the risks inherently involved in their work. Furthermore, there are significant public health risks associated with food consumption where urban agriculture (UA) and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) use contaminated water. Given the lack of information on related health risks, this study was initiated to assess and provide guidance to stakeholders at different levels, from producers to consumers. Research objectives This research involved an analysis of HM and fecal contamination in the Rmac River basin to determine the environmental risks and the impact on soil, water and vegetables in the eastern part of Lima. The objectives of the present study were to first study historical data (spatial and temporal) on the quality of water in the basin. The specific objectives were to document and analyse the sources of pollution in the river basin both currently and in the past; to map the spatial distribution of HM and fecal contamination in the entire Rmac River basin using secondary data; and to determine whether municipal and national environmental regulations have influenced a reduction in the pollution. The second major objective was to evaluate existing environmental risks affecting agricultural land, water and vegetables produced. Specifically, the study aimed to understand farmers perceptions concerning water quality used in vegetable irrigations; to characterize the actual levels of HM and fecal contamination in water located both in the main weir and irrigation canals; to determine the environmental risks due to the absorption of HM in the soil and the risks to human health due to concentrations of HM and fecal contamination in vegetables; and to propose recommendations to improve the quality of agriculture products. METHODS Assessment of historical water quality of the Rmac River Sources of information HM such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) were selected because they are known to be contaminants that can be absorbed by plants, enter the food chain and steadily accumulate in the organs of human beings, resulting in chronic poisoning (Zhou et al, 2000). The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on wastewater identify fecal coliform (FC) bacteria as an indicator of fecal pollution in wastewater used in agriculture and aquiculture (Mara and Cairncross, 1989).

15

Figure 7.1 Sampling location of water quality in the Rmac River basin conducted by SEDAPAL (white dots) and DIGESA (black dots) The study included monthly data collection from the General Environmental Health Directorate of the Ministry of Health (DIGESA) on Cd, Cr, As, Pb and FC from 24 sampling stations between 2000 and 2004. Also, we used annual data from the Drinking Water and Sewerage Service of Lima (SEDAPAL) on Cd, As and Pb from 28 sampling stations between 1996 and 2004. It was difficult to obtain monthly data from SEDAPAL due to political issues surrounding As contamination in water. Figure 7.1 shows the sampling stations from both sources used in this research. Mapping spatialtemporal water quality of the Rmac River Each sampling station was geo-referenced through a global positioning system (GPS). Spatial and temporal surfaces of water quality were created using spatial analysis from ArcGIS 9.0.2 Annual average numbers for each sample station were used for interpolation. A buffer of 2000 m around the Rmac River was defined in order to delimit the interpolated values, and the inverse distance weighted (IDW) tool was used to interpolate the parameters for water quality. Table 7.1 Water quality index based on Class III stipulated by the Peruvian law for vegetable irrigation and animal consumption Parameter Water quality index

16

Low Medium Higha Very higha As (mg/L) <0.01 0.010.02 0.020.05 >0.05 Cd (mg/L) <0.01 0.010.05 0.050.10 >0.10 Cr hexane (mg/L) <0.05 0.051.00 1.002.00 >2.00 Pb (mg/L) <0.01 0.010.05 0.050.10 >0.10 Fecal coliforms (MPN/100 ml) <100 1001000 100010,000 >10,000 aAbove permissible limits for vegetable irrigation. MPN, most probable number. To assess the contamination status of water, the General Water Law of Peru was consulted (MINAG, 1969, 1976). A water quality index was designed to provide a simple and concise method for expressing the water quality of the river. The index was classified in four levels, taking into account the stipulations for water used for vegetable irrigation and animal consumption (known as Class III waters) as determined by the Peruvian General Water Law. Low and medium indexes consider values below the maximum permissible limits set for Class III, while a high index considers values two to ten times higher than the maximum permissible set for Class III. A very high index considers values that are extremely high which are set for Class III, but which are unsuitable for vegetable irrigation (Table 7.1). Water quality maps were prepared of each of the water quality parameters sampled. While they are based on average annual values, and hence do not give us detailed information about monthly variation, they offer a general idea of what is influencing their concentrations across the Rmac River. Perception of risk of pollution or exposure to contaminants A detailed survey of 125 of the 276 livestock- and vegetable-producing households had been previously carried out in the Lurigancho Chosica district.3 Survey interviewers asked questions on characteristics of members of the household, the context of the livestock activity, agronomic management, livestock management, post-harvest and market activities, water use, excreta and solid waste disposal, complementary activities, expenditures and family income, division of labour, and institutional and organizational networks that are assisted by the activities of UA (Lozano, 2004). We used this survey to understand what farmers think about their exposure to pollution or contaminants. ASSESSMENT OF WATER, SOIL AND CROP QUALITY IN EASTERN LIMA Lurigancho Chosica is one of the most important farming areas, supplying as much as 35 percent of the vegetable market in Lima. It is located in the lower watershed of the Rmac River in the eastern part of the city. Three of its four vegetable production sites were selected in this study to assess the impact of irrigation water on soils and in vegetables. The three sites selected for study were Carapongo, Nievera and Huachipa (Figure 7.2). Site selection was chosen because of the extent of the farms (871 of 1115 ha of all vegetable production areas are located in these three sites). In addition, land use change is occurring very rapidly in the fourth farming area (aa) because of the conversion of agricultural land into permanently built-up areas which are covered with infrastructure (Juarez et al, 2007).

17

Figure 7.2 Urban and peri-urban agriculture in and around Lima (agricultural plots shown in black, urban areas in grey) and three research locations: Carapongo, Nievera and Huachipa WATER QUALITY OF IRRIGATION CANALS Twenty-five water samples were collected in both October 2004 and March 2005 in Carapongo for HM and FC analysis. Additionally, 20 water samples were collected in Huachipa and Nievera in September 2005 for FC. Sampling sites included main and lateral irrigation canals, water gates and proximity to populated places. Criteria included samples taken during both the dry and the wet seasons. Water samples for HM were preserved with nitric acid for subsequent laboratory analysis. Water samples for FC were collected in sterilized glassware containers. Each sample was geo-referenced by a GPS location. To assess the contamination status of water, the General Water Law of Peru was consulted (MINAG, 1969, 1976) and the indexes displayed in Table 7.1 were used to classify all maps. QUALITY OF VEGETABLES

18

Vegetables represent the main crop around Carapongo, Nievera and Huachipa. In total, 57 vegetable samples were collected and sampled. Carapongo was divided in five agricultural zones to allocate samples proportionally (Campo Sol, Guadalupe, Huancayo, Nuevo Horizonte and Tulipanes). Five vegetable samples within each zone were collected in December 2004 (FC analysis) and April 2005 (FC and HM analysis). Crops included were those noted in previous surveys conducted in the area (Lozano, 2004): huacatay (Tagetes minuta L., used as seasoning or as a condiment in Peruvian foods), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), turnip (Brassica rapa L. var. rapa) and the common beet (Beta vulgaris L. var. crassa). An additional seven samples were collected in Nievera and Huachipa in March 2006 for FC analysis. Selected crops were turnip, common beet, huacatay, celery (Apium graveolens L.) and grass (Lolium perennial L.). Five to six sub-samples were taken for each vegetable sample during harvest season. For the assessment of HM, vegetables were classified in accordance with their edible parts: roots (turnip, radish and common beet) and foliage (lettuce, huacatay and celery). In addition, vegetables were collected before and after washing for FC assessment. The freshly harvested vegetables were brought to the laboratory and washed, initially with running water to remove the soil particles, followed by three washings with distilled water. Samples were cut into small pieces before being oven-dried at 105C to constant weight. The samples were then pulverized with a mortar and subjected to wet digestion in the conical flask with HNO3 and HClO4 (2:1) to extract total HM (AOAC, 1984). Then 10 ml of HCl was added to dissolve inorganic salts and oxides. Care was taken to prevent contamination in all steps of the process. HM in all samples were determined with atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for Cd and Cr, AAS + graphite furnace for Pb, and AAS + hydride generation for As. Guidelines for HM in vegetables were taken from several sources including the 1995 Chinese National Standards Analytical Methods (Zhou et al, 2000) and Codex Alimentarius (2006). The guidelines for HM were set at 0.50 mg As/kg, 0.20 mg Cd/kg, 0.50 mg Cr/kg and 0.3 mg Pb/kg in fresh matter. FC bacteria count was analysed by the five-tube most probable number method (MPN) (APHA, 1992). Limits for FC were taken from those recommended by the WHO (1989). Heavy metals in soils Soil samples were obtained from the same place as vegetable samples. All soils were sampled manually with a soil sampler (Model J, Spectrum Technologies).4Samples were extracted from topsoil (approximately 20 cm depth) and air-dried for four days. Tiny roots and other residues were removed before the soil was ground and sieved in a 2-mm mesh. Fractions less than 2 mm were analysed for total as well as dissolved HM. Total HM content was determined using an acid mixture. One gram of soil for each sample, in duplicates, was transferred into a 200-ml digestion flask. Ten millilitres of a mixture of concentrated HClO4 and HNO3 (ratio of 2:1) was added before covering the digestion flask with a watch glass. The mixture was heated progressively and boiled under reflux for two hours after which the digestion flask was cooled (Baker and Amacher, 1982; AOAC, 1984). Tests for available HM in soils were carried out with 1N ammonium acetate shaking for two hours (Bradi, 1984; Yanai et al, 1998). Heavy metals in all samples were determined with AAS for Cd and Cr, AAS + graphite furnace for Pb and AAS + hydride generation for As. Guidelines for HM concentrations in soils were taken from the Taiwan standards for assessment of soils contaminated with HM (Wang et al, 1994; Chen et al, 1996). These included A values (the upper limit of background concentration), B values (the acceptable level) and C values (the intervention level, at which pollution control is needed). These guidelines take into account total HM in soils and available HM for

19

plants (extracted by 0.1 M HCl) (Wang et al, 1994). The C values were used as guidelines for assessment of HM in soils. Table 7.2 The Taiwanese standards for assessment of soils contaminated with heavy metals ElementA value B value C value 0.1 MTotal 0.1 MTotal 0.1 MTotal HCl concentrationHCl concentrationHCl concentration extracte (ppm, dryextracte (ppm, dryextracte (ppm, dry d (ppm,soils) d (ppm,soils) d (ppm,soils) dry soils) dry soils) dry soils) As 16.0 30.0 40.0 Cd 0.4 2.0 11.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 Cr 12.0 100.0 25.0 250.0 40.0 400.0 Pb 18.0 50.0 150.0 300.0 200.0 500.0 A value, reference top value of the background range; B value, further monitoring level; C value, pollution control level. Source: Chen, 1992; Chen et al, 1996. Statistical analysis of the data Data were subjected to an analysis of variance and means were compared by Fishers protected least significance difference (LSD) test. Statistical analysis was carried out with assistance of CIPSTAT7 (CIP Statistical Analyser) developed at the International Potato Center. Descriptive statistics were used to explain the basic features of the data in a study to provide simple summaries about the samples. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Historical contamination of Rmac River The incorporation of spatialtemporal data on water quality in a geographical information system (GIS) proved to be a useful tool in assessing pollution trends for different metals in different parts of the watershed and the associated potential risks. As the maps track changes over time, they are useful in identifying trends and offer a general idea of what is influencing their concentrations throughout the Rmac River. Looking at these summary maps is faster and easier than doing extensive detailed analysis of the raw water-quality data. Also, they help to focus the analysis directly on areas of concern, locate areas of high risk due to the presence of HM and FC and assesses the discrepancies between different data sets. Figure 7.3 shows the annual averages over time of As, Cd, Cr, Pb and FC reported by SEDAPAL (19972004) and DIGESA (20002004), while Figure 7.4 shows the spatial distribution of As, Pb and FC along the Rmac river corresponding to the year of greatest contamination (2000 or 2001) and the last reported (2004). Cd and Cr did not affect any part of the basin and were always below the maximum permissible level for vegetable irrigation. However, vegetable growing areas in the lower part of the basin were affected with contaminated water for at least two years with As (2000 and 2002) and for the entire evaluated period with Pb (19972004). As expected, the presence of Pb and As in the Rmac River is related to discharges of mining wastes in the upper and middle part of the basin (Infante and Sosa, 1994; MEMDGAA, 1997). The data also indicates that As levels have reduced in the last two years (20032004) (Figure 7.5A). This is probably due to an obligatory implementation of the Environment Adequacy Program (Programa de Adecuacin Ambiental, PAMA), as applied to ongoing mining operations and the Environment Impact Assessments which are applied to new mine operations (MINEM, 1993). However, there is no evidence that water quality has been improved in terms of Pb (Figure 7.5B). High levels of Pb still exist

20

in the Rmac River basin which could pose an important risk for agricultural activity in the Rmac Valley. Figure 7.6 shows the degree of mining activity established long ago in the basin.

21

Figure 7.3 Annual means for As, Cd, Cr, Pb and FC in the Rmac River, where the vertical lines represent the standard error of the mean

Figure 7.4 Spatial patterns of water contamination with As, Pb and FC in the Rmac River for the year of greatest contamination (2000 or 2001) and the most recent year (2004) A different situation regarding microbiological contamination was observed. FC were found to be higher than 105/100 ml in almost the entire river except for a small section of

22

the highest part of the basin (see Figures 7.3 and 7.4). These findings were also reported in other studies (Castro and Senz, 1990; Moscoso and Len, 1994; Moscoso, 1998; Acosta et al, 2001; Manrique et al, 2002a, b). These high levels of FC present in the river are due to the inadequate treatment of domestic sewage from human settlements along the Rmac River. Improper disposal thus contaminates the surface water. As an indicator bacteria, the presence of such a level of FC contamination suggests that the water poses a risk for agricultural activity in the Rmac Valley.

Figure 7.5 As and Pb in the upper part of the basin from 1997 to 2004, where vertical lines represent the standard error of the mean Perception of risk to pollution or exposure to contaminants Among survey participants, 74 percent of farmers perceived that water used for irrigation is contaminated and 73 percent thought domestic sewage and solid waste from residential communities comprised the principal sources. Eleven percent of farmers thought that waste from mining activities affected water quality and were aware that HM can affect soils, crops and human health. The appraisal of how farmers perceive the risk to pollution or exposure of contaminants can be very complex (Grasmck and Scholz, 2003). These results show that farmers perception of water quality is attributed mainly to factors that are easily observed such as domestic sewage (excreta) and solid waste from urban communities (such as bottles and papers). If the exposure is not visible (e.g. the

23

presence of parasites and pathogens or HM in irrigation water or the accumulation of HM in soil or plants), the perception of the risk is less apparent.

Figure 7.6 Location of mines and populated places in the Rmac River basin Assessment of water, soil and crop quality in eastern Lima Water quality of irrigation canals None of the water samples collected from the canals exceeded the maximum permitted limits for As, Cd, Cr and Pb according to Codex Alimentarius (2006). Thus the water is suitable for use in irrigating vegetables from the standpoint of HM. Contamination of irrigation water with pathogens and parasites is a more serious problem for vegetable production. The Rmac River is a main source of contamination due to the sewage and excreta effluents that are emptied directly into irrigation canals that supplement farms. More than 97 percent of water samples taken from irrigation canals were found to contain five million FC, which is above the maximum permitted limits. The quality of irrigation water worsened downstream as the river passed through more densely populated settlements in the Rmac Valley. Heavy metal contents in soils From the analysis of the soils it was observed that more than 40 percent of the samples contained high levels of As and Cd, as well as Pb that exceeded the safe limits according to Chen (1992), Chen et al (1996) and Wang et al (1994). The total concentration (Figure 7.7) indicates the location of potential contamination pathways, such as soil ingestion by children, inhalation of dust, soil adhesion on edible leaves and other sources associated with handling the soil (Nabulo, 2002). Extractable concentrations of HM in soils are considered to be indicators of availability to plant roots (Kimberly and William, 1999). Observations in this study (Figure 7.8) showed that uptake by plants was only a fraction of the total HM concentrations (Sauve et al, 2000). Because there are no guidelines for safe levels of available As in soils, it was impossible to compare amounts.

24

Some of the available Cd measured in soil solution may have come from the weathering of parent rock, as it was also observed that 68 percent of the variability of available Cd came from total Cd in soils (P < 0:001). The levels of trace elements present in soils result from the interactions between the geology of the parent rock and the soil-forming factors and human activities (Kabata-Pendias and Adriano, 1995). However, available As found in the soil may have originated from pesticides, fertilizers or sewage sludge (Alloway and Ayres, 1993). The results also suggest different amounts of HM in soils across evaluation sites. Localities near the main gate of Nuevo Horizonte accumulated more Cd (P < 0:001) and Pb (P = 0:019) than other sites that were far from the gate. Quality of vegetables In spite of the mechanisms involved in elemental uptake by roots (non-metabolic or metabolic), plants are known to respond to the amounts of available inorganic nutrients in soil solution (Li and Shumas, 1996; Baban, 1999; Madrid et al, 2002). Analysis of some of the vegetables in the irrigated fields showed that both Cd and As were accumulated more in foliage than in roots. But only the indigenous aromatic plant huacatay exceeded the maximum permitted levels (guideline: 0.50 mg As/kg and 0.20 mg Cd/kg) (Figure 7.9). The plant is used in small quantities for seasoning or as a condiment in various Peruvian foods and so may not pose a health risk to consumers. Seventeen percent of lettuce and 31 percent of radish samples had very high levels of FC contamination, presumably due to exposure to the highly contaminated canal water (WHO, 1989). Contamination loads in the two vegetables varied depending on the location of sampling (Figure 7.10). Washing vegetables with irrigation water from the canal increased the level of contamination, and 57 percent of clean vegetables were found to be contaminated after the washing process (Figure 7.11).

25

Figure 7.7 Total heavy metals in soils. Vertical lines represent the standard error of the mean

26

Figure 7.8 Available heavy metals in soils. Vertical lines represent the standard error of the mean

27

Figure 7.9 Total heavy metals in vegetables. Vertical lines represent the standard error of the mean

28

Figure 7.10 Levels of FC in vegetables in selected areas: Huachipa, Nievera and Carapongo

Figure 7.11 Effect of washing vegetables in the irrigation canals CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This research exemplifies the use of multiple data sources and multiple pathway analyses to capture different ways through which food gets contaminated. The integration of spatialtemporal data on water quality in a GIS model proved to be a useful tool to evaluate pollution trends for different contaminants flowing through a watershed and downstream into a coastal city, and the associated risks of contamination of vegetable-growing areas. The project demonstrated the usefulness of participatory mapping (GIS) as an effective approach to dissemination of environmental pollution information and risk reduction strategies. These methods also will help the development of appropriate information dissemination packages for the communities who depend for their livelihood upon these ecosystems. Vegetables grown in areas contaminated by water from the Rmac River had high levels of As and Pb, although a reduction in As has been observed over the last two years due

29

to improvements in the Ministry of Energy and Mines regulatory systems. Regulations now exist which involve obligatory programmes of environmental adequacy as well as environmental impact assessments (MINEM, 1993). Despite the high levels of Pb found in the river water, the content found in soils and crops does not pose a significant health risk. However, significant levels of As and Cd were found in soil, and these could be harmful. Investigation of the Cd and As levels in vegetables showed that there was more accumulation in foliage than in roots. The indigenous aromatic plant huacatay contains Cd and As concentrations that are above those permitted by Peruvian law. Contamination of irrigation water with pathogens was a more serious problem for vegetable production. FC were found to reach levels higher than permitted by Peruvian law: more than 97 percent of water samples from irrigation canals contained five million MPN/100 ml, which is beyond the maximum permitted limits for FC bacteria. Analysis of lettuce and radish samples showed 17 percent and 31 percent of the samples having bacterial loads that are above permitted limits. The practice of washing vegetables using water from the irrigation canals further contaminated these vegetables: 57 percent of clean vegetables were contaminated during the rinsing process. To complement the chemical and biological data collection, the study sought to understand how farmers perceive environmental risks. Not surprisingly, farmers tended to depend on observed phenomenon rather than hearsay references to mining risks. Almost three-quarters associated domestic sewage and other urban solid wastes in the irrigation channels, with only 11 percent mentioning mining. Provision of correct information about the sources of pollution in the environment would go a long way to enhancing awareness of such risks to the community. The high levels of microbiological contamination raises the need for measures to be applied which would make it possible to improve the quality of water used for irrigation and washing in the study area. While the ideal scenario would be to prevent untreated domestic sewage from entering the river through sewerage, this is not realistic at the moment. Consequently, other mechanisms that permit in situ quality improvement should be considered, such as the use of washtubs of clean water for vegetables or the implementation of reservoirs so as to treat irrigation water. Based on this research, efforts were made to find an appropriate technology for a simple, low-cost way to improve water quality. Several small reservoirs have been built to test their feasibility for reducing potential contaminants in irrigation water. The cleaning process is quite simple and greatly assisted by solar radiation and increased temperature. First, water enters the reservoir, where it is retained for about 1014 days. While there, the water is exposed to physical processes that act on the pathogens and parasites. For instance, the action of keeping the suspended bacteria isolated from their biological cycle for more than ten days reduces their concentration and viability. At the same time, parasites sink to the bottom of the reservoir and eventually die, leaving the water clean for vegetable irrigation. Furthermore, the use of small reservoirs has been shown to have additional benefits. Introducing productive fish to the reservoir compensates for the loss of agricultural land and provides families with additional nutritious food to consume or sell. In addition, this aspect makes the concept of reservoirs appealing for other farmers in the area who might wish to construct one on their land. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere thanks go to the International Potato Center (CIP), the Urban Harvest Initiative and in particular to the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), whose AGROPOLIS grant programme funded the field research. I would specially like to thank my research supervisor Gordon Prain from Urban Harvest and Julio Moscoso from the Centro Panamericano de Ingeniera Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente (CEPIS) for

30

their time and effort in helping me develop a research product. They provided excellent scientific guidance pertaining to their specialties. I also want to thank my thesis advisor, Victor Aguilar from Universidad Nacional Agraria la Molina, for his advice. Finally, I want to thank Reinhard Simon for providing the freedom and opportunity to pursue this research as part of my activities at CIP. NOTES 1 Henry Juarez, MSc, Environmental Sciences, PO Box 1558, Lima 12, Peru, tel: + 51-13175311 ext 2156; email: h.juarez@cgiar.org 2 Copyright 2002 ESRI. 380 New York Street, Redlands, CA 92373-8100, USA. 3 Urban Harvest baseline survey (Huachipa, aa, Nievera y Carapongo) 4 www.specmeters.com/Soil_Moisture/Soil_Samplers.html 5 http://riuweb.cip.cgiar.org/cipstat/ REFERENCES Acosta, L., Alvaro, H., Jimnez, H., Manrique, R. and Torralba, R. (2001) Proyecto Regional Sistemas Integrados de Tratamiento y Uso de Aguas Residuales en Amrica Latina: Realidad y Potencial, Estudio General del Caso, Villa el Salvador, Lima, Peru Alloway, B. J. and Ayres, D. C. (1993) Chemical Principles of Environmental Pollution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK APHA (1992) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th edition, American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, USA Association of Official Chemists (AOAC) (1984) Official Methods of Analysis, 14th edition, Sidney Williams (ed), AOAC, Arlington, VA, USA Baban, S. M. (1999) Use of remote sensing and geographical information systems in developing lake management strategies, Hydrobiologia, vol 395396, pp211226 Baker, D. E. and Amacher, M. C. (1982) Nickel, copper, zinc and cadmium, in Page, A. L., Miller, R. H. and Keeney, D. R. (eds) Methods of Soil Analysis, Chemical and Microbiological Properties, SSSA Publishers, NY, USA, pp323336 Bedregal, P., Montoya, E., Torres, B., Olivera, P., Mendoza, P., Ubillus, M., Ramos, R., Creed-Kanashiro, H., Penny, M., Aleman, M., Gil, A., Junco, J. and Ganoza, L. (2002) Determination of trace elements and heavy metals in agricultural products cultivated at the River Rimac in the city of Lima, Co-ordinated research project on use of nuclear and related analytical techniques in studying human health impacts of toxic elements consumed through foodstuffs contaminated by industrial activities, Report on the First Research Coordination Meeting, Vienna, Austria, 1822 March 2002, International Atomic Energy Agency Bradi, M. A. (1984) A study of comparative behaviour of selected heavy metals in polluted and unpolluted estuarine and coastal sediments, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK Castro, M. L. (1993) Evaluacin de Riesgos para la Salud por el uso de las Aguas Residuales en Agricultura: Aspectos Toxicologicos, Centro Panamericano de Ingeniera Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente (CEPIS) Castro, M. L. and Senz, R. (1990) Evaluacin de Riesgos para la Salud por el uso de Aguas Residuales en Agricultura; Aspectos Microbiolgicos, Centro Panamericano de Ingeniera Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente (CEPIS) Chen, Z. S. (1992) Metal contamination of flooded soils, rice plants, and surface waters in Asia, in Adriano D. C. (ed), Biogeochemistry of Trace Metals, Lewis Publishers, FL, USA, pp85107 Chen, Z. S., Lee, D. Y., Lin, C. F., Lo, S. L. and Wang, Y. P. (1996) Contamination of Rural And Urban Soils in Taiwan, Boston, London

31

Codex Alimentarius (2006) Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods, CODEX STAN 19931995, Rev.22006, www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/17/CXS_193e.pdf (accessed December 2007) Grasmck, D. and Scholz, R. W. (2003) Risk perception of heavy metal soil contamination by high-exposed and low-exposed inhabitants, ETHUNS Working Paper No 42, Zurich, Switzerland Infante, L. and Sosa, S. (1994) Cuantificacin espectrofotomtrica de arsnico en aguas de consumo humano en la vertiente del Ro Rmac, tesis presentada a la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioqumica para el Grado de Qumico Farmacutico Juarez, H., Prain, G. and Castro, M. (2007) The use of spatial analysis in urban and peri-agriculture research and development in Lima, Working Paper, International Potato Centre, Lima, Peru Kabata-Pendias, A. and Adriano, D. C. (1995) Trace metals, in Rechcigl, J. E. E. (ed) Soil Amendments and Environmental Quality, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp139168 Kimberly, M. F. and William, H. (1999) Trace metals in Montreal urban soils and the leaves of Teraxacum officinale, Canadian Journal of Soil Science, vol 79, pp385387 Lee-Smith, D. and Prain, G. (2006) Urban Agriculture and Health, in Hawkes, C. and Ruel, M. T. (eds) Understanding the Links Between Agriculture and Health. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, USA Li, S. and Shumas, L. M. (1996) Heavy metals movement in metal-contaminated soil profiles, Soil Science, vol 161, pp65666 Lozano, M. (2004) Documentacion de las bases de datos de la encuesta de linea base del Cono Este: Nieveria, Carapongo, Huachipa, aa, Cosecha Urbana Centro Internacional de la Papa (CU-CIP) Madrid, L., Diaz-Barrientos, E. and Madrid, F. (2002) Distribution of heavy metal content of urban soils in parks of Seville, Chemosphere vol 49, pp13011308 Manrique, R., Jimnez, H., lvaro, H., Torralba, R. and Acosta, L. (2002a) Estudio de Viabilidad: Sistema de Aprovechamiento de las Aguas Residuales en el Fundo San Agustn, Callao Per, Proyecto Regional Sistemas Integrados de Tratamiento y Uso de Aguas Residuales en Amrica Latina: Realidad y Potencial, Convenio IDRC OPS/HEP/CEPIS 20002002, vol 86 Manrique, R., Jimnez, H., lvaro, H., Torralba, R. and Acosta, L. (2002b) Estudio complementario del caso fundo de San Agustn, Callao Per, Proyecto Regional Sistemas Integrados de Tratamiento y Uso de Aguas Residuales en Amrica Latina: Realidad y Potencial, Convenio IDRCOPS/HEP/CEPIS 20002002 Mara, D. and Cairncross, S. (1989) Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture and Aquaculture, Organizacin Mundial de la Salud, Geneva, Switzerland MINAG (1969) Ley general de aguas, MINAGDireccin General de Aguas, Decreto Ley 17752 MINAG (1976) Ley general de aguas y sus reglamentos, MINAGDireccin General de Aguas MINEM (1993) Reglamento para la proteccin ambiental en las actividades minero metalrgicas, Decreto Supremo No 01693-EM, Diario Oficial el Peruano Ministerio de Energia y Minas (Direccin General de Asuntos ambientales) (MEMDGAA) (1997) Evaluacin ambiental territorial de la cuenca del Ro Rmac, MEMDGAA, www.minem.gob.pe/archivos/dgaam/publicaciones/evats/rimac/rimac.htm (accessed December 2007)

32

Moscoso, J. (1998) Acuicultura con aguas residuales tratadas en las lagunas de estabilizacin de San Juan, Lima, Per, Centro Panamericano de Ingeniera Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente (CEPIS), Lima, Peru Moscoso, J. and Len, G. (1994) Uso de Aguas Residuales, Hojas de Divulgacin Tcnica, Centro Panamericano de Ingeniera Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente (CEPIS), Lima, Peru Nabulo, G. (2004) Assessment of heavy metal uptake by selected food crops and vegetables around Kampala city area, Kampala, Uganda, Department of Botany technical report submitted to IDRCAgropolis, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda Sauve, S., Henderson, W. and Allen, H. E. (2000) Solid-solution partitioning of metals in contaminated soils: Dependence on pH, total metal burden, and organic matter, Environmental Science and Technology, vol 34, pp11251131 Wang, Y. P., Chen, Z. S., Liu, W. C., Wu, T. H., Chaou, C. C., Li, G. C. and Wang, T. T. (1994) Criteria of soil quality establishment of heavy metal contents in different categories, EPA/ROC, Grant No EPA-83-E3H10902 WHO (1989) Health guidelines for the use of wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture, Report of the World Health Organization Scientific Group, WHO Technical Report Series: No 778, Geneva, Switzerland Yanai, J., Yabutani, M., Yumei, K., Huang, B., Luo, G. and Kosaki, T. (1998) Heavy metal pollution of agricultural soils and sediments in Liaoning Province, China, Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol 44, pp367375 Zhou, Z. Y., Fan, Y. P. and Wang, M. J. (2000) Heavy metal contamination in vegetables and their control in China, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol 16, no 2, p239 GROUND AND SURFACE WATER CONTAMINATION

33

What is diffuse pollution? Unlike point source pollution, which enters a river course at a specific site such as a pipe discharge, diffuse pollution occurs when potentially-polluting substances leach into surface waters and groundwater as a result of rainfall, soil infiltration and surface runoff. The source of this pollution, usually due to a recent or past activity on land, is the widespread inputs of contaminants of many types. Typical examples of diffuse pollution include the use of fertiliser in agriculture and forestry, pesticides from a wide range of land uses, contaminants from roads and paved areas, and atmospheric deposition of contaminants arising from industry. Agriculture is one of the main sources of diffuse pollution and ways are being developed to encourage Catchment Sensitive Farming whereby land is managed in a way that is sensitive to the ecological health of the water environment. However, agriculture is not the only source of diffuse water pollution. For example, urban, transport and construction activities are all acute sources of pollution which can affect the ecology and water quality of many catchments. Two important pollutants associated with diffuse pollution are nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen (N) Nitrogen The Nitrogen Cycle is illustrated below (Source Dr Tim

34

NOISE POLLUTION OCCUPATIONAL AND COMMUNITY NOISE The hubbub of the city -- the phrase conveys the excitement, the hustle and bustle of urban life, the throng of crowds and traffic, traders, shoppers, rowdy diversion and entertainment. In ancient Rome the clatter of iron wheels of wagons on the stone pavements disturbed the sleep and so annoyed citizens that legislation was enacted to control movement. Some cities of mediaeval Europe prohibited horse and carriage traffic to protect the sleep of the inhabitants. The noise problems of the past are incomparable with those plaguing modern society: the roar of aircraft, the thunder of heavily laden lorries and the thumps and whines of industry provide a noisy background to our lives. But such noise can be not only annoying but also damaging to the health, and is increasing with economic development. HEALTH IMPACT The recognition of the noise as a serious health hazard as opposed to a nuisance is a recent development and the health effects of the hazardous noise exposure are now considered to be an increasingly important public health problem. Globally, some 120 million people are estimated to have disabling hearing difficulties. (ref. Guidelines p.X) More than half citizens of Europe live in noisy surroundings; a third experience levels of noise at night that disturb sleep. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) In the USA in 1990 about 30 million people were daily exposed to a daily occupational noise level above 85 dB, compared with more than nine million people in 1981; these people mostly in the production and manufacturing industries. (ref Noise Sources p.85) In Germany and other developed countries as many as 4 to 5 million, that is 12-15% of all employed people, are exposed to noise levels of 85 dB or more. In Germany, an acquired noise-related hearing impairment that results in 20% or more reduction in earning ability is compensatable; in 1993, nearly 12 500 new such cases were registered. (ref Noise Sources p.85 and p. 86) Prolonged or excessive exposure to noise, whether in the community or at work, can cause permanent medical conditions, such as hypertension and ischaemic heart disease. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) Noise can adversely affect performance, for example in reading, attentiveness, problem solving and memory. Deficits in performance can lead to accidents. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) Noise above 80 dB may increase aggressive behaviour. (ref. Guidelines p.XIII) A link between community noise and mental health problems is suggested by the demand for tranquillizers and sleeping pills, the incidence of psychiatric symptoms and the number of admissions to mental hospitals. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)

35

Noise can cause hearing impairment, interfere with communication, disturb sleep, cause cardiovascular and psycho-physiological effects, reduce performance, and provoke annoyance responses and changes in social behaviour. The main social consequence of hearing impairment is the inability to understand speech in normal conditions, which is considered a severe social handicap. Whereas in the developed world hearing impairment is mostly restricted to the work setting, in cities in the developing world the problems are worse, with increasing hearing impairment due to community noise. SOUND AND THE EAR At birth the inner ear is fully developed and has its full complement of hair cells, supporting cells and nerve fibres. Unlike most other tissues in the body, mammalian hair cells and nerve fibres do not regenerate when damaged. (ref. Pathophysiology of the Ear p. 40) The response of the human ear to sound depends both on the sound frequency (measured in Hertz, Hz) and the sound pressure, measured in decibels (dB). A normal ear in a healthy young person can detect sounds with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. (Ref. Guidelines p. IX). Speech frequency ranges from 100 to 6000 Hz. (ref Guidelines p.XI). COMMUNITY NOISE Noise-induced hearing impairment is by no means restricted to occupational situations -noise levels associated with impairment are experienced at open-air concerts, discotheques, motor sports events etc. (ref. Guidelines p.XIV). Such non-industrial noise is referred to as community noise, also known as environmental, residential or domestic noise. The main indoor sources are ventilation systems, office machines, home appliances and neighbours. Other typical sources of neighbourhood noise include the catering trade (restaurants, cafeterias etc.), live or recorded music, sports, playgrounds, car parks, barking dogs. For most people, life-time's continuous exposure to an environmental average noise level of 70 dB will not cause hearing impairment. An adult person's ear can tolerate an occasional noise level of up to 140 dB, but for the children such an exposure should never exceed 120 dB. (ref. Guidelines p.XI). Continued growth in transport systems -- highways, airports and railways -- generate more noise. Many countries have regulations on community noise from rail, road, construction and industrial plants based on emission standards, but few have any regulations on neighbourhood community noise, probably owing to difficulties with its definition, measurement and control. This and the insufficient knowledge of the effects of noise on people handicap attempts to prevent and control the problem. OCCUPATIONAL NOISE OCCUPATIONAL SOURCES OF NOISE The many and varied sources of noise in industrial machinery and processes include: rotors, gears, turbulent fluid flow, impact processes, electrical machines, internal combustion engines, pneumatic equipment, drilling, crushing, blasting, pumps and

36

compressors. Furthermore, the emitted sounds are reflected from floors, ceiling and equipment. Noise is a common occupational hazard in many workplaces. The major sources of noise that damages hearing are impact processes, material handling and industrial jets. (ref Noise Sources p. 89) Air jets -- widely used, for example, for cleaning, drying, power tools and steam valves --can generate sound levels of 105 dB. (ref Noise Sources p. 89) Workers in a cigarette factory in Brazil involved in compressed air cleaning were exposed to sound levels equivalent to 92 dB for 8 hours. (ref. Noise Sources p.96) In the woodworking industry the sound levels of saws can be as high as 106 dB. (ref Noise Sources p. 95) Average sound levels range between 92 and 96 dB in industries such as foundries, shipyards, breweries, weaving factories, paper and saw mills. The recorded peak values were between 117 and 136 dB. (ref Noise Sources p. 100) In most developing countries, industrial noise levels are higher than those in developed countries. Noise-induced hearing impairment is the most common irreversible (and preventable) occupational hazards world-wide. Cheaper, more cost-effective production is a driving force in economic development. However, new processes introduced on grounds of cost-effectiveness are often noisier than previous ones. The associated rise in noise levels is often overlooked. Thus, even though noise-reducing measures may have been incorporated in the design of machinery, greater output may generate higher noise levels. For example, for every doubling of the speed of rotary machines the noise emission rises by about 7 dB, of warp knitting looms -- 12 dB, of diesel engines -- 9 dB, of petrol engines -- 15 dB, and of fans -- between 18 to 24 dB. Exposure for more than 8 hours a day to sound in excess of 85 dB is potentially hazardous.(ref. Exposure criteria p. 78) After exposure to a typical hazardous industrial sound around 90 dB for an 8-hour work day, the ear tires and hearing is temporarily impaired.(ref Pathophysiology of the Ear p.42 Industrial workers exposed to noise often turn the volume of their car radios up when they leave work, but turn it down in the morning, because it is too loud. After a time, hearing recovery becomes less complete and impairment becomes permanent.(ref Pathophysiology of the Ear p.42) This can be noticeable within 6-12 months of starting a job where levels of sound are hazardous.(ref Pathophysiology of the Ear p.45) Transient tinnitus (ringing in the ear) is a common occupational hearing condition, especially in people exposed to impact noise. It should be considered as a warning of excessive exposure to sound and a trigger for appropriate preventive action. (ref. Pathophysiology of the Ear p.42) Warning sounds: one sound can sometimes interfere with the perception of another. Because lower frequency sounds can mask higher sounds, warning sounds should be pitched at lower frequencies than the dominant industrial background noise. (ref Fundamentals of Acoustics p.22) OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS Occupational exposure limits specify the maximum sound pressure levels and exposure times to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse effect on their ability to hear and understand normal speech. An occupational exposure limit of 85

37

dB for 8 hours should protect most people against a permanent hearing impairment induced by noise after 40 years of occupational exposure.(p.65, Exposure Criteria) Noise reduction (ref Noise Sources p100) Noise-induced hearing impairment is preventable. Protection against hazardous noise exposure should be included into overall hazard prevention and control programmes in workplaces.(p218) The dangers of noise should be recognized before workers start complaining of hearing difficulties. Machine safety A European Union Directive requires that the machines are so designed and constructed that hazards from the noise emissions are minimized. Declarations of the noise emissions of machines are required, to allow potential buyers not only to select the least hazardous equipment but also to calculate the noise impact at workplaces and to help with noise-control planning. (ref Noise Sources p.100 --101) It is 10 times less expensive (unit cost per decibel reduction) to make noise-generating processes quieter than to make a barrier to screen the noise.(ref Engineering Noise Control p. 231) Noise levels can be lowered by the use of noise-control enclosures, absorbers, silencers and baffles and by the use of personal protective equipment, such as earmuffs. Where technical methods are insufficient, noise exposure may be reduced by use of hearing protection and by administrative controls -- such as limiting the time spent in noisy environment and scheduling noisy operations outside normal shifts or at distant locations. Essential elements of noise control programmes are education and training of the workers as well as regular hearing tests. (ref. Hazard Prevention and Control Programmes p.221) WHO RESPONSE WHO has responded in two main ways: by developing and promoting the concept of noise management, and by drawing up community noise guidelines. The field is marked by a scarcity of literature, especially for developing countries. Some 20 years after its last publication on noise, WHO has issued Guidelines for Community Noise. This publication, the outcome of a WHO expert task force meeting in London in March 1999, includes guideline values for community noise (listing also critical health effects ranging from annoyance to hearing impairment), for example: (ref Guidelines p. XVIII) ENVIRONMENT Outdoor living areas Indoor dwellings Bedrooms School classrooms Industrial, commercial traffic areas and CRITICAL EFFECT Annoyance Speech intelligibility Sleep disturbance Disturbance communication Hearing impairment of HEALTH SOUND dB(A)* 50 - 55 35 30 35 70 LEVEL TIME (Hrs) 16 16 8 During class 24

38

Music through earphones Ceremonies entertainment and

Hearing impairment Hearing impairment

85 100

1 4

*The ear has different sensitivities to different frequencies, being least sensitive to extremely high and extremely low frequencies. (ref Fundamentals of Acoustics p. 19) Because of this varied sensitivity, the term "A weighting" is used: all the different frequencies, that make up the sound, are assessed to give a sound pressure level. The sound pressure level measured in dB is referred to as "A-weighted" and expressed as dB(A). (ref Guidelines p.IX and X). NOISE Principal noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The following discussion refers to sound levels that would be present within 30 to 150 meters from a moderately busy highway. HEARING The mechanism for chronic exposure to noise leading to hearing loss is well established. The elevated sound levels cause trauma to the cochlear structure in the inner ear, which gives rise to irreversible hearing loss. The pinna (visible portion of the human ear) combined with the middle ear amplifies sound levels by a factor of 20 when sound reaches the inner ear. In Rosen's seminal work on serious health effects regarding hearing loss and coronary artery disease, one of his findings derived from tracking Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise. This population was systematically compared by cohort group to a typical U.S. population. The findings proved that aging is an almost insignificant cause of hearing loss, which instead is associated with chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise. CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH High noise levels can contribute to Cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high (e.g. above 70 dBA) during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten mmHg; a clear and measurable increase in stress [1]; and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease. ANNOYANCE Though it pales in comparison to the health effects noted above, noise pollution constitutes a significant factor of annoyance and distraction in modern artificial environments: The meaning listeners attribute to the sound influences annoyance, so that, if listeners dislike the noise content, they are annoyed. If the sound causes activity interference, noise is more likely to annoy (for example, sleep disturbance). If listeners feel they can control the noise source, the less likely the noise will be annoying.

39

If listeners believe that the noise is subject to third party control, including police, but control has failed, they are more annoyed. The inherent unpleasantness of the sound causes annoyance. What is music to one is noise to another. CONTEXTUAL SOUND If the sound is appropriate for the activity it is in context. If one is at a race track the noise is in context and the psychological effects are absent. If one is at an outdoor picnic the race track noise will produce adverse psychological and physical effects. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four euros per decibel per year for noise reduction[2]. ENVIRONMENT Noise pollution can also be harmful to animals. High noise levels may interfere with the natural cycles of animals, including feeding behavior, breeding rituals and migration paths. The most significant impact of noise to animal life is the systematic reduction of usable habitat, which in the case of endangered species may be an important part of the path to extinction. Perhaps the most sensational damage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain species of beaked whales, brought on by the extremely loud (up to 200 decibels) sound of military SONAR. 1. Definition: The present generation and the coming generations have to solve three grave problems, namely, population poverty and pollution if they have to survive. Pollution being the most dangerous problem likes cancer in which death is sure but slow. Environment pollution is assuming dangerous proportions all through the globe and India is not free from this poisonous disease. This is the gift of modern living, industrialization and urbanization. Unless timely action is taken we have a forbid and bleak future for the world. The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. It has been defined as unwanted sound, a potential hazard to health and communication dumped into the environment with regard to the adverse effect it may have on unwilling ears.1 Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music and that which causes pain and annoyance is noise. At times, what is music for some can be noise for others2 Section 2 (a) of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 includes noise in the definition of air pollutant. Section 2(a) air pollution means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise present in the atmosphere such concentration as may be or tent to injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment. According to Encyclopedia Britannica: In acoustic noise is defined as any undesired sound.3 In chambers 21st Century Dictionary the definition of noise has undergone a change. Noise pollution stands carved out as phrase separately from noise. The two are defined as under: Noise- a sound; a harsh disagreeable sound, or such sound; a din. Pollution- an excessive or annoying degree of noise in a particular area, e.g. from traffic or aero plane engines. Pollution is a noise derived from the verb pollute. Section 2 (c ) of the Environment

40

(Protection ) Act, 1986 defines environmental pollution to mean the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant. Section 2 (b) of the said Act defines environmental pollutant to means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be ,or tends to be injurious to environment. Noise can be described as sound without agreeable musical quality or as an unwanted or undesired sound. Thus noise can be taken as a group of laud, non harmonious sounds or vibrations that are unpleasant and irritating to ear. 2 Measurement:A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, on the scale acc. To smith, 20 db is whisper, 40 db the noise in a quiet office . 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound becomes physically painful. The Noise quantum of some of the cities in our country indicate their pitch in decibel in the nosiest areas of corresponding cities, e.g. Delhi- 80 db, Kolkata - 87,Bombay-85, Chennai-89 db etc. 3 Sources of Noise Pollution:- Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a by- product of industrialization, urbanizations and modern civilization. Broadly speaking , the noise pollution has two sources, i.e. industrial and non- industrial. The industrial source includes the noise from various industries and big machines working at a very high speed and high noise intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes the noise created by transport/vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise generated by various noise pollution can also be divided in the categories , namely, natural and manmade. Most leading noise sources will fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, industry, noise in buildings, and consumer products 1. Road Traffic Noise:In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos , smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates. 2. Air Craft Noise: Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years. 3. Noise from railroads: The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad workers ear. 4. Construction Noise:The noise from the construction of highways , city streets , and buildings is a major contributor to the urban scene . Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers. 5. Noise in Industry: Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors mounted on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community through open windows and doors, and even through

41

building walls. These interior noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is unfortunately common. 6. Noise in building: Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the soundof-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or insufficiently glazed. 7. Noise from Consumer products:Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not very large. 4 Harmful Effects: On Human Being, Animal and Property: Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense, so varied & so pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men more irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted & inter related. EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON HUMANS, ANIMALS AND PROPERTY I It decreases the efficiency of a man:- Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are number of experiments which indicate that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. II Lack of concentration:- For better quality of work there should be concentration , Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities , mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices. III Fatigue:- Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have to give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring IV Abortion is caused: - There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds make a lady of irriative nature. Sudden Noise causes abortion in females. V It causes Blood Pressure: - Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the persons peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the already existing tensions of modern living. These tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental illness etc. VI Temporary or permanent Deafness:- The effect of noise on audition is well recognized. Mechanics, locomotive drivers, telephone operators, etc. suffer hearing impairment as a result of noise at the place of work. Physictist, physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe. VII EFFECT ON VEGETATION Poor quality of Crops:- Now is well known to all that plants are similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as man. There should be

42

cool & peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in a pleasant atmosphere. VIII EFFECT ON ANIMAL:- Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal. Animals lose control of their mind and may become dangerous. IX EFFECT ON PROPERTY:- Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves which may damage concrete, glass, metal and may damage structures. It weakens the edifice of buildings. 5 Legal Control:(a) Constitution of India Right to Life:- Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees life and personal liberty to all persons. It is well settled by repeated pronouncements of the Supreme Court that right to life enshrined in Article 21 is not of mere survival or existence. It guarantees a right of persons to life with human dignity. Any one who wishes to live in peace, comfort and quiet within his house has a right to prevent the noise as pollutant reaching him. Right to Information:- Every one has the right to information know about the norms and conditions on which Govt. permit the industry which effect the environment. Right to Religion and Noise:- Right to religion does not include right to perform religious activities on loud speaker and electronic goods which produce high velocity of noise. Directive Principal of State Policy:- The state has the object to make the enviorment pollution free. Fundamental Duties:- every citizen of the country has the fundamental duty to clean the environment. (b) Cr.P.C. Section 133 Here Section 133 is of great importance. Under Crpc. Section 133 the magisterial court have been empowered to issue order to remove or abate nuisance caused by noise pollution Sec 133 empower an executive magistrate to interfere and remove a public nuisance in the first instance with a conditional order and then with a permanent one. The provision can be utilized in case of nuisance of environment nature. He can adopt immediate measure to prevent danger or injury of a serious land to the public. For prevention of danger to human life, health or safety the magistrate can direct a person to abstain from certain acts. (c) I.P.C. Public Nuisance 268-295 Chapter IV of Indian Penal code deals with offences relating to public health, safety, ....decency , morals under Sections 268, 269, 270, 279, 280, 287, 288, 290 291 294. Noise pollution can be penalized with the help of above section. Private remedies suits in the area may related to public nuisance under A299. This article punishment in case of Public nuisance law of torts covers. A person is guilty of public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of an illegal omission which causes any common injury, danger, or annoyance to the pubic or to the people in general who dwell or occupy property in the vicinity or which must necessarily cause injury, obstruction danger or annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right. A common nuisance is not excused on the ground that it causes some convenience or advantage. Who ever commits a public nuisance in any case not otherwise punishable by this code, shall be punished with fine, which may extend to Rs. 200. (d) Law of Torts Noise pollution is considered as civil wrong:Under law of torts , a civil suit can be filed claiming damages for the nuisance. For filing a suit under law of torts a plaintiff is required to comply with some of the requirement of tort of nuisance which are as follows:-

43

1. There should be reasonable interference. 2. Interference should be with the use & enjoyment of land. 3. In an action for nuisance actual damage is required to be proved. As a general rule either the presence or absence of malice does not matter. But in some cases deviation from the rule has been made. In Christe Vs Davey The extent of noise & the amount of disturbance caused there by was ignored & it was held that the noise which arose due to the practice of lawful profession, & without any malice, could not be considered to be actionable nuisance. In Hollywood Silver Fox Farm Ltd. Vs Emmett It was held that presence of malice was a factor in determining liability for noise amounting to nuisance. The court said that even on his won land was nuisance, & the defendant was liable in damages. (e) Factories Act Reduction of Noise and Oil of Machinery:- The Factories Act does not contain any specific provision for noise control. However, unde the Third Schedule Sections 89 and 90 of the Act, noise induced hearing loss, is mentioned as notifiable disease. Similarly, under the Modal Rules, limits for noise exposure for work zone area have been prescribed. (f) Motor Vehicle Act. Provision Relation to use of horn and change of Engine:- In Motor veichle Act rules regarding use horns and any modification in engine are made. (g) Noise Pollution Control Rule 2000 under Environment Protection Act 1996 :Further for better regulation for noise pollution There are The Noise Pollution ( Regulation and Control ) Rules, 2000 in order to curb the growing problem of noise pollution the government of India has enacted the noise pollution rules 2000 that includes the following main provisions:# The state government may categories the areas in the industrial or commercial or residential # The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas have been specified. # State government shall take measure for abatement of noise including noise emanating from vehicular movement and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air quality standards specified under these rules. # An area not less than 100 m around hospitals educations institutions and court may be declare as silence are for the purpose of these rules. # A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used except after obtaining written permission from the authority and the same shall not be used at night. Between 10 pm to 6 am # A person found violating the provisions as to the maximum noise permissible in any particular area shall be liable to be punished for it as per the provision of these rules and any other law in force. Schedule (see rule 3(l) and 4(l) Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise Area Code Category of Area/Zone Limits in dB(A) Leq * Day Time NightTime (A) Industrial area 75 70 (B) Commercial area 65 55 (C) Residential area 55 45 (D) Silence Zone 50 40 *dB(A) Leq denotes the time weighted average of the level of sound in decibels on scale A which is relatable to human hearing. A "decibel" is a unit in which noise is measured. "A", in dB(A) Leq, denotes the frequency weighting in the measurement of noise and

44

corresponds to frequency response characteristics of the human ear. Leq : It is an energy mean of the noise level, over a specified period. 6 Judiciary And Noise Pollution :In Raghunandan Prasad5 the engine of a factory was causing noise so as to be a serious nuisance to be the people living in the neighborhood the forbade the working of engine from 9 P.M. to 5 A.M. In Mauj Raghu6 A rice mill working at night during season will not disentitle the inhabitants of locality to relief under this section if it is established that such working is a nuisance. In Ram Avtar7 The appellant carried on a trade of auctioning vegetable in private house the noise caused by the auctioning caused discomfort to person living in society. An order was passed restraining auctioning g of vegetable in the their house. It was held by supreme court that the order was not justified merely because the applicant carried on auctioning gin connection with which the carts were brought they could not be taken as cause of problem Section 133 was held not intended to stoop such trades merely because of discomfort caused by the noise. In Himmat Singh8 Where there were fodder tals in a residential colony to which fodder was brought daily during nights by trucks which were unloaded in the morning and fodder was cut during the day by electric operated machines. It was held that the carrying on the trades causing intolerable noises emanating offensive smells and spreading dust containing articles of fodder cut was public nuisance as noise pollution. Some other important cases are also have great relevance in this regard: In Govind singh9 the court examined the emerging parameters of public nuisance. The supreme court on special leave to appeal noted that the evidence disclosed the emission of smoke injurious to health and physical comfort of people living or working in the proximity of appellant bakery and held this as a case of public nuisance. In Maulan Mufti Syed and Other10 V. State Of West Bengal AIR 1999 CAL 15 The court held imposition of restriction on the use of microphone and loud speakers by the state government between 9 pm to 7 am which inter alia include recitation of azan on microphone in early hours before 7 AM is not violative of Article 25 of constitution guaranteeing of freedom of religion. Latest authority of supreme court is a land mark judgment in the field of noise pollution. In Re: Noise Pollution11 Following important observations have been made by Supreme court regarding noise pollution which are discussed as follows:Facts of the case: Anil mittal an engineer filed this case . the immediate reason for this was that a 13 years old girl was a victim of rape he cries for held and went unheard due to blaring sound of loudspeakers noise music over loud speakers in the neighbor hood. the Petitioner complain of noise created by the use of loudspeakers being used in religious performances or singing bhajans and the like in busy commercial hi fi audio systems are used. - There are rules framed by the government regarding noise pollution and known as Noise Pollution control and Regulation Rules, 1999. On 11-10-2002 govt brought in an amendment in the rules. The amendment empowered the state government to permit use of loudspeakers or public address system during night hours between 10 pm to 12 pm in the mid night on or during the cultural or religious occasions for a limited period not exceeding 15 days. - In this case supreme observed that Right to life enshrined in Article 21 is not of mere survival or existence. It guarantees a right of persons to life with human dignity. There in are included all the aspects of life which go to make a person life meaningful complete

45

and worth living. Every body who wished to live in peace , comfort and quiet with in his house has a right to prevent the noise as pollutant reaching him. No one claim a right to noise to create noise even in his own premises which would travel beyond his precincts and cause nuisance to neighbors or others. 7 Conclusion:We have made the law relating to noise pollution but there is need to creating general awareness towards the hazardous effects of noise pollution. Particularly, in our country the people generally lack consciousness of the ill effects which noise pollution creates ad how the society including they themselves stand to beneficiary preventing generation and emission of noise pollution. The target area should be educational institutions and more particularly school. The young children of impressionable age should be motivated to desist from playing with firecrackers, use of high sound producing equipments and instruments on festivals, religious and social functions, family get-togethers and celebrations etc. which cause noise pollution. Suitable chapters can be added into textbooks, which teach civic sense to the children and teach them how to be good and responsible citizen which would include learning by heart of various fundamental duties and that would obliviously include learning not to create noise pollution and to prevent if generated by others. Holding of special talks and lectures can be organized in the schools to highlight the menance of noise pollution and the role of the children in preventing it . For these purpose the state must pay its role by the support and cooperation of non-government organizations (NGOs) can also be enlisted. NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION Many studies have been conducted to study the effects of noise pollution on health and wellness, and the results have shown that noise pollution can negatively impact you in the following ways: Productivity: We all know that noise can be distracting, and research proves this. One study examined children exposed to airport noise and found that their reading ability and long-term memory was impaired. Those working in noisy office environments have also been found to be less cognitively motivated, and to have higher stress levels, according to a Cornell University study. Health: Perhaps the most serious problem created by sound pollution is the impact it has on our health. Because sound pollution can trigger the bodys stress response, one of its major health effects is chronic stress and the high levels of stress hormones that go with it. As a result, noise pollution has also been linked with health problems such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and stroke. Its also been linked with musculoskeletal problems, as a Cornell University study on office noise found that those working in noisy office environments can also be less likely to ergonomically adjust their workstations for comfort, which can contribute to physical problems. Noise pollution can also impact sleep quality by preventing sleep and disrupting sleep cycles. And, perhaps most significantly, because chronic stress can lower your immunity to all disease, noise pollution is a general threat to health and wellness Noise pollution can negatively impact the body in significant ways, including elevated blood pressure, impaired cognitive functioning, and other effects of chronic stress. (This article explains it in more detail.) The following are effective strategies you can use to limit the negative impact of noise pollution and safeguard your health and happiness.

46

LIMIT THE NOISE Your first line of defense against noise pollution is to do what you can to control your environment, and limit the noise that enters your space. The following are ways that you can limit environmental noise and blunt the effects of noise pollution: Double-Paned Windows and Weather Stripping: If you live in a noisy city or near an airport, you can reduce noise in your home considerably by installing dual-paned windows, weather stripping, and even added insulation. As a bonus, these changes can also reduce your heating and cooling bills, and help the environment! Reduce Workplace Noise: If you work in a noisy office, you may want to talk to your employer about taking steps to reduce office noise, which has been found to affect the health and productivity of workers. Turn Off The T.V.: When youre at home, a constant backdrop of television can have an effect on you as a distraction and potential stressor. Make Bigger Changes: You may even consider moving or changing jobs if you experience significant levels of noise that you cant reduce in other ways. It sounds like a drastic step, but considering the toll that a noisy environment can take on your health, it may be an option to consider. The World Health Organization writes here on the Health impact of Noise pollution: The recognition of the noise as a serious health hazard as opposed to a nuisance is a recent development and the health effects of the hazardous noise exposure are now considered to be an increasingly important public health problem. Globally, some 120 million people are estimated to have disabling hearing difficulties. (ref. Guidelines p.X) More than half citizens of Europe live in noisy surroundings; a third experience levels of noise at night that disturb sleep. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) In the USA in 1990 about 30 million people were daily exposed to a daily occupational noise level above 85 dB, compared with more than nine million people in 1981; these people mostly in the production and manufacturing industries. (ref Noise Sources p.85) In Germany and other developed countries as many as 4 to 5 million, that is 12-15% of all employed people, are exposed to noise levels of 85 dB or more. In Germany, an acquired noise-related hearing impairment that results in 20% or more reduction in earning ability is compensatable; in 1993, nearly 12 500 new such cases were registered. (ref Noise Sources p.85 and p. 86) Prolonged or excessive exposure to noise, whether in the community or at work, can cause permanent medical conditions, such as hypertension and ischaemic heart disease. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) Noise can adversely affect performance, for example in reading, attentiveness, problem solving and memory. Deficits in performance can lead to accidents. (ref. Guidelines p.XII)

47

Noise above 80 dB may increase aggressive behavior. (ref. Guidelines p.XIII) A link between community noise and mental health problems is suggested by the demand for tranquillizers and sleeping pills, the incidence of psychiatric symptoms and the number of admissions to mental hospitals. (ref. Guidelines p.XII) Noise can cause hearing impairment, interfere with communication, disturb sleep, cause cardiovascular and psycho-physiological effects, reduce performance, and provoke annoyance responses and changes in social behavior. The main social consequence of hearing impairment is the inability to understand speech in normal conditions, which is considered a severe social handicap. The environmental effects of sound and human perceptions of sound can be described in terms of four characteristics: 1. Sound Pressure Level (SPL may also be designated by the symbol Lp) or perceived loudness is expressed in decibels (dB) or A-weighted decibel scale dB(A) which is weighted towards those portions of the frequency spectrum, between 20 and 20,000 Hertz, to which the human ear is most sensitive. Both measure sound pressure in the atmosphere. 2. Frequency (perceived as pitch), the rate at which a sound source vibrates or makes the air vibrate. 3. Duration i.e., recurring fluctuation in sound pressure or tone at an interval; sharp or startling noise at recurring interval; the temporal nature (continuous vs. intermittent) of sound. 4. Pure tone which is comprised of a single frequency. Pure tones are relatively rare in nature but, if they do occur, they can be extremely annoying. Another term, related to the average of the sound energy over time, is the Equivalent Sound Level or Leq. The Leq integrates fluctuating sound levels over a period of time to express them as a steady state sound level. As an example, if two sounds are measured and one sound has twice the energy but lasts half as long, the two sounds would be characterized as having the same equivalent sound level. Equivalent Sound Level is considered to be directly related to the effects of sound on people since it expresses the equivalent magnitude of the sound as a function of frequency of occurrence and time. By its derivation Leq does not express the maximum nor minimum SPLs that may occur in a given time period. These maximum and minimum SPLs should be given in the noise analysis. The time interval over which the Leq is measured should always be given. It is generally shown as a parenthetic; Leq (8) would indicate that the sound had been measured for a period of eight hours.

48