RFID Technology

CONTENTS
INDEX 1. INTRODUCTION 2. WHAT IS RFID? 3. COMPONENTS OF RFID 3.1 Antenna 3.2 RF transceiver 3.3 Transponder 3.3.1 Classification of Tags 3.4 Reader/Interrogator 4. RANGE AND POWER LEVELS 5. RFID SYSTEM 6. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 7. SECURITY ARCHITECTURES USING RFID 11 12 13 14 22 23 PAGES 2 3 3

8. APPLICATIONS 9. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES 9.1 Advantages 9.2 Disadvantages 10. CONCLUSION 11. REFERENCES

24 25

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1. INTRODUCTION
Almost every product in the market has a barcode printed on it. Barcodes are machine-readable parallel bars that store binary information, revealing information about the product. Thus, it acts as the product fingerprint. As we go to the supermarket to buy things, the checkout person runs our selection over the scanner to scan the barcode, theres an audible beep, and we are told how much money we owe. But the days of barcode are numbered. The reason is that a technology called radiofrequency identification (RFID) is catching on. RFID tags are being used by corporations to track people and products in just about every industry. They transform everyday objects like cargo containers, car keys, and even clothes on the rack at a shopping mall into mini nodes on a network. Databases then record the location and status of these network nodes to determine product movements. This technology can completely replace barcodes. The automotive industry makes use of small RFID tags that offer a high level of security at low cost. A lot of developments are taking place in RFID technology that will change the course of the industry, particularly in the supply chain area.

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2. What is RFID?
Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a generic term that is used to describe a system that transmits the identity (in the form of a unique serial number) of an object or person wirelessly, using radio waves. It's grouped under the broad category of automatic identification technologies. RFID is in use all around us. If you have ever chipped your pet with an ID tag, used EZPass through a toll booth, or paid for gas using Speed Pass, you've used RFID. In addition, RFID is increasingly used with biometric technologies for security. Unlike ubiquitous UPC bar-code technology, RFID technology does not require contact or line of sight for communication. RFID data can be read through the human body, clothing and non-metallic materials.

3. Components of RFID
A basic RFID system consists of three components:

An antenna or coil A transceiver (with decoder) A transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique information

Electronically programmed with unique information. There are many different types of RFID systems out in the market. They are categorized according to their frequency ranges. Some of the most commonly used RFID kits are as follows: 1) Low-frequency (30 KHz to 500 KHz) 2) Mid-Frequency (900KHz to 1500MHz) 3) High Frequency (2.4GHz to 2.5GHz) These frequency ranges mostly tell the RF ranges of the tags from low frequency tag ranging from 3m to 5m, mid-frequency ranging from 5m to 17m and high frequency ranging from 5ft to 90ft. The cost of the system is based according to their ranges with low-frequency system ranging from a few hundred dollars to a high-frequency system ranging somewhere near 5000 dollars.

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3.1

ANTENNA

The antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and read and write data to it. Antennas are the conduits between the tag and the transceiver, which controls the system's data acquisition and communication. Antennas are available in a variety of shapes and sizes; they can be built into a door frame to receive tag data from persons or things passing through the door, or mounted on an interstate tollbooth to monitor traffic passing by on a freeway. The electromagnetic field produced by an antenna can be constantly present when multiple tags are expected continually. If constant interrogation is not required, a sensor device can activate the field. Often the antenna is packaged with the transceiver and decoder to become a reader (a.k.a. interrogator), which can be configured either as a handheld or a fixedmount device. The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more, depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host computer for processing.

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3.2 RF Transceiver
The RF transceiver is the source of the RF energy used to activate and power the passive RFID tags. The RF transceiver may be enclosed in the same cabinet as the reader or it may be a separate piece of equipment. When provided as a separate piece of equipment, the transceiver is commonly referred to as an RF module. The RF transceiver controls and modulates the radio frequencies that the antenna transmits and receives. The transceiver filters and amplifies the backscatter signal from a passive RFID tag.

3.2TRANSPONDER
A tag is any device or label that identifies the host to which it is attached. It typically does not hinder the operation of the host or adversely affect its appearance. The word transponder is derived from the words transmitter and responder. The tag responds to a transmitted or communicated request for the data it carries.

ANALOG CIRCUITRY
DATA TRANSFER POWER SUPPLY

EEPROM DIGITAL CIRCUITRY

CONTROL LOGIC SECURITY LOGIC INTERNAL LOGIC/MICROPROCESOR

ROM RAM

Fig.1 Transponder Block Diagram

The transponder memory may comprise of read-only (ROM), random access (RAM), and non-volatile programmable memory for data storage depending on the type and sophistication of the device. The ROM-based memory is used to accommodate security data and the transponder operating system instructions which in conjunction

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with the processor or processing logic deals with the internal house-keeping functions like response delay timing, data flow control and supply switching. The RAM-based memory is used for temporary data storage during transponder interrogation and response. The non-volatile programmable memory may be of several types of which the electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is the most common. It is used to store the transponder data and needs to be non-volatile to ensure that the data is retained when the device is in its quiescent or power-saving sleep state. Data buffers are further components of memory used to temporarily hold the incoming data following demodulation and outgoing data for modulation and interface with the transponder antenna. The interface circuitry provides the facility to direct and accommodate the interrogation field energy for powering purposes in passive transponders and triggering of the transponder response. The transponder antenna senses the interrogating field and serves as the means for transmitting the transponder response for interrogation.[6]

3.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TAGS

On the basis of the presence of battery, tags can be classified into active or passive tags. Active tags are powered by an internal battery and are generally read/write devices. They contain a cell having a high power to weight ratio and are capable of operating over a temperature range of -50 to +70 degree Celsius. Active tags have a finite life time. A suitable cell coupled to suitable low power circuitry can ensure functionality of ten or more years depending on operating temperatures, read/write cycles and usage. They have greater size and increased cost compared to passive tags. Passive tags operate without an internal battery source, deriving the power to operate from the field generated by the reader. They are hence lighter than active tags and have greater life time. They have shorter read ranges compared to active tags. They are also constrained in their ability to store data and perform well in electromagnetically noisy environments.[2],[5]

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RFID tags can also be classified on the basis of coupling into inductively and capacitively coupled tags. Inductively coupled RFID tags consist of the silicon microprocessor which vary in size depending on their purpose and metal coil which is made of copper or aluminum wire that is wound into a circular pattern on the transponder. This coil acts as the tags antenna. The tag transmits signal to the reader with the read distance determined by the size of the coil antenna. It also consists of an encapsulating material of glass or polymer that wraps around the chip and coil. Inductively coupled RFID tags are powered by the magnetic field generated by the reader .The tags antenna picks up the magnetic energy and the tag communicates with the reader. The tag then modulates the magnetic field in order to retrieve and transmit data back to the reader. Data which is transmitted back to the reader is directed to the host computer. These tags are expensive due to the silicon, the coil antenna and the process that is needed to wind the coil around the surface of the tag. Capacitively coupled RFID tags consist of an RFID chip and an antenna made from two plate electrodes. The reading mechanism between the tag and the reader is through capacitive coupling. Placing the tag in an electric field powers the tag. The field gradient across the tag results in a charge buildup between the plates and hence a potential difference which is used to energize the small silicon IC at its center.[6],[8] Data stored in data carriers require some organization and additions like data identifiers and error detection bits to satisfy recovery needs. This is known as source encoding. Standard numbering systems such as UCC/EAN can be applied to data stored in tags. Tags are basically used to carry 1.identifiers, in which a numeric or alphanumeric string is stored for identification purposes or as an access key to data stored in a computer or information management system. 2. Portable data files in which information is organized for communication. Tags can be obtained that can store single bits to kilobits. The single bit devices are used for surveillance purposes. Retail electronic article surveillance (EAS) is the typical application which activates an alarm in the interrogating field. They can also be used for counting applications.

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Devices characterized by data storage capacities upto 128 bits are sufficient to hold a serial or identification number together with parity check bits. These devices may be manufacturer or user programmable. Tags with data storage capacities upto 512 bits are user programmable and suitable for accommodating identification and other specific data like serial numbers, package content, key process instructions and results of earlier interrogation/response transactions. Tags with storage capabilities of 64 kilobits are carriers of portable data files. By increasing the capacity, facility can be provided for organizing data into fields or pages that may be selectively interrogated during the reading purpose. Data transfer rates are linked to carrier frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the transfer rates. Depending on the memory, the tag contains data that can be read-only; write once read many (WORM) or read /write. Read-only tags are low capacity devices programmed at source usually with an identification number. WORM devices are user programmable devices. Read/write devices are also user programmable but allow the user to change data stored in a tag. Portable programmers may also be present that allows in-field programming of the tag while attached to the item being identified or accompanied.[6]

Data capacity The amount of data storage on a tag can vary, ranging from 16 bits on the low end to as much as several thousand bits on the high end. Of course, the greater the storage capacity, the higher the price per tag. Form factor The tag and antenna structure can come in a variety of physical form factors and can either be self-contained or embedded as part of a traditional label structure (i.e., the tag is inside what looks like a regular bar code labelthis is termed a 'Smart Label') companies must choose the appropriate form factors for the tag very carefully and should expect to use multiple form factors to suit the tagging needs of different physical products and units of measure. For example, a pallet may have an RFID tag fitted only to an area of protected placement on the pallet itself. On the other hand, cartons on the

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pallet have RFID tags inside bar code labels that also provide operators human-readable information and a back-up should the tag fail or pass through non RFID-capable supply chain links. Passive versus active Passive tags have no battery and "broadcast" their data only when energized by a reader. That means they must be actively polled to send information. "Active" tags are capable of broadcasting their data using their own battery power. In general, this means that the read ranges are much greater for active tags than they are for passive tags perhaps a read range of 100 feet or more, versus 15 feet or less for most passive tags. The extra capability and read ranges of active tags, however, come with a cost; they are several times more expensive than passive tags. Today, active tags are much more likely to be used for high-value items or fixed assets such as trailers, where the cost is minimal compared to item value, and very long read ranges are required. Most traditional supply chain applications, such as the RFID-based tracking and compliance programs emerging in the consumer goods retail chain, will use the less expensive passive tags. Frequencies Like all wireless communications, there are a variety of frequencies or spectra through which RFID tags can communicate with readers. Again, there are trade-offs among cost, performance and application requirements. For instance, low-frequency tags are cheaper than ultra high-frequency (UHF) tags, use less power and are better able to penetrate non-metallic substances. They are ideal for scanning objects with high water content, such as fruit, at close range. UHF frequencies typically offer better range and can transfer data faster. But they use more power and are less likely to pass through some materials. UHF tags are typically best suited for use with or near wood, paper, cardboard or clothing products. Compared to low-frequency tags, UHF tags might be better for scanning boxes of goods as they pass through a bay door into a warehouse. While the tag requirements for compliance mandates may be narrowly defined, it is likely that a variety of tag types will be required to solve specific operational issues. You will want to work with a company that is very knowledgeable in tag and reader technology to appropriately identify the right mix of RFID technology for your environment and applications. EPC Tags EPC refers to "electronic product code," an emerging specification for RFID tags, readers and business applications first developed at the Auto-ID Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This organization has provided significant intellectual leadership toward the use and application of RFID technology. EPC represents a specific approach to item identification, including an emerging standard for the tags themselves, including both the data content of the tag and open wireless communication protocols. In a sense, the EPC movement is combining the data standards embodied in certain bar code specifications, such as the UPC or UCC-128 bar code standards, with the wireless data Communication standards that have been developed by ANSI and other groups.

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3.4 READER/INTERROGATOR
The reader/interrogators can differ considerably in complexity depending on the type of tags being supported and functions to be fulfilled. The overall function is to provide the means of communicating with the tag and facilitating data transfer. Functions performed by readers include signal conditioning, parity error checking and correction. Once the signal from a transponder has been correctly received and decoded, algorithms can be applied to decide whether the signal is a repeat transmission and may then instruct the transponder to stop transmitting. This is known as Command Response Protocol and is used to circumvent the problem of reading multiple tags in a short span of time. Using interrogators in this way is also referred to as Hands Down Polling. A more secure, but slower tag polling technique is called Hands Up Polling which involves the interrogator looking for tags with specific identities and interrogating them, in turn. A further approach uses multiple readers, multiplexed into one interrogator but results in cost increase.[6]

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4. RANGE AND POWER LEVELS

The range that can be achieved in an RFID is determined by: 1. The power available at the reader/interrogator to communicate with the tags. 2. The power available within the tag to respond. 3. The environmental conditions and structures, the former being more higher frequencies including the signal to noise ratio. Although the level of available power is the primary determinant of range, the manner and efficiency in which that power is deployed also influences the range. The field or wave generated from an antenna extends into space surrounding it and its strength diminishes with respect to distance. The antenna design determines the shape of the field or propagating wave delivered so that range is also influenced by the angle subtended between the tag and antenna. In the space free of any obstruction or absorption mechanism, the strength of field reduces in inverse proportion to the square of the distance. For a wave propagating through a region in which reflections can arise from the ground and from obstacles, the reduction in strength can vary as an inverse fourth power of the distance. Where different paths arise in this way, the phenomenon is called multi-path attenuation. At higher frequencies, moisture presence can cause absorption which can further affect the range. Where a number of reflective obstacles are to be encountered within the applications under consideration, which may vary from time to time, it may also be necessary to establish the implications of such changes through an appropriate environmental evaluation. The power within the tag is generally much less than that from the reader, requiring sensitive detection capability within the reader to handle the return signals. In some systems, the reader constitutes a receiver and is separate from the interrogation source or transmitter, particularly if the up-link (from transmitter to tag) carrier is different from the down-link (from tag to reader).100-500mW power is values quoted for RFID systems, whereas the actual values should be confirmed with the appropriate regulatory authorities in the countries where the technology is being applied. The form in which the power is delivered, pulsed or continuous, and the associated values are also indicated by the authority.[6] significant at

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5. RFID SYSTEM
An RFID system consists of RFID tags, a means of reading or interrogating the tags and a means of communicating the data to a host computer or information management system. The system will also include a facility for entering or programming data into tags, if it is not done at the source by the manufacturer. There may also be present antennas for communication between the ag and the reader.
ANTENNA READER

RF MODULE

CONTROL MODULE

HOST COMPUTER
TRANSPONDER (TAG)

Fig.2. RFID System The reader sends out a radio frequency wave to the tag and the tag broadcasts back its stored data to the reader. The system has two antennas, one for the tag and the other on the reader. The data collected from the tag can either be sent directly to a host computer through standard interfaces or it can be stored in a portable reader and later updated to the computer for data processing. The automatic reading and direct use of tag data is called automatic data capture.[8] When the tag which is battery free,is to be read ,the reader sends out a power pulse to the antenna lasting for about 50ms.The magnetic field generated is collected by the antenna in the transponder that is tuned to the same frequency. This received energy is rectified and stored on a capacitor within the transponder. When the power pulse has finished, the transponder immediately transmits back its data, using the energy stored within its capacitor as its power source. The data is picked up by the receiving antenna and decoded by the reader unit. Once all the data has been transmitted, the storage

RFID Technology
capacitor is discharged resetting the transponder to make it ready for the next read cycle. The period between transmission pulses is called sync time and lasts between 20ms and 50ms depending on the system set up. The transmission technique between the transponder and the reader is FSK.This approach has good resistance to noise and is cost effective to implement.[7],[6]

6. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Reading distance: The actual reading distance depends on the transponder type, electromagnetic noise, transponder orientation, antenna type. In general, a 32mm glass transponder can be read with a stationary reader and gate antenna from a distance of about 1m.Larger transponders can achieve ranges upto 2m with handheld readers offering lower ranges upto 250mm. Data accuracy: A 16-bit cyclic redundancy check algorithm is used to ensure that only valid data is sent from the reader to its associated controller. Antenna selection: Of the antenna types, the one giving larger read ranges is selected. Electromagnetic noise affects the readout pattern. Transponder orientation: For maximum range, the antenna orientation with respect to the transponder must be optimized for maximum coupling. The orientation in line with a ferrite antenna produces the largest read ranges from 2mm glass transponder. Reading speed: Many applications require that that transponder must remain in the reading range. Since a standard stationary reader completes one cycle in abut 120ms, transponders must remain in the boundaries of a readout pattern for at least that amount of time.[7]

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7. Standard Security Architectures using RFID

Various security systems using RFID transponders have been established on the market. Fixed Code Systems are the most commonly used. During initialization, the controller learns different identification codes stored in the transponders that belong to a vehicle. When the driver places the ignition key in the lock cylinder, the fixed code in the transponder is read and compared to the codes stored in the memory of the controller. The level of security depends to a great extend on the type of transponder used. There are write once transponders on the market which are delivered unprogrammed. Programming is done by the user. Commercially available readers/writers allow to pick up the code in the transponder while away from the vehicle and to program an unprogrammed unit. Thus a copy of the fixed code has been generated which cannot be distinguished from the original. True Read Only systems on the market are factory programmed with a unique identification number. These systems do not allow copies. However, it is possible to emulate the data signal on the radio frequency level. The effort to design an emulator is considerable and requires RF design knowledge. Rolling Code Systems operate in the same way as fixed code systems except that the secret code in the key is only valid for a certain period of time, typically from one ignition cycle to the other. The System Security Controller reprograms the transponder (which is a Read/Write type) periodically. The secret is changed, but in terms of cryptographic the procedure is still a static authentication. To guarantee the reliability of the system, resynchronization procedures have to be implemented in case the transponder programming fails or the transponder is reprogrammed by mistake while away from the vehicle. Especially these procedures for resynchronization are the most critical issues in such systems. A simple mutual authentication can be provided by password protected transponders. The transponder will deny access to the secret data information stored in its memory unless a password is presented and thus the identity of the reader proven. The length of the password can vary depending on the required security level. The

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password is usually transmitted in plain text and can be picked up or guessed if the transponder is available. Depending on the length of the password, the time to guess the password can vary from several minutes to several years. A limitation of the system is the total transaction time which can be unacceptable for practical use in the application. Combined Rolling Code / Password Systems can also be implemented using password protected Secured Read Write Transponders. They provide a higher level of security. Crypto Transponders Crypto Transponders are the second generation of transponders for use in immobilizers. The new generation of crypto transponders developed by Texas Instruments are based upon the TIRIS TM half duplex RFID technology and are compatible to all standard RF interfaces of the TIRIS TM product range. System Overview The Digital Signature Transponder (DST) is a crypto device which offers the challenge/ response functionality. During initialization, the vehicle security system and the transponder exchange a secret encryption key. The key cannot be read out, only the transponder response to a challenge sent by the transceiver can be read. In a typical application, the vehicle security system generates a 40 bit random number (the challenge), and sends it to the transponder using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). In the transponder the challenge is shifted into the challenge register. For a short period of time, energy is provided by the transceiver and the encryption logic generates a 24 bit response (signature).

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Fig. 4. Crypto Transponder System The response R is a function of the encryption key Ke , the challenge RAND and the cryptographic algorithm Fc. R=f(Fc, RAND, Ke ). The response is returned to the transceiver using Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). The security system calculates the expected response using the same algorithm and the same encryption key and compares the response received from the transponder to the calculated one. The calculation of the expected response can be done simultaneously to the communication between transponder and reader or after reception of the transponder response. If expected and calculated response are equal, the information is sent to the engine management computer. In time critical applications, the challenge and the response can be generated after immobilization and stored for the next cycle. The advantages of this system are obvious:

Depending on the challenge the response is different every time. The

authentication procedure is dynamic. No portion of the encryption key is ever transmitted after initialization of the

transponder The encryption key cannot be read out The transponder cannot be duplicated

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The encryption key can be irreversibly locked or altered if desired.

The transponder is a complex logical and mechanical micro system designed to operate at very low power. During energy transfer less than 1 A is consumed by the transponder IC. This allows a capacitor to be charged over a considerable distance within a reasonable amount of time, typically less than 50ms. Even during the encryption process, the current consumption is below 16 A. Therefore, the typical maximum read range is comparable to standard Read Only systems.

Fig. 7. Plastic Wedge Transponder Design Objectives The Digital Signature Transponder was based on many established circuit blocks and assembly techniques to ensure compatibility to existing transceiver hardware and to keep existing qualified automated production lines. Apart from the design challenges for the IC design: Maintain low power consumption despite the large number of gates for encryption

Keep wiring of the encryption circuitry to a minimum Keep chip size to a minimum,

A considerable effort has been spent to ensure A high level of cryptographic security

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Fast transaction times for the challenge/response cycle Low data processing effort for the encryption algorithm in the car security

system Reliability in the application in terms of highly sophisticated supervision

circuitry in the transponder. Encryption All encryption algorithms are theoretically breakable. An algorithm is computationally secure if it cannot be broken within a reasonable amount of time respectively with reasonable resources. In this context reasonable is open to interpretations. Current assumptions for attacks against immobilizer systems are:

The attacker will not spend more than five minutes in the vehicle The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis The attacker is familiar with cryptoanalytical techniques. Dictionary attacks can be used if the key was available to the attacker for a

certain period of time to build a dictionary of challenge response pairs. In the vehicle, the attacker hopes for a challenge that is already in his dictionary to reply with the correct response and start the engine. Statistical calculations show that even if the key is available for 10 days and the dictionary is built at a rate of four responses per second, the probability for a successful attack within five minutes in the car is only 0.47%. Taking into consideration that this effort has to be repeated for each vehicle, it can be understood that this method is uneconomic for the thief. Cryptoanalysis makes use of the knowledge of the algorithm. Those attackers try to find a mathematical solution to the problem of finding the encryption key with a limited amount of challenge response pairs. The algorithm in the Digital Signature Transponder has been developed to frustrate these cryptoanalytical methods.

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Read/Write Crypto Transponder for Short Cycle Time The TK5561A-PP is a complete transponder integrating all important functions for immobilizer and identification systems. It consists of a plastic cube which accommodates the crypto IC and the antenna realized as tuned LC-circuit. It is a R/W crypto transponder for applications which demand higher security levels than those which standard R/W transponders can fulfill. For this reason it has an additional encryption algorithm block which enables a base station to authenticate the transponder. Any attempt to fake the base station with a wrong transponder will be recognized immediately. For authentication, the base station transmits a challenge to the transponder. This challenge is encrypted by both IC and base station .Both should posses the same secret key. Only then the result can be expected to be equal. The onchip 320 bit EEPROM(10 blocks of 32 bits)can be read and written blockwise by a base station Two or four blocks contain the ID code and six memory blocks are used to store the crypto key Transponder Antenna The antenna consists of a coil and a capacitor for tuning the circuit to the nominal carrier frequency of 125kHz.The coil has a ferrite core for improving the distance of read, write and programming operations. as well as the read or write options.125 kHz is the typical operational frequency of a system using this transponder.

Fig. 7.1. Analog Front End (AFE)

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The AFE includes all circuits directly connected to the coil. It generates the ICs power supply and handles the bidirectional data communication with the base station. It consists of the following blocks:

Rectifiers to generate a DC supply voltage from the AC coil voltage Clock extractor. Field gap detector for data transmission from the base station to the IC.

Controller The controller has the following functions:

Control memory access. Handle correct write data transmission. Error detection and error handling. Control encryption operation. Control adaptation of resonance frequency.

Power on reset It is a delay reset which is triggered when the supply voltage is applied. Adapt The IC is able to minimize the tolerance of the resonance frequency between the base station and the transponder by on-chip capacitors in parallel to the LC circuit of the transponder. Bitrate Generator

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The bitrate generator can deliver bitrates of RF/32 and RF/64 for data transmission from the IC to the base station. Bit Decoder The bit decoder forms the signals needed for write operation and decodes the received data bits in the write data stream Modulator The modulator consists of two data recorders. Manchester and biphase modulation are possible. HV Generator Voltage pump which generates about 18V for programming of the EEPROM. Memory The memory is a 320-bit EEPROM which is arranged in 10 blocks of 32 bits each. All 32 bits of a block are programmed simultaneously. The programming voltage is generated on-chip. Crypto Circuit The crypto circuit uses an algorithm to encrypt the challenge which is written to the chip. The computed result can be read by the base station. Comparing the encryption results of the base station and the IC, a high security authentication procedure is established.[7] Writing Data into the IC A write sequence of the IC is shown below. Writing data into the transponder occurs by interrupting the RF field with short gaps. After the start gap the write op-code (10) is transmitted. The next 32 bits contain the actual data. The last 4 bits denote the destination block address. If the correct number of bits has been received, the actual data is programmed into the specified memory block. [7]

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Fig. 7.2 Write protocol to program the EEPROM Write Data Decoding The time elapsing between two detected gaps is used to encode the information. As soon as a gap is detected, a counter starts counting the number of field clock cycles until the next gap will be detected. Depending on how many field clocks elapse, the data is regarded as 0 or 1.The required number of field clocks is shown in figure .A valid 0 is assumed if the number of counted clock periods is between 16 and 32, for a valid 1 it is 48 or 64 respectively. Any other value being detected results in an error and the device exits write mode and returns to read mode.[7]

8. APPLICATIONS
Current and Potential Uses of RFID Asset Tracking It's no surprise that asset tracking is one of the most common uses of RFID. Companies can put RFID tags on assets that are lost or stolen often, that are underutilized or that are just hard to locate at the time they are needed. Just about every type of RFID system is used for asset management. NYK Logistics, a third-party logistics provider based in Secaucus, N.J., needed to track containers at its Long Beach, Calif., distribution center. It chose a real-time locating system that uses active RFID beacons to locate container to within 10 feet. Manufacturing RFID has been used in manufacturing plants for more than a decade. It's used to track parts and work in process and to reduce defects, increase throughput and manage the production of different versions of the same product. Supply Chain Management RFID technology has been used in closed loop supply chains or to automate parts of the supply chain within a company's control for years. As standards emerge, companies are increasingly turning to RFID to track shipments

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among supply chain partners. Retailing Retailers such as Best Buy, Metro, Target, Tesco and Wal-Mart are in the forefront of RFID adoption. These retailers are currently focused on improving supply chain efficiency and making sure product is on the shelf when customers want to buy it. Payment Systems RFID is all the rage in the supply chain world, but the technology is also catching on as a convenient payment mechanism. One of the most popular uses of RFID today is to pay for road tolls without stopping. These active systems have caught on in many countries, and quick service restaurants are experimenting with using the same active RFID tags to pay for meals at drive-through windows. Security and Access Control RFID has long been used as an electronic key to control who has access to office buildings or areas within office buildings. The first access control systems used lowfrequency RFID tags. Recently, vendors have introduced 13.56 MHz systems that offer longer read range. The advantage of RFID is it is convenient (an employee can hold up a badge to unlock a door, rather than looking for a key or swiping a magnetic stripe card) and because there is no contact between the card and reader, there is less wear and tear, and therefore less maintenance. As RFID technology evolves and becomes less expensive and more robust, it's likely that companies and RFID vendors will develop many new applications to solve common and unique business problems.

9. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

RFID technology permits no line of sight reading. Robustness and reliability under difficult environmental conditions.[5],[3] These tags can be read through water, snow, concrete, bricks, plastics, wood, and most non-metallic materials

Available in a wide variety of physical forms, shapes, sizes and protective housings. RFID tags can be read at very high speeds. In most cases the response time is less than 100ms. Difficulty in duplicating, offers a high degree of security. [5]

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DISADVANTAGES

Cost RFID solutions cost much higher than the conventional barcodes. A large

fraction of its cost lies in the software infrastructure and the enterprise application and integration [4]

Lack of standardization. Standardization has not been provided across many fronts, ranging from the

different data formats used to interpretability between RFID readers and tags from different vendors to interference between RFID products from different manufacturers. [4],[2]

RFID will hurt privacy RFID transponders are forever part of the product, and designed to respond

when a signal is received.[4],[1]

10 .CONCLUSION
RFID tags will soon be tracking millions of consumer products worldwide. Manufacturers will know the exact location of each product they make from the time it is made until it is used and tossed in the recycle bin or trash can. The crypto transponders will be well suited for future generation vehicle entry systems.[3] The RFID tagging will take off when the cost of the tags drops to one percent of the cost of the product it is applied to, and that date is somewhere near. 2005 is the date that researchers say when radio frequency tagging becomes viable and until then, we must wait and see.[8]

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11. REFERENCES
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