Basic Frequency Analysis of Sound

Contents:
 Frequency and Wavelength
 Frequency Analysis
 Perception of Sound

BA 7660-06, 1

Abstract
The three sections in this Lecture Note give the most fundamental
explanations of the concepts behind the use of simple frequency and level
measurements of sounds.
The basic instrument for sound analysis is a Sound Level Meter.

Copyright© 1998
Brüel & Kjær Sound and Vibration Measurement A/S
All Rights Reserved

LECTURE NOTE

English BA 7669-11
 Frequency Range of Different Sound Sources

Frequency
1 10 100 1000 10 000 [Hz]

BA 7660-06, 2

The frequency span of the sounds that typically surround human beings vary
considerably.
Normally, young human beings can detect sounds ranging from 20 to 20000
Hz.
However, infrasounds in the range from 1 to 20 Hz and ultrasounds between
20000 to 40000 Hz can affect other human senses and cause discomfort.
Note that none of the illustrated sound examples cover the entire frequency
range. That is why knowledge of frequency range and the need for
frequency analysis is important.

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 Audible Range

Frequency
1 10 100 1000 10 000 [Hz]

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As can be seen, the range of perception of sound for humans - at a

maximum for young people - goes from 20 to 20000 Hz.
With age, the human perception of the highest frequencies decreases
gradually. When exposed to excessive noise levels, hearing can be
damaged, causing reduced sensitivity for hearing low sound levels. The
damage can also be restricted to distinct frequency ranges.

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 Wavelength
Wavelength, λ [m]

Speed of sound, c = 344 m/s

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A sound signal from a loudspeaker mounted at one end of a tube will

produce a sound wave that propagates forward at a speed of 344 m/s.
If the signal is a single sine signal the sound wave will consist of a number of
pressure maxima and minima all separated by one wavelength.

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 Wavelength and Frequency

c
λ=
f
λ
λ

Wavelength, λ [m]
20 10 5 2 1 0.2 0.1 0.05

10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k

Frequency, f [Hz]

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The wavelength, the speed of sound and the frequency are related
according to the formula shown.
It is useful to have a rough feeling for which wavelength corresponds to a
given frequency.
At 1 kHz the wavelength is close to 34 cm or one foot.
At 20 Hz it is close to 17 m, and only 1.7 cm at 20 kHz.

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 Diffraction of Sound
b << λ b >> λ

b b

Example : Example:
b = 0.1 m b=1m
λ = 0.344 m (≈ f = 1 kHz) λ = 0.344 m (≈ f = 1 kHz)

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Objects placed in a sound field may cause diffraction.

But the size of the obstruction should be compared to the wavelength of the
sound field to estimate the amount of diffraction.
If the obstruction is smaller than the wavelength, the obstruction is negible.
If the obstruction is larger than the wavelength, the effect is noticeable as a
shadowing effect.

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 Diffusion of Sound
b << λ b >> λ

b b

Example : Example:
b = 0.1 m b = 0.5 m
λ = 0.344 m (≈ f = 1 kHz) λ = 0.344 m (≈ f = 1 kHz)

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Diffusion occurs when sound passes through holes in e.g. a wall.

If the holes are small compared to the wavelength of the sound, the sound
passing will re-radiate in an omnidirectional pattern similar to the original
sound source.
When the hole has larger dimensions than the wavelength of the sound, the
sound will pass through with negligible disturbance.

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 Reflection of Sound

Source

Source Source

Imaginary Source

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When sound hits obstructions large in size compared to it’s wavelength,

reflections take place.
If the obstruction has very little absorption, all the reflected sound will have
equal energy compared to the incoming sound. This is one of the important
design principles used when constructing reverberant rooms.
If almost all reflected energy is lost due to high absorption in the reflecting
surfaces, the situation is close to what is found in an anechoic room.

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 Basic Frequency Analysis of Sound

Contents:
 Frequency and Wavelength
 Frequency Analysis
 Perception of Sound

BA 7660-06, 9

Page 9
 Waveforms and Frequencies

p Lp

time

Frequency
p Lp

time

Frequency
p Lp

time

Frequency

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Three examples of the relationship between the waveform of a signal in the

time domain compared to its spectrum in the frequency domain.
In the top figure a sine wave of large amplitude and wavelength is showing
up as a single frequency with a high level at a low frequency.
In the middle figure a low amplitude signal with small wavelength is seen to
show up in the frequency domain as a high frequency with a low level.
At the bottom figure it is shown how a sum of the two signals above also in
the frequency domain shows up as a sum.

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 Typical Sound and Noise Signals

p Lp

time

Frequency
p Lp

time

Frequency
p Lp

time

Frequency

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Most natural sound signals are complex in shape. The primary result of a
frequency analysis is to show that the signal is composed of a number of
discrete frequencies at individual levels present simultaneously.
The number of discrete frequencies displayed is a function of the accuracy of
the frequency analysis which normally can be defined by the user.

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 Filters

p Lp

Time

Frequency
p Lp

RMS
Time Peak

Fast
Frequency
Slow
Impulse

87.2
BA 7660-06, 12

To analyze a sound signal, frequency filters or a bank of filters are used. If

the bandwidths of these filters are small a highly accuracy analysis is
achieved.
The signal flow chart shown illustrates the elements in a simple sound level
meter.
On top is a microphone for signal pick up. Then a gain amplification stage
followed by a single frequency filter - here shown as an ideal filter. In the
following we will look at real filters. After filtering follows a rectifier with the
standardised time constants Fast, Slow and Impulse and the signal level is
finally converted to dB and shown on the display.

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 Bandpass Filters and Bandwidth
B
0

Ideal filter
Bandwidth = f2 – f1
Centre Frequency = f0

f1 f0 f2 Frequency
Area = Area
Ripple
0

- 3 dB
Practical filter and Practical filter and
definition of definition of
3 dB Bandwidth Noise Bandwidth

f1 f0 f2 Frequency f1 f0 f2 Frequency

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Ideal filters are only a mathematical abstraction. In real life, filters do not
have a flat top and and vertical sides. The departure from the idealised flat
top is described as an amount of ripple. The bandwidth of the filter is
described as the difference between the frequencies where the level has
dropped 3 dB in level corresponding to 0.707 in absolute measures.
It is useful to define a Noise Bandwidth for a filter. This corresponds to an
ideal filter of the same level as the real filter, but with its bandwidth (Noise
Bandwidth) set to leave the two filters with the same “area”.

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 Filter Types and Frequency Scales

L
B = 400 Hz B = 400 Hz B = 400 Hz

Frequency
0 1k 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k 7k 8k 9k 10k [Hz]
Linear Frequency Axis
(primarily used in vibration analysis)

L
B = 1/1 Octave B = 1/1 Octave B = 1/1 Octave

Frequency
1 2 4 8 16 31.5 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k 16k [Hz]
Logarithmic Frequency Axis
(primarily used in acoustic analysis)

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The two most used filter banks are:

Filters that have the same bandwidth e.g. 400 Hz and displayed using a
linear frequency scale. This is what normally is a result of a (FFT) Fast
Fourier Transform analysis. Constant bandwidth filters are mainly used in
connection with analysis of vibration signals.
Filters which all have the same constant percentage bandwidth (CPB filters)
e.g.1/1 octave, are normally displayed on a logarithmic frequency scale.
Sometimes these filters are also called relative bandwidth filters. Analysis
with CPB filters (and logarithmic scales) is almost always used in connection
with acoustic measurements, because it gives a fairly close approximation to
how the human ear responds.

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 1/1 and 1/3 Octave Filters
L
B = 1/1 Octave
1/1 Octave

f2 = 2 × f1
Frequency B = 0 .7 × f 0 ≈ 70%
f1 = 708 f2 = 1410 [Hz]
f0 = 1000

L
B = 1/3 Octave 1/3 Octave
3
f2 = 2 × f1 = 1.25 × f1
B = 0 .2 3 × f 0 ≈ 2 3 %
Frequency
f1 = 891 f2 = 1120 [Hz]
f0 = 1000

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The widest octave filter used has a bandwidth of 1 octave. However, many
subdivisions into smaller bandwidths are often used.
The filters are often labeled as “Constant Percentage Bandwidth” filters. A
1/1 octave filter has a bandwidth of close to 70% of its centre frequency.
The most popular filters are perhaps those with 1/3 octave bandwidths. One
advantage is that this bandwidth at frequencies above 500 Hz corresponds
well to the frequency selectivity of the human auditory system.
Filter bandwidths down to 1/96 octave have been realised.

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 3 × 1/3 Oct. = 1/1 Oct.
L B = 1/1 Octave

Frequency
500 1000 2000 [Hz]

L B = 1/3 Octave

Frequency
800 1000 1250 [Hz]

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One advantage of constant percentage bandwidth filters are that e.g. two
neighbouring filters combine to one filter with flat top, but with double the
width.
Three 1/3 octave filters combine to equal one 1/1 octave filter.

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 Third-octave and Octave Passband
Band No. Nominal Centre Third-octave Octave
Frequency Hz Passband Hz Passband Hz
1 1.25 1.12 – 1.41
2 1.6 1.41 – 1.78
3 2 1.78 – 2.24 1.41 – 2.82
4 2.5 2.24 – 2.82
5 3.15 2.82 – 3.55
6 4 3.55 – 4.47 2.82 – 5.62

27 500 447 – 562 355 – 708

28 630 562 – 708
29 800 708 – 891
30 1000 891 – 1120 780 – 1410
31 1250 1120 – 1410
32 1600 1410 – 1780

40 10 K 8910 – 11200
41 1.25 K 11.2 – 14.1
42 16 K 14.1 – 17.8 K 11.2 – 22.4 K
43 20 K 17.8 – 22.4 K

BA 7660-06, 17

List of Band No., Nominal Centre Frequency, Third-octave Passband and

Octave Passband.

Page 17
 The Spectrogram

1/1 Octave
L

1/3 Octave

Frequency
[Hz]

BA 7660-06, 18

A detailed signal with many frequency components show up with a filter

shape as the dotted curve when subjected to an octave analysis. The solid
curve shows the increased resolution with more details when a 1/3 octave
analysis is used.

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 Basic Frequency Analysis of Sound

Contents:
 Frequency and Wavelength
 Frequency Analysis
 Perception of Sound

BA 7660-06, 19

Page 19
 Sound Frequencies

Infra Audio Ultra

0.02 0.2 2 20 200 2000 20.000 200K Hz

Frequency

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Only the sounds in the frequency range from 20 to 20000 Hz can be

perceived by the human ear and auditory system.

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 Auditory Field

140
dB Threshold of Pain
120

100 Limit of Damage Risk

Sound Pressure Level

80 Music

60 Speech

40

20
Threshold
in Quiet
0

20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20 k

Frequency [Hz]

BA 7660-06, 21 960423

This display of the auditory field illustrates the limits of the human auditory
system.
The solid line denotes, as a lower limit, the threshold in quiet for a pure tone
to be just audible.
The upper dashed line represents the threshold of pain. However if the Limit
of Damage Risk is exceeded for a longer time, permanent hearing loss may
occur. This could lead to an increase in the threshold of hearing as illustrated
by the dashed curve in the lower right-hand corner.
Normal speech and music have levels in the shaded areas, while higher
levels require electronic amplification.

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 Equal Loudness Contours for Pure Tones

130
120 120
110
Sound 100 100
pressure 90
80 80
level, Lp
70
(dB re 20 µPa)
60 60
50
40 40
30
20 20
10
0
Phon
20 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz
Frequency

BA 7660-06, 22 970379

Here are shown the normal equal loudness contours for pure tones. The
dashed curve indicates the normal binaural minimum audible field.
Note the very non-linear characteristics of the human perception. Almost 80
dB more SPL is needed at 20 Hz to give the same perceived loudness as at
3-4 kHz.
This observation together with frequency masking - limitations in the ears
capability to discriminate closely spaced frequencies at low sound levels in
the presence of higher sounds - is the foundation for the calculation of the
loudness of stationary signals.
Loudness of non-stationary signals also needs to take the temporal masking
of the human perception into account.
A correct calculation of these loudness values is crucial for all the following
metrics calculations such as Sharpness, Fluctuation Strength and
Roughness.

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 Perception of Noise

Change in Sound Change in Perceived

Level (dB) Loudness

3 Just perceptible
5 Noticeable difference
10 Twice (or 1/2) as loud
15 Large change
20 Four times (or 1/4) as loud

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This table illustrates how much of a level change in dB there is needed to

give different changes in perceived Loudness.
This data applies to frequencies around 1 kHz. At higher and lower
frequencies, much larger changes in sound level are needed for similar
changes in perceived loudness.

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 40 dB Equal Loudness Contours and A-Weight
Lp
(dB)
 40 dB Equal 40
Loudness 40
Contour
normalized to 0 20
dB at 1kHz

20 Hz 100 1 kHz 10 kHz

Lp
(dB)
 40 dB Equal 0
Loudness
Contour inverted 40
and compared -20
with A-weighting
A-weighting -40

20 Hz 100 1 kHz 10 kHz

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Top figure is the equal loudness contour for 40 dB at 1 kHz.

The popular A-weighting at the bottom is shown in comparison to the
inverted 40 dB equal loudness contour.

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 Frequency Weighting Curves

Lp D
[dB]
Lin.

0
C
D
B+C A
-20
A
B
-40

-60

Frequency
10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 k [Hz]

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The A-weighting, B-weighting and C-weighting curves follow approximately

the 40, 70 and 100 dB equal loudness curves respectively.
D-weighting follows a special curve which gives extra emphasis to the
frequencies in the range 1 kHz to 10 kHz. This is normally used for aircraft
noise measurements.

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 Calibration and Weighting!

Lp
[dB] ΔL = 8.6dB

-20

-40
A-weighting

-60

Frequency
10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 k [Hz]

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Please be careful when calibrating a system with a weighting filter switched

in.
Using a pistonphone which has a calibration frequency of 250 Hz you get 8.6
dB less signal reading than using a sound level calibrator with a test
frequency of 1000 Hz if an A weighting filter is switched in.

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 Use of Frequency Weighting

Weighting

RMS
Peak

Fast
Slow
Impulse

87.2
BA 7660-06, 27

All sound level meters have built in A-weighting, and some have also others
like B and C-weighting.

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 Serial Analysis

1 2 3 n

RMS
Peak

Fast
Slow
Impulse

87.2
BA 7660-06, 28

For more detailed frequency analysis sound level meters can have a serial
filter bank of 1/1 octave and maybe also 1/3 octave bandwidths. As only one
filter is active at a time the analysis time is long and requires the sound field
to be stationary. The advantage is a lower price.

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 Parallel Analysis

1 2 3 n

RMS
Peak

Fast
Slow
Impulse

87.2
BA 7660-06, 29

A sound level meter with a parallel filter bank is the most expensive, but the
fastest in operation and does not require the signal to be stationary.

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 The Sound Level Analyzer

dB 1/3 Octave Analysis

100
1/1, 1/3 oct Weighting
80
RMS
Peak 60

40
Fast
Slow
Impulse 20
125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k LA

87.2
BA 7660-06, 30

The most advanced sound level meters act more like an ordinary sound
analyzer having both a parallel filter bank and a selection of weighting filters.

Page 30
 The Spectrogram and Overall levels

L 1/1 Octave
[dB]

1/3 Octave

Frequency
LA [dB(A)] [Hz]
LB [dB(B)]
LC [dB(C)]
LD [dB(D)]
LLin. [dB]

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The advanced sound level meters often feature comprehensive displays

showing all the analysis results from both the parallel analysis filters and the
weighting curves simultaneously.

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Conclusion

Headlines of Basic Frequency Analysis of Sound

 Basic introduction to audible frequency range and

wavelength of sound
 Diffraction, reflection and diffusion of sound
 Frequency analysis using FFT and Digital filters
 Fundamental concepts for 1/1 and 1/3 octave filters
 Human perception of sound and background for A,B,C
and D-weighting
 Signal flow and analysis in Sound Level Meters

BA 7660-06, 32

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Literature for Further Reading

 Acoustic Noise Measurements

Brüel & Kjær (BT 0010-12)

 Noise Control - Principles and Practice

Brüel & Kjær (188-81)

BA 7660-06, 33

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