DIGITAL CIRCUITS Introduction Information can be represented and stored on a variety of electrical/mechanical devices.

In many cases, the information relates to measurable variables such as elapsed time or total rainfall or accumulated electrical charge (for which the hourglass, raingauge, and capacitor, respectively, are suitable representation devices). But what about abstract information, such as quantities in mathematics? Here we create an analogy between something that can be stored and measured in an electrical/mechanical device and a mathematical value. For example, we can assign an equivalence between mathematical value and electrical charge. The extent to which we can operate on that electrical charge via the capacitor and our measuring instruments is the degreee to which we can perform analogous mathematical calculations. There are problems, however, with relating mathematics to storable parameters on physical devices. Two of the more important ones are 1) measuring instruments are rarely more accurate than three decimal digits--so mathematics carried out through these devices would have intrinsic limited accuracy; 2) there is typically unrecoverable loss of information--a capacitor could leak away part of its charge, i.e., its analogous mathematical value would arbitrarily change. But there is a solution to these problems: store mathematical values in discrete rather than analog form. Here one uses devices whose variations are limited to discrete states--typically two, e.g., on or off, positive or negative, closed or open. Then, by representing mathematical quantities in a number system having only two digits--a binary number system--any value can be represented with arbitrary accuracy by linking together a sequence of two-state devices and setting the appropriate state for each device. Information integrity in this discrete representation is better than that of analog representation because here information loss requires an arbitrary change of state of a device, not a drift in value. That is much less likely, and there are ways to correct for it. Computers Computers are developed to store and mathematically manipulate quantitative information. Earlier computers were analog--usually electrical or mechanical. Circuits and mechanisms were built to represent fixed mathematical problems with results appearing in the form of a final voltage or a rotation angle of a gear. The electrical and mechanical equivalents of addition, multiplication, integration, and differentiation

were incorporated into these computers. Complex problems could be solved, albeit with the accuracy problems mentioned above. Then the digital computer emerged. Here the electrical and mechanical analogies for mathematical operations are replaced by the digital manipulation of 1's and 0's--the two possible states of binary devices storing information. How does one carry out mathematics with binary devices? That is the topic of this exercise. Binary Logic The objective is to devise and to piece together a series of binary logic elements to effect an ultimate mathematical operation such as addition, or subtraction, or multiplication. It is necessary and sufficient to consider logic elements for which there are two binary inputs and one binary output. We consider three logic elements from which all binary logic may be constructed: the AND, OR, and NOT gates.
Introduction to digital circuits
Engineers generally classify electronic circuits as being either analog or digital in nature. Whether or not a device is digital depends upon 1. Does it have an alphanumeric (shows letters and numbers) display? 2. Does it have a memory or can it store information? 3. Can the device the programmed?

If the answer to any one of the three questions is yes, then the product probably contains digital circuitry.

Advantages of digital over analog circuits

1. Generally, digital circuits are easier to design using modem integrated circuits (ICs). 2. Information storage is easy to implement with digital. 3. Devices can be made programmable with digital. 4. More accuracy and precision is possible. 5. Digital circuitry is less affected by unwanted electrical interference called noise.
A signal can be defined as useful information transmitted within, to, or from electronics circuits. Signals are commonly represented as a voltage varying with time. However, a

signal could be an electrical current that either vanes continuously (analog) or has an onoff characteristic (digital). An analog device is one that has a signal which varies continuously in step with the input. A digital device operates with a digital signal. The digital signal is only at +5 V or at 0 V. The HIGH voltage is 5 V or commonly called logical 1; the LOW voltage is 0 V or commonly called logical 0. Circuits that handle only HIGH and LOW signals are called digital circuits. An analog signal assumes a continuous range of values: A digital signal assumes discrete (isolated, separate) values as there are two permitted values

Digital signals are composed of two well- defined voltage levels. Most of the voltage levels used in this class will be about +3 V to +5 V for HIGH and near 0 V (GND) for LOW. These are commonly called TTL voltage levels because they are used with the transistor- transistor logic family of ICs. Logic levels are different for various digital logic families, such as TTL and CMOS. These logic levels are commonly referred to as HIGH. LOW, and undefined.
Limitations of digital circuits 1. Most real-world events are analog in nature. 2. Analog processing is usually simpler and faster.

Digital circuits are appearing in more and more products primarily because of low-cost, reliable digital lCs. Other reasons for their growing popularity are accuracy, added stability, computer compatibility, memory, ease of use, simplicity of design and compatibility with alphanumeri displays.

Example of digital and analog device A multimeter can measure continuity, resistance, voltage and sometimes even current, capacitance, temperature. The standard volt-ohm-millimeter (VOM) is an example of an analog measuring device. As the voltage, resistance, or current being measured by the VOM increases, the needle gradually and continuously moves up the scale. A digital multimeter (DMM) is an example of a

digital measuring device. As the current, resistance, or voltage being measured by the DMM increases, the display jumps upward in small steps. The DMM is an example of digital circuitry taking over tasks previously performed only by analog devices. This turn toward digital circuitry is growing.