Seismic Integration to Reduce Risk

Despite the enormous advances in surface seismic acquisition, processing and interpretation over the past decade, drilling still involves uncertainty. These nancial and economic risks, however, are being ameliorated by new techniques that are emerging from the combination of borehole- and surface-acquired seismic data.

Rune Hope TOTAL Thailand Bangkok, Thailand Dick Ireson Scott Leaney Gatwick, England, UK Joerg Meyer Dallas, Texas, USA Wayne Tittle Sonat Exploration Tyler, Texas Mark Willis Mobil Exploration and Production Dallas, Texas

From their rst use in 1928, surface seismic surveys have been lauded for their effect on exploration success, reducing risk appreciably.1 During the years since, surveys have extended from two-dimensional (2D) to three-dimensional (3D), and have expanded to encompass the development and production as well as exploratory phases of reservoir life. Likewise, advances in seismic data processing utilizing massively parallel computers and integrated reservoir imaging software have improved the reliability of data interpretation and thereby of drilling accuracy itself. Risk, nevertheless, remains a major factor in all phases of oil and gas reservoir exploitation, and this is particularly true when market conditions drive operators to obtain maximum value from their investment in seismic data.

One sure way to increase the value of surface seismic data is to incorporate borehole seismic measurements. Integration of borehole seismic and surface seismic data can occur at two levels. The most basic is when borehole seismic velocities are used to convert seismic sections from time to depth and when images are used to ll gaps where surface seismic acquisition fails. The second, and more far-reaching, is to use borehole seismic measurements to get better surface seismic resultsto optimize survey planning, guide data processing, and produce higher quality, quantitative, calibrated images from the surface seismic data. Surface seismic data created in this way provide a more consistent interpretation and a more complete picture, or solution.

Oileld Review

Surface and Borehole Seismic Basics

Surface seismic data are acquired with both source and receiver essentially on the surface of the earth. Sound energy generated by the source propagates in all directions, but the useful energy is that which travels down, reects at layer interfaces, and comes back up to the receiver. The receiver records data as wiggles with amplitude that varies with time, and through sophisticated processing these are turned into an image of the reectors. However, unless the velocities of the layers are known, the image cannot be converted accurately from time to depth. And if there are obstructions on the surface that preclude source or receiver placement, or if the
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Dean Clark, Ian Scott and Mark Wheeler, Geco-Prakla, Gatwick, England, UK; Greg Lerigier, Geco-Prakla, Houston, Texas, USA; Rutger Gras, GeoQuest, Gatwick; Keith Tushingham, GeoQuest, Houston, Texas; Steve Horne, Everhard Muyzert and Carl Spencer, Schlumberger Cambridge Research, Cambridge, England.

subsurface properties are such that reections dont travel back up to the receivers, then there is no surface seismic image at all. Borehole seismic techniques and data are usually applied to overcome these limitations. Borehole seismic surveys, also known as vertical seismic proles (VSPs) are acquired with the source on the surface and receivers at known depths in the borehole. Energy from the source arrives at the receivers both directly, as the rst arrival, and also after reection from interfaces below the receiver. The simplest borehole survey is the check shot, or velocity survey, in which a receiver is stationed at specic intervalsoften separated by hundreds of feet or metersin the
ASI (Array Seismic Imager), CSI (Combinable Seismic Imager), DSI (Dipole Shear Sonic Imager), FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroImager), GeoViz, IESX and SAT (Seismic Acquisition Tool) are marks of Schlumberger.

borehole while the surface source is red nearly vertically above. The receiver records the traveltime from source to depth, at several depths, and a table is constructed of the seismic velocities between the depth stations. This velocity table can be used to convert, albeit crudely, a surface seismic section from time to depth, or logs from depth to time. A VSP provides more data than a check shot because the distance between geophone recording depths is far lessevery 15 to 30 m [49 to 98 ft]. In addition, VSPs collect not only rst arrivals of the seismic energy but the entire wavetrain, which is processed for upgoing and downgoing events.2
1. Hyne N: Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: PennWell Books (1995): 236. 2. Gadallah M: Reservoir Seismology: Geophysics in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: PennWell Books (1994): 139-178.

Autumn 1998

B. Offset VSP offset A. Zero-offset VSP

C. Walkaway VSP

D. Walk-above VSP

Source

ltiple oing mu Downg ave Direct w

Time

E. Salt-proximity VSP
Geopho ne positio n

F. SWD (drill-bit) VSP

Receivers

G. Multi-offset VSP

ce Subsurfa reflector

ry d prima Reflecte oing d upg Reflecte ltiple mu

Salt

Drill bit

sSome types of vertical seismic proles (VSPs). The most common VSP surveys include: A. Zero-offset VSP, B. Offset VSP, C. Walkaway VSP, D. Walk-above VSP, E. Salt-proximity VSP, F. Drill-bit VSP and G. Multi-offset VSP. Ray paths are shown as black lines.

Most VSP surveys are two-dimensional and are achieved with a variety of congurations (above). These include zero-offset VSPs, where the source is near the wellhead directly above the receivers; offset VSPs, with the source on the surface some distance from the borehole; walkaway VSPs, in which multiple sources are located along a line extending away from the well while an array of geophone receivers is xed in the borehole; walk-above VSPs, where sources are positioned directly over receivers in a deviated or horizontal well; salt-proximity VSPs, with a source above the salt dome and receivers in the wellbore in a vertical plane containing the source; shear-wave VSPs, acquired with shear-wave sources; and seismic-whiledrilling (SWD) drill-noise VSPs, where the drill bit is itself the seismic source and receivers are on the surface.3 Three-dimensional VSPs are essentially walkaway proles in which multiple lines of sources or spiraling lines of sources extend away from the well and an array of geophone sensors is deployed in the borehole. Borehole seismic receiver tools are designed for either cased or uncased holes, or both, and have from 1 to 12 receiver levels, with varying combinations of geophones

and hydrophones (next page, top left). There are, in addition, borehole seismic tools that can combine with themselves or other wireline logging tools for openhole VSP data acquisition, or be run inside or conveyed on drillpipe to acquire VSPs in highly deviated and horizontal wells (next page, bottom). Because the geophones are situated deep within the strata when obtaining a VSP, some of the disadvantages of surface seismic acquisition are avoided. Accurate depths are registered, and surface noise is reduced, yielding data with less distortion and enhanced frequency content. Furthermore, the use of the full waveform allows better identication and treatment of noise that can contaminate surface seismic records. The integration of borehole seismic and surface seismic data is not entirely new. Check-shot services for time-to-depth conversion have existed in the oil eld since the 1950s, but full-edged waveform VSPs have been tapped only since the 1980s. Through a series of case studies, this article tracks recent developments in existing methods, then introduces some new integration techniques that are also proving to reduce drilling risk.

Filling Gas Gaps

Phillips Petroleum Norway has been integrating borehole seismic images with surface seismic data to revitalize production from its giant Ekosk eld in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. It had been highly productive, generating oil and gas from the Danian- and Maastrichtian-age chalk reservoir for more than 26 years, but production was dropping, and Phillips determined to redevelop the eld by drilling some 50 new wells, adding a sophisticated waterflood system and installing new surface facilities. A major problem in mapping the eld using surface seismic data is the presence of a gas cloud above part of the reservoir. In this area, a surface seismic-derived image of the reservoir is not achievable (next page, top right). This means that wells drilled into the crest of the structure are riskier as the detailed fault patterns are not mapped directly from the surface seismic data.
3. Christie P, Dodds K, Ireson D, Johnston L, Rutherford J, Schaffner J and Smith N: Borehole Seismic Data Sharpen the Reservoir Image, Oileld Review 7, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 18-31.

Oileld Review

8787 m

2960 ms

3244 ms

sMagnetically clamped ASI Array Seismic Imager tool. This tool has ve seismic shuttles linked by a bridle to a signalconditioning cartridge. Each shuttle sensor contains three xed orthogonal geophones.

sEkosk contoured seismic time surface. This surface shows the area where the top of the Ekosk reservoir can be interpreted from surface seismic data, and indicates the seismic time associated with the reservoir top. The area in black cannot be imaged with surface seismic alone and needs integration of 3D VSP data.

Tension sub

Resistivity

Gamma spectroscopy

Compression sub

Sonic Wet connect CSI tool Pressure sampling

Gamma density

Neutron porosity

sEfciency with the CSI Combinable Seismic Imager tool. This tool can combine with other logging tools and physically isolates its sensor module by anchoring it against the formation, achieving optimum acoustic coupling for its three gimbaled geophones that is veried by a shaker source within the module.

Autumn 1998

16,887 m

1000 m

4500 m 4500 m

sFilling the gap. This vertical cut in the 3D surface seismic data volume (left) is made along a line corresponding to a traverse in the 3D VSP data. The image of the structural crest is obscured by gas, which disrupts seismic wave propagation. With only interpolation between existing well locations to rely on, condence in positioning a crestal well to miss possible faults is low. The corresponding traverse from the 3D VSP image (right) is superimposed on the rst gure. It is clear that the hole in the data at and above the reservoir level has been very effectively lled, providing increased condence in planning crestal wells.

1000 m

A combination of 2D and, recently, 3D VSP techniques does, however, provide images of the reservoir in the gas-obscured area (above). This is achieved by placing the VSP receivers below the gas cloud in carefully selected wells. The use of the direct arrival traveltimes obtained from numerous source positions, particularly in the 3D VSP, allows the existing velocity model to be upgraded. When the reection data from the same VSP data set are focused using this upgraded velocity model, a clear image of the reservoir emerges. The 3D VSP image can then be combined with the existing 3D surface seismic image to provide a continuous picture. Thus, in gas-obscured areas where 3D VSP data have provided images, the reservoir structure can be mapped with greatly increased condence. This will dramatically reduce the uncertainty associated with the positioning of wells.

Borehole-Guided Processing

The second level of borehole-surface seismic integration is achieved when VSPs provide information to produce higher quality surface seismic results. In the simplest cases, VSP data, together with synthetic seismograms derived from velocity and density log data, have been used to determine the properties of the wavelet, or basic pulse response from a reflector, contained within the migrated surface seismic data. This knowledge allows the surface seismic wavelet to be zero-phased, providing optimal resolution for interpretation. In order for this process to be successful, the same sequence of wavelets must exist in both data sets. Because they include both downgoing and upgoing waves, VSP data can be processed in a straightforward manner to remove multiples, or unwanted reverberations, and provide a sequence of wavelets that relates directly to the local geology. Surface seismic data, on the other hand, rely upon more indirect techniques to remove multiples and produce the correct sequence of wavelets in both time and space. A comparison between the desired seismic responseprovided by the VSPand the surface seismic response in the vicinity of the well, at various stages during processing, can

indicate how well the surface seismic data are converging to the desired result. The VSP image is generally at a higher resolution than the surface seismic data and is produced without the necessity of a comprehensive editing process that accompanies the generation of synthetic seismograms derived from acoustic and density logs. Furthermore, because the VSP reacts to dip in the same way as the surface seismic data, images extracted from the VSP data can be compared directly with unmigrated surface seismic data. This permits monitoring of parameter and technique selection from the beginning of the surface seismic processing sequence without having to go through a costly and time-consuming migration process to compare the data sets. In addition, it is very desirable to monitor the effect of any process on the wavelet phase. By extracting the embedded wavelets at any stage during the processing, not just after migrationthe residual wavelet stage, in seismic termsit is possible to see how the attributes of the extracted wavelet are affected by any processing step and note any signicant variations between wells. These interwell changes may be spatially mapped by looking at the variations in statistically derived attributes occurring in the surface seismic data and calibrating them to the wells.

Oileld Review

East Shetland platform

N Beryl field

1 km

1 km 6.5 Predictability, % 58

2.5 s

Crawford spur 0 0 mi km 5 8

South Viking graben

3.0 s

sThe Beryl Field. The green area within the box represents the approximate extent of the primary eld.
950 m

In a North Sea example, the integration of borehole data and surface seismic data produced a quantitative approach to the selection of a demultiple techniquea method for removing seismic reverberationsand parameters, thereby increasing condence in the conformation of the nal surface data to the reection sequence derived from the borehole data.4 The Mobil North Sea Ltd. Beryl eld, UK sector blocks 12 and 13, lies in a structurally complex and highly faulted area (above). Interpretation of its target zone was compromised by reections that were masked by free-surface multiples in a low-reectivity portion of the survey area. The operator required better quality nal 3D volumes to achieve an improved structural interpretation, thus new 3D surface seismic acquisition and processing were conducted. During the past 20 years, there had been many check shots and VSPs shot over the main structure, and these data were used to assure an objective rather than subjective approach to demultiple optimization. Prior to the acquisition and processing of the new 3D data, existing surface and VSP data were used to optimize the design of the

acquisition, then a set of the VSPs was selected from a vertical section of the wellbore with sufcient receiver levels in the target zone to cover the eld adequately. The VSPs were dip-corrected for premigration matching to the surface data. The goal is to match surface seismic traces in a small volume around each well to the VSP traces acquired in that well. To determine the match location for each VSP, a 1-km2 [0.39-sq mile] data cube was extracted from an existing stacked but unmigrated 3D surface data set along the path of each well in the target zone. Partial spectral coherence matching was carried out to mate the transposed and dip-corrected VSP trace with the seismic data in several time windows concentrated around the target zone, and predictability was assessed for each match, with a predictability surface generated for each match time window, from which the best match locations in space and time were determined. After the new 3D survey was completed, traces covering the VSP locations were examined, and the match was reconrmed (above right). Once that was done, the data sets were used to optimize the selection of demultiple technique and parameters.

sColor-coded matching. The quality of the position match for the VSP trace within the surface seismic volume is shown by color, with the best match in white (top). The match is computed in a 1 by 1 km2 volume in a time window across the reservoir. Inserting the dip-corrected VSP into this best match position along a 2D panel (bottom) from the stacked, newly acquired surface seismic data conrms the quality of the trace match.

4. Clark D, Scott I and Willis M: Using Borehole Data to Optimize Demultiple Parameter SelectionA North Sea Example, paper SP 9.7, presented at the 68th Annual International Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 13-18, 1998.

Autumn 1998

During the demultiple testing stage of the project, the use of these small test data sets and repeated surface and borehole seismic comparison made it possible to test numerous combinations of techniques and parameters and to quantify even the most subtle differences. In addition, target-oriented statistical attributes were derived from the surface seismic data set. These measurements were used to classify the target datas geophysical characteristics spatially into a number of data types. This classication revealed how the results at a particular well were representative of the whole data set (below).

A choice of two demultiple techniques resulted from the optimization process, variable tau-p deconvolution and conventional deconvolution before stack (dbs).5 The tau-p deconvolution emerged as the technique of choice following application by interpreters to make composite sections for each well. A 0.5-km [0.31-mile] stack mini-cube was extracted from around each well at key stages in the processing sequence for added quality assurance. This demonstrated that a straightforward approach to demultiple algorithm and parameter selection by integrating surface and borehole seismic data at a very early stage provided condence in the nal 3D data volume for interpretation and inversion.

Reef Steering

Borehole data can also be used later in the processing sequence to enhance surface seismic images and reduce drilling risk. Sonat Exploration integrates its 3D surface seismic data with VSP data to overcome some of the limitations and pitfalls of 3D seismic data while prospecting for very small drilling targetsbetween 20 and 60 acres [9 and 24 hectares]. Borehole and surface seismic data integration allows the company to carry out its nal and most critical step, seismic migration, properly. Migration performed with the appropriate velocity function positions and focuses a reflection

Predictability, %

Predictability, %

42 40 30

59 56

len

tor

Op

Surface A

Surface B

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 dbs tau-p Seismic section

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 dbs tau-p

Match power at Well A

Match power at Well B

sComparing wells. The difference between data type areas is evident in this comparison of wells A (left) and B (right). The blue lines in the lower middle image are the well locations on a panel between the two wells extracted from the 3D seismic volume. The left and right upper images demonstrate the match surface obtained at each well by varying two parametersthe prediction gap and the operator lengthin a particular demultiple technique. The bottom left and right charts illustrate the optimum parameter selection match for two different demultiple techniques. The upper middle image is a composite of four target-oriented statistical attributes generated from the surface seismic data. The two wells are in different data-type areas, which may explain why there is variation in the success of different demultiple techniques at the two locations.

Oileld Review

,m

pe

gap

72

era

ra

60

to

Pre

dic

tion

40 Pred ictio n ga p, m s

rl

28

40

28

en

20

gt

gth

20

h,

20

,m

420 360 300 240 180 120

Well A
s

Well B

45 36

420 360 300 240 180 60 120 72

element correctly in the subsurface to provide a sharper image for steering the drilling into the target. Sonat has accomplished this more than 20 times with extraordinary accuracy on the East Texas Cotton Valley Pinnacle Reef trend, one of North Americas most dynamic onshore plays (right). The Cotton Valley Pinnacle Reef play is a collection of Jurassic carbonate build-ups with known reserves of up to 80 Bcf [2.265 Bm3] natural gas. Most reefs that are drilling targets in the trend have an elliptical shape and steep seaside anks that can fall off sharply. The relatively small lateral footprint a diameter of 600 to 800 ft [183 to 244 m] and depths to 18,000 ft [5486 m] compound the complexity of accurately xing the reef anomaly in space. Vertical sections range from 400 to 1300 ft [122 to 396 m]. Located at the transition from Bossier shale to Cotton Valley limestone in Bossier sands, the trend is characterized by a hostile environment, with high temperatures at the target depth ranging from 375 to 400F [190.5 to 204.4C]. There is a pressure gradient of 0.8 to 0.9 psi/ft, so bottomhole pressures are about 18,000 to 20,000 psi [124,105 to 137,888 kPa]. In addition, there are sour gas and carbon dioxide contents that affect drilling and logging tools. With such high risks, completion costs per well range between $5 million and $7.2 million, but the rewards are signicant; some wells have tested 35 MMcf/D [991 MMm3/d] gas, and some have sustained their initial production of 5 to 10 MMcf/D [141,580 to 283,169 m3/d] gas for over a year. Sonat attributes its success in the play to the advent of affordable 3D seismic acquisition and its technical growth since the area rst was explored. Before 1995, more than 800 wells were drilled in the Cotton Valley Pinnacle Reef trend based on 2D data, but with poor results most of the time. The play took off signicantly in 1995, when 3D seismology became a major tool in onshore

Louisiana

Dallas Tyler Northern play

Longview Kilgore

Eastern play

Southern play 0 0 mi km 30 48 Texas Outboard play

sThe Cotton Valley Pinnacle Reef play. The orange areas indicate a widespread onshore gas play stretching across eight counties of East Texas. Areas with known reefs are shown in blue.

exploration.6 There are still limitations, such as having to operate with wavelengths on the order of 400 ft [122 m], but it is possible to obtain between 150- to 250-ft [46- to 76-m] vertical resolution with surface seismic data. It is also a challenge to identify small reefs whose seismic expressions span only six seismic traces. Another limitation is to rely solely on surface-based measurements for the analysis of surface seismic data-processing parameters. A critical step in obtaining a reliable image of subsurface reectors is creating the correct velocity model of the subsurface itself.

This can be derived from surface seismic data to some degree, but only borehole surveys can extract seismic velocities of geologic formations. It is here that Sonat made a breakthrough by integrating borehole seismic and surface seismic data. The borehole seismic process measures the true velocities of the subsurface instead of attempting to derive them from measurements on the surface. In addition, a measurement of the seismic waveeld at depth is obtained, and thus a much broader calibration toolkit is available for properly processing surface seismic data. The VSP recordings
5. Tau-p is the name given to a coordinate space into which seismic data are transformed for processing. Tau has units of time and p has units of inverse velocity. Deconvolution is an inverse ltering process to restore a wavelet to its original form. 6. Shirley K: 3-D Still Sparks Cotton Valley Play, AAPG Explorer 19, no. 9 (September 1998): 32-35.

Autumn 1998

s Less uncertainty with a VSP. Surface seismic waves, with their lower frequencies and greater distance between reector and receiver, can see objects only if they are big enough. Small features, such as reefs, fall in a zone of uncertainty (top). VSPs have shorter wavelengths and shorter reectorreceiver distance, and smaller zones of uncertainty (bottom).

Potential well location Surface seismic line

Zone of uncertainty Reef

Drilling rig

Wellbore Zone of uncertainty reduced Reef

sReefs or something else? Reef-like structures on surface seismic images can turn out to be processing artifacts. What appears to be a reef before integrating VSP information (top) is exposed as a fault (red) after applying the correct velocities measured by the VSP (bottom). As a result of a lookahead VSP survey, the drill bit could be steered away from the fault into the nearby reef to make a successful well on the rst attempt.

270

260

250

240

230

220

210

200

8800 ft

250

240

230

220

210

200

usually contain higher frequencies and provide a higher resolution image of subsurface features (left). Furthermore, a borehole seismic survey using the offset VSP congurations creates additional and calibrated images of the subsurface around the well and even ahead of the drill bit. Today, the most signicant advances are made when all the borehole seismic informationvelocity, amplitude, phase and polarizationis used to quality control and improve the surface seismic processing. The borehole survey also provides a preferred recording environment, with less noise related to trafc or weather. In the openhole conditions of the Cotton Valley, the dual CSI Combinable Seismic Imager tool with 60-ft [18-m] spacers is used for most surveys. Flasked SAT Seismic Acquisition Tool instruments are used for the hotter holes. Data are recorded from up to four offset locations per trip in the hole, with offsets ranging from 3000 to 8000 ft [914 to 2438 m] away from the wellbore. Surveys range in size from 3 to 14 offsets with up to 10 vibrator trucks per VSP job. Before the use of borehole seismic techniques, the overall success rate for new wells was about 45% in the reef play. Today, Sonat Exploration is the only operator in the trend that runs borehole seismic surveys before reaching the target depth on all of the wells it drills, and it has had an unparalleled success rate of 90% in the play, with failures occurring when structures looked like reefs but, in fact, were not. The breakthrough has come from using the borehole survey not only as a diagnostic calibration toolimaging after the hole is drilledbut from exploiting its predictive features to look ahead and around the drill bit in near real time as well. To increase its success rate as well as reduce exploration risk, Sonat employs two approaches in the use of borehole seismic information.7 First, a zero-offset VSP is run with the source in the vicinity of the rig, and velocities and seismic waves are recorded in the wellbore. This calibrated velocity information is used as the main input for migrating surface seismic data. A small subvolume of the 3D data around the wellbore is remigrated to update the drilling target location. This operation, usually applied to poststack data, can be conducted within a short turnaround time to facilitate drilling decisions. In one case, by applying this technique Sonat was able to avoid drilling a nonreef structure that turned out to be a fault (left). In this example, artifacts caused by incorrect migration velocities created a seismic anomaly that looked like a reef. After remigration and offset VSP interpretation, the drill

6600 ft

575 ms

575 ms

10

Oileld Review

Cook #2

Shale

Haynesville reflector

Limestone Surface seismic Salt VSP

8700 ft

1.4 s

8700 ft

sSurface seismic image before and after VSP integration to image a reef. The surface seismic image (left) shows a hint of a reef as a disruption of the regional limestone reector. With the VSP image inserted, the disruption of the regional reector is clearer, delineating the extent of the reef (right). The well trajectory is indicated by the vertical line.

bit could be steered a couple of hundred feet away to intersect a reef and make a successful well. This example emphasizes that the critical seismic processing step of migration has to perform the task of not only properly positioning reections of the subsurface, but also focusing structure, particularly around abrupt changes like faults. The second reef-nding approach Sonat employs, developed since June 1996, applies the look-around and look-ahead capability of borehole surveys. In employing it, the drilling operation is temporarily suspended at a certain depth above the target to map the actual position of the reef in 3D with a sequence of offset VSPs distributed radially around the wellbore. These additional VSP data are then integrated with the surface seismic data using IESX seismic interpretation software and GeoViz 3D interpretation and geovisualization software. The new interpretation is used for a nal update of the drilling direction and to steer the subsequent drilling down to the reef target (above). The technique has been termed RSVP, for reef steering by vertical seismic proling, a real-time survey while drilling that requires only one to two days downtime for the VSP acquisition. Drillers are nding it worth their while to be idle for the additional two days it takes to complete the processing and interpretation while geoscience colleagues update the subsurface model and provide new coordinates for optimum reef intersection. This additional time, however, has been used to acquire other wireline logs at this intermediate depth. Sonats experience has shown that the best production resulted from wells that penetrate the reef near the core. The offset VSPs help locate the center of these features by imaging the limits of the regional limestone that surrounds them (right).

VSP arm 2

Cook 2 Original hole VSP arm 1

Sidetrack

Reef fringe

Cook 2

Reef core

VSP arm 3

VSP interpretation

New production well Cook 3

Surface location

VSP arm 4 m ft 122 400

0 0

sMultiple interpretations of the Cook eld reef in the Cotton Valley Pinnacle Reef play. The original well, Cook 2, was drilled to a nonpay zone on the fringe of the reef, then sidetracked east into a dry hole. Four VSPs (arms 1, 2, 3 and 4) were shot to illuminate the reef by imaging the extent of the regional limestone reector that is disrupted by the presence of the reef. The segments of the limestone reector imaged by the VSPs are shown as green lines. The absence of a green line means the presence of a reef, indicated by the dashed purple circle. Following this interpretation, Well Cook 3 was drilled into the center of the reef and is now producing, at a distance of only 400 feet from the abandoned Cook 2. The blue elongated feature with a pink core is the new interpretation of the reef shape based on surface seismic data remigrated with VSP velocities.
7. Meyer J and Tittle W: Exploration Risk Reduction Using Borehole Seismic: East Texas Pinnacle Reef Applications, paper BH 4.3, presented at the 68th Annual International Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 13-18, 1998.

Autumn 1998

11

1.4 s

Pinnacle reef

For those unwilling to hold up drilling, a third techniquethe reef recovery method applies when the drilling target has been missed. In this remedy, wireline logs are run and a borehole seismic survey is performed to recover the reef location. Typically, an FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager log is acquired to get the drape pattern and the orientation of the carbonate buildup, then an offset VSP survey is shot along this selected direction to locate the actual position of the reef and steer the drillstring into the carbonate buildup.
More Than Velocities

As discussed in the Sonat example, velocities measured directly in borehole seismic surveys can be used to ne-tune surface seismic processing. But borehole surveys can provide more than just interval velocity. With the proper geometry, VSPs can also measure amplitude variation with offset (AVO), attenuation, and velocity anisotropy, all of which can be used to correct surface seismic data for better results. The next example demonstrates how TOTAL Thailand, a subsidiary of

Frances TOTAL S.A., now plans its stratigraphic targets in the Bongkot eld in the Gulf of Thailand by analyzing boreholeguided, long-offset AVO effects. The Bongkot eld is situated in the North Malay basin, Gulf of Thailand, 800 km [497 miles] south of Bangkok. One of the largest and most prolic in the region, the eld has been in production since 1993. TOTAL Thailand was the operator of the Bongkot Joint Venture until July 1, 1998, when operatorship was handed over to the Thai state oil company, Petroleum Authority of Thailand Exploration and Production PLC (PTTEP), which holds 40% interest. TOTAL holds 30%, BG, 20% and Den Norske Stats Olijeselskap (Statoil), the remaining 10%. Prior to relinquishing operatorship, TOTAL undertook a new development phase on Bongkot that has increased the gas production to 550 MMcf/D [16 MM m3/d], liquid production to 12,000 BOPD [1430 m3/d] and maintained reinjection of all produced water to reduce the environmental impact of the operations. Beyond this stage, another level of development is expected to provide further

Fault at target depth

Shot points

Receivers

production increases of an additional 250 MMcf/D [7 MM m3/d] gas and 8000 BOPD [954 m3/d] of petroleum liquids. Bongkots hydrocarbons are distributed over a 2000-m [6562-ft] gross pay zone (1000- to 3000-m [3281- to 9843-ft] depth) of Miocene age. Around 70 separate uviodeltaic sand reservoirs 1 to 25 m [3 to 82 ft] thick can be encountered in a single fault block. As a result, the critical factors are reservoir size, orientation and quality. Until recently, Bongkot development drilling was focused on drilling wells in structurally closed, tilted fault blocks or fourway dip closures, with multiple stacked targets. Field development is maturing, however, with higher risk stratigraphic traps located outside closure being drilled. These wells target only a few reservoirs and often require expensive extended-reach wells. TOTAL had been using a 3D lithology probability cube it had generated through a poststack migrated 3D volume inverted for acoustic impedance, combined with other attributes calibrated to logs. Although these cubes were very helpful, they nevertheless predicted sand in some situations where drilling encountered organic-rich shales and coals. Typically, predictions for gas were between 70 and 75% successful, acceptable for the traditional multitarget prospects, but not for wells drilled to just a few stratigraphic targets. Almost all seismic attributes that could be derived from poststack data were investigated without solving the problem of organic shales and coals, thus it was necessary to go to the prestack domain to move forward. Plans were made to achieve good prestack data suitable for AVO analysis. AVO has been widely used to identify reservoir sands because it allows recovery of a seismic attribute related to Poissons ratio contrasts, which can be related to lithology contrasts. Four deviated wells were drilled in November and December 1996. In two of these wells, DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager logging for both compressional and shear wave velocity was carried out to perform synthetic modeling of the expected AVO response. Furthermore, vertical-incidence or

8 km

sBongkot VSP surveys. The borehole seismic shot points (red) and receiver locations (blue) in the Bongkot eld are diagrammed here. Two walk-above (vertical-incidence) VSPs and 33 multi-offset, walkaway VSPs were acquired.

12

Oileld Review

walk-above VSPs were acquired in the same two wells, and some 33 multi-offset VSP walkaway surveys were conducted in three of the four wells. Because VSP data were being acquired while subsequent wells were being drilled, a substantial borehole seismic data set was acquired at no effective rigtime cost to TOTAL. In all, two sets of seven lines were obtained for AVO measurement (previous page). The AVO walkaways were acquired, in part, to measure AVO effects directly on top of a channel with two different lithology llsa sand and an organic-rich shaleto verify the modeling and to get an idea of offsets needed to expose the AVO effects with greater clarity. The modeling conrmed that lithology could be differentiated, demonstrating that the gas sands showed a positive AVO effect while the organic shale showed dimming with offset (right). For the rst time, a method had been found, modeled and borehole-measured that could discriminate target Bongkot lithologies that all appear as high amplitudes in stacked surface seismic sections. Modeling and multi-offset VSP measurements indicated that AVO could be used to distinguish the organic shale-lled channels from channel gas sands, but only at relatively large offsetslarger than those used in conventional processing and corresponding to incidence angles well in excess of 30 degrees. The seismic data had been acquired with sufciently long offsets, so TOTAL agreed to a proposal to reprocess the surface seismic data in which maximum use would be made of the borehole data. Over a period of months, a borehole-guided, long-offset processing sequence was developed that enabled reection amplitude variations out to 60 degrees to be recovered, dramatically improving the effectiveness of seismic lithology classication (right). As a consequence, where once about 30% of the predicted stratigraphic reservoir targets in Bongkot were being misidentied, long offset AVO is now being used to plan well trajectories, avoiding false targets and hitting gas sands with an increased drilling success ratio.8
8. Leaney S and Hope R: Borehole-Guided Long Offset AVO Processing for Improved Lithology Classication, paper AVO 3.2, presented at the 68th Annual International Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 13-18, 1998.

Vp/Vs 15 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 50

Ac. Imp. 75 100

1000

2000

3000 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55

Organic shale Time, s 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 10 1.8 1.85 15 50 75 100 0 0 1000 2000 3000 offset, m 3300 25 40 1.8 1.85 Gas sands 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75

sRay-trace AVO synthetic, or modeled, traces. The rst track shows Vp /Vs ratio measured from sonic logs, the second track, acoustic impedance. The synthetic traces (center)a normal-moveout corrected common-midpoint (CMP) gathershow different amplitude variations with offset for different lithologies. Signicant AVO is seen only beyond 30 degrees. Superimposed are contours of equal incidence angle. At the right are three AVO attribute traces of gradient, intercept and product which characterize the AVO behavior. The right-most track is the trace obtained by stacking, or averaging, all synthetic traces out to 33 (the trace is repeated ve times for visibility). Stacking, a step in conventional processing, obliterates AVO signatures. The horizontal scale on the synthetic traces is offset in meters.

1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 Time, s 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85

Density Vp/Vs 1 2 2

Ac. Imp. 5 10 0

250

500

750

1000

1.4 1.45 1.5

Organic shale Organic shale

Dimming Dimming Brightening

1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7

Brightening

Gas sands Gas sands

1.75 1.8 1.85

10

0 0

250

500 offset, m

750

1000 1000

Processed AVO Walkaway Data

sVSP AVO measurement. Properly designed multi-offset VSPs can provide actual measurement of the angle- or offset-dependent AVO response of an interface. The wavelet is measured just above the reservoir so propagation losses that affect AVO can be measured and removed through processing. In this measurement of the processed AVO walkaway reections at Bongkot, true relative amplitude data are shown. To correspond with the offset of the surface seismic CMP, these offsets must be approximately doubled. The organic shale event can be distinguished as dimming with offset, while some deeper sand events show noted brightening.

Autumn 1998

13

s Offset-dependent amplitude losses measured with a multi-offset VSP (MVSP). The combined effects of geometrical spreading and frequency-dependent attenuation at long offsets are almost twice that assumed in conventional seismic processing (t-squared). The horizontal axis is CMP offset-to-depth ratio for a reector at 1.5 s two-way time.

3.5

MVSP-calibrated Conventional processing

3.5

3.0

3.0

2.5 Gain

2.0

Spreading x Q Spreading (ray theory) T-squared Q (135 @ 26 Hz)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.5

1.0

1 Offset, X/Z

1.0

Data minus hyperbolic fit Anisotropic fit minus hyperbolic fit

10 ms

Data Anisotropic fit Hyperbolic fit

1.3

X/Z Walkaway times

1.3 Times minus hyperbolic fit

-10 ms

sEffective anisotropy measured from multi-offset VSP traveltimes. Conventional processing assumes a hyperbolic t to moveout times, but the data do not t this assumption (left). The residuals show a higher order variation that can be t with an anisotropic model (right).

Offset, m
3000 2900 2800 2700 1.0 3000

Offset, m
2900 2800 2700

An important factor in the success of the long-offset AVO approach was making use of borehole-derived parameters in the surface seismic data processing. Parameters describing frequency-dependent attenuation and anisotropy were measured from the multioffset VSP data using novel algorithms, and the derived parameters were then used in the surface seismic processing sequence.9 This allowed long offset reection amplitude data to be retained, information discarded in conventional AVO processing. For example, inverting the multi-offset VSP direct arrivals for offset-dependent attenuation allowed the long-offset surface data to be compensated to true amplitude (above left). Estimating effective anisotropy allowed events on common-midpoint (CMP) gathers to be attened at long offsets (left). This step improved migration focusing (below left). The impact of borehole-guided, long-offset processing was that it revealed lithology differences in the AVO response between 30 and 60 degrees incidence angle (next page, top). TOTALs nancial risk is reduced appreciably by this integrated approach to AVO. Before selecting a stratigraphic target, seismic data are processed to take advantage of the longer offsets. The AVO responses of all potential bright spot targets within the radius of a well are examined and the trajectory is optimized. Money was saved by deciding to terminate a well above a target where AVO predicted an organic shale and by hitting a large gas reservoir based on its positive long-offset AVO response. Further work is being done to see if lateral variations within the same sand may suggest variation in uid content. Overall, TOTAL says the impact of this new technology has been impressive. It helps them to decide between two anomalies or channel shapes that look the same. One could result in $1 or 2 million in drilling costs for absolutely nothing; the other may hold the potential of millions of dollars in revenue (next page, bottom).
9. Anisotropy is the variation in a physical property depending on the direction in which it is measured. For a discussion of the role of anisotropy in identifying stratigraphic traps: Caldwell J, Chowdhury A, van Bemmel P, Engelmark F, Neidell N and Sonneland L: Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps, Oileld Review 9, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 48-61. 10. Chapman C, Farmer P, Fryer A, Paul A and Sandvin O: 3D Tomographic Inversion and Depth Migration of VSP Data, paper ST15.2, presented at the 67th Annual International Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Dallas, Texas, USA, November 2-7, 1997.

1.5

2.0

Isotropic

Time, s

Borehole-calibrated anisotropic

sThe impact of anisotropy on imaging. Prestack time migration stacked sections use an isotropic model (left) and a borehole-calibrated anisotropic model (right). The organic shale-lled channel event at 1.5 s is better focused using anisotropic migration.

14

Oileld Review

The Future

The integration techniques discussed here are a small sample of the potential ways that borehole seismic data can enhance the value of surface seismic data and reduce drilling risk. Methods that are still being developed include converted wave applications and anisotropic depth imaging. Converted waves in VSP datawaves that begin as compressional or shear waves and convert to the other upon reectioncontain a wealth of information. They are valuable for selection of surface survey acquisition parameters, for

deterministic processing parameter selection, and in the analysis and interpretation of the processed data. It is hoped that converted wave interpretation can reveal the complete uid and lithology content of the subsurfacepart of the impetus behind new multicomponent seaoor sensors for marine seismic acquisition. Converted waves are vital for studying the feasibility of these multicomponent seabed surveys. As this methodology improves, borehole seismic integration will evolve as well. VSPs will be instrumental in establishing where the mode conversion is

1.10 30 60

1.20 1.30

Gas sand 1.40 Time, s

1.50

Organic shale

1.60 Gas sand 1.70

1.80 1.90 Offset, m 0 3300

sBorehole-guided, long-offset AVO processing for three potential drilling targets. Signicant amplitude variation is seen only beyond 30 degrees.

taking place and in discriminating between simple compressional-to-shear (P-S) reections and more complicated P-S-S modes, which can be very signicant in amplitude. Anisotropic depth imaging, likewise, is still in development. Anisotropic seismic migration can dramatically improve the quality and positional accuracy of a seismic image. Estimating the model anisotropy parameters required for optimum imaging is difcult from surface data alone, however, and for anisotropic depth imaging, determining the required anisotropy parameters is impossible without borehole information. Calibrating an anisotropic 3D velocity model with VSP traveltimes is therefore essential if depth migrations are to be on depth. Development of anisotropic prestack depth migration, utilizing an anisotropic ray tracer, is now in development at the Schlumberger Cambridge Research Center, Schlumberger Kabushki Kaisha (SKK) and Geco-Prakla.10 The examples presented in this article are but the beginning of a major technological movement anticipated during the next decade in integration of borehole and surface seismic data. Other advances that will contribute to successful integration are now on the wish lists and in many cases the drawing boards of geoscientists: simultaneous surface and borehole acquisition, continuous updating via seabed sensors and drill-bit sources, targeting of sweet spots by generating attributes in real time, immediate drilling of further wells after the rst success, permanent sensors, passive event monitoring, quantifying uncertainty, more exible acquisition geometries via seaoor cables, and integration of VSP and surface seismic data with other borehole information. DG, LS

1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70

Organic shale Gas sand

Time, s

1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30

Well deviated to hit false target, additional cost greater than $300,000

Final target missed, but drilled from an adjacent platform paying for the well five times over

1 km

sThe benets of seismic integration. A well was deviated to hit a false organic shale target, adding an estimated $300,000 in cost. The deeper target was missed with this well but was drilled based on long-offset AVO and will pay for itself about ve times over.

Autumn 1998

15