Science Class Sixth: S.

No 1 Earth 2 Evaporation 3 Water Cycle

Topics

Description Spherical in Shape. The Process of Conversion of Water into Water vapour . Process of circulation of water to water vapour then clouds and again rain is called water cycle Plants use carbon-di-oxide present in the air and sunlight in preparing their food. Galileo Galeli The particles in a solid are packed very closely to each other and are held together by strong attractive forces. The particles in a liquid are not very close to each other.

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Plants Principle of pendulum Solid

Liquid

Gas

The fundamental particles in a gas are held together by weak forces of attraction. Sugar-Solute Water Solvent Sugar +Water = Sugar Solution Alcohol is Completely soluble in Water. Oil is insoluble in Water. Consists of dissolved Carbon-di-oxide. Insoluble in Water. Insoluble in Water and Soluble in Kerosene. The transformation of a solid matter into liquid when heated is called melting. Certain solids when heated, are converted to vapour state without passing through the liquid state. This is called sublimation. Naphthalene, Benzoic Acid, Iodine and Ammonium Chloride. The change of state from vapour into liquid by cooling is called condensation. The transformation of a liquid into solid due to cooling is called freezing.

Solubility

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Alcohol Oil Soda Water Hydrogen and Nitrogen Paints Melting Sublimation

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Condensation Freezing

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Mercury[Thermometers] Metals Opaque Materials Opaque and Transparent

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Water Sedimentation Decantation

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Crystal Boiling point

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Melting point or Freezing Point Rusting (Chemical Change)

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Carbon di Oxide Combustion of Fuels. [Plant more trees]. Fermentation Process [Chemical Change] Exothermic Changes

Good Conductor of heat. Good conductors of electricity. Paper, Metal Sheet, Wall and Wood. Light cannot pass through them. The materials which allow the light to pass through them are called as transparent and those which do not allow the light are called as opaque. Boiling Point 100 deg Cel. Freezing Point 0 deg Cel. Density 1g/cc. The process of settling down of insoluble particles in a suspension is called sedimentation. The process of transferring the clear liquid standing above the sediment carefully into another container using a glass rod is called decantation. Copper Sulphate. Boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temp. at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure. Melting point and freezing point of a substance are one and the same. When an iron lock is exposed to moist air for several days, the iron on its surface is converted into Iron oxide (rust). Carbon-di-oxide reflects the radiation from the Earth and increases the temperature of the Earth.

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Endothermic Changes

Energy is released in the form of heat. Burning of fuels like Diesel, petrol , wood etc,. Lighting of Match Stick. Energy is absorbed in the form of heat. Melting of ice. Evaporation of Sea water.

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Speed(m/s) Velocity(m/s) Force (N) Pressure (N/m2 or Pascal) Solar Cells Unit = Newton

Solar cells convert light energy into electricity.

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Power

Solar cells are used in satellites and space station to produce electricity. Coal Thermal, Water Hydro, Uranium Atom Nuclear Power. Hydro Electric Power - Mettur and Papanasam. Thermal Power Station Neyveli and Tuticorin. Windmill Aralvaimozhi. Atomic Power Station Kalpakkam . Koodangulam Under Construction.

Class Seven:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Fresh Water Only 3% of the water in the earth is fresh. 2 Steam 537 cal/g Has highest latent heat of vapourisation. 3 Ice 79.7 cal/g Has highest latent heat of fusion. Water is a Universal Solvent.

Biogas Plants

Seawater

Cow dung is converted into biogas. Cooking and Illumination purposes. Slurry Rich Manure. Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium.

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Elements Radio active elements 30 Atom [ Protons, Electrons, Neutrons PEN]

Building Blocks of materials. Emits harmful radiations. Smallest unit of an element.

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Diatomic Molecule Triatomic Molecule Polyatomic Molecule Compounds

Hydrogen(H2), Oxygen(O2), Chlorine(Cl2) Ozone Molecule(O3) contains three molecules of oxygen. Sulphur molecule(S8) Contains 8 molecules of sulphur atom. Carbon di oxide Carbon and Oxygen Water Hydrogen and Oxygen. Haemoglobin Compound of Iron.

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Chlorophyll Calcium Phosphate Sodium Chloride Dyes NPK[Fertilizer]

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Cooking gas

Compound of Magnesium. Present in Bones and Teeth. Compound of Calcium. Used for the preparation of Hydrochloric Acid. Useful as chemical in Chemical industries. Colouring the threads, fabric, Wood etc., Contains Ammonium Nitrate, Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Phosphate and Potassium Chloride. Butane and Pentane.

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Acid

Acid is a substance which gives hydrogen ions when dissolved in Water (or) Acid is a substance which contains replaceable hydrogen ions.(H+)

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Soda Water Litmus Paper Alkalies [Skin Irritation and Burns]

Contains Carbonic Acid. Acid turns litmus paper into Red Colour. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalies.

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Chalk Piece Potash Alum Sodium Benzoate

Calcium Carbonate. Purification of Water. Food Preservative.

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Siver Nitrate Bordeaux Mixture Plaster of Paris[ Hydrated Calcium Sulphate] Epsom Salt Smelling Salt Photography Fire Works Gun Powder Potash Alum Match Industry Dying and Printing Industry Electro Plating Heat

Hair Dyes. Copper Sulphate + Lime. Surgical Bandage. Laxative by Patients suffering from constipation. Relieve from cold. Silver Nitrate, Silver Bromide, Sodium Thiosulphate(Hypo) are used in photography. Potassium Nitrate. Sodium Nitrate. Tanning of leather, Sizing Paper and used as a mordant. Potassium Chlorate. Copper Sulphate. It is measured in terms of Calories or Joules.

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Fuels

Materials which produce heat when burnt are called fuels.

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Thermometer [Contains Mercury Thermal Expansion] Temparature Heat

It is a device used to measure the warmth of the body. Temparature is measured in degree Celsius and S.I unit is Kelvin. It is the internal energy of the substance. By adding

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Thermal Expansion [Solid, Liquid, and Gas Expands] Bi-metal Strips

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Anamalous expansion of water Human body Normal temperature Milk Boil Refrigerator Food Storage Polar regions Volatile liquids Calorie and Joule Water Coolant used in Car radiators,Industries, factories and thermal power stations,Steel mills. Transfer of hear Radiation

or removing the temperature of the substance is increased are reduced. Expansion of an object due to heat is called thermal expansion. Used to control temperature in Iron Box, Electric Stove, Refrigerator and Geyser. Aquatic animals in the frozen ponds survive in severe winter. 98.6 deg farenheit / 37 deg Celsius. To kill harmful bacteria. Due to cold conditions germs cannot multiply. Plant Lichens. Animals- Plar beer, Rein deer, Polar pig. Spirit, Ether, Alcohol, Diesel, Petrol and kerosene. 1 Calorie 4.2 Joule 1000 4200 Joule. It absorbs the heat produced by automobile engines, but by itself will not rise to high temperature. Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. It does not require any medium. Earth receives heat from the sun by radiation. White or light coloured cloth Absorb less heat Used in summer. Black or Dark coloured cloth Absorb more heat Used in winter. Cooking Utensils Base Black Coating Absorb more heat. Tankers- Painted white To reflect the suns radiation. Solids which allow the heat to pass through.

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Conductors Iron, Copper, Aluminium, Mercury and Silver. Insulators [Wood, Glass, Rubber, Leather, Plastic, Mica, Stone, Marble and Thermocole.] Thermos Flask Light Velocity of Light [ Air or Vaccum] Reflection of Light

Materilas which do not allow the heat to pass through. It prevents Conduction, Convection and Radiation. Travels in a straight line. 3*10Power8 / 3,00,000 Km/S. When a beam of light falls on a Plane mirror, it is sent back into the medium from where it came and it is called reflection of light. Periscopes Kaleidoscope. Homes and Shops. Only forms a virtual image. Drivers mirror in

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Plane mirrors Convex Mirror

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Sound Producing the sound

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Frequency [No.of vibrations produced in One sec. by vibrating body] Amplitude(metre m) Audible frequency Range- Human ear Sounds

vehicles. Sound is produced by vibrations Caused by an object. Plucking Guitar, Tambura etc., Blowing Flute, Nadaswaram etc., Striking Drums, Tabala, Thavil etc., Bowing Violin Unit of frequency Hertz. Maximum displacement of the vibrating body. 20 HZ to 20000 HZ. Babys Cry 3000HZ 4000HZ Below 20HZ Infrasonics Earthquake Above 20000 HZ Ultrasonics Bats and Dogs Bats Above 70000HZ. Voice box or Larnyx helps to speak. It consists of two elastic membranes called vocal cords.(VC) Boys VC are large and produce low-pitched sound. Girls VC are small and high-pitched sound. Sound needs a medium to travel.Sound Cannot travel in Vaccum. Sound Waves are longitudinal in nature.

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Speak Humans

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Sound To travel [You cannot hear sound on the moon. No medium is present] Sound Waves

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Velocity of Sound(m/s) [Vel of Sound is larger in solids and liquids than in gases] Sound is also reflected. SONAR Principle Reflection of sound Waves.

Distance travelled by the sound waves in one second. Air = 340m/s. Plane Surface Angle of Incidence(i) is equal to angle of reflection.(r) Sound Navigation and Ranging. Measure the depth of the sea.

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Bats and Whales. Able to detect not only the direction but also the exact location of the obstacles in their path. Ships Siren - Icebergs Lightening and Thunder Lightening

See Lightening first and Hear Thunder later. Atmospheric air is continuously ionized by the ultraviolet rays from the sun and the cosmic rays. When the water droplets of the cloud falls in this electric field region, they get charged. Heavier droplets neg. Charge Base of the cloud. Lighter droplets Pos. charge Top of the cloud. A discharge takes place between the charged [75%- Electrical energy is used for heating surfaces of the same cloud or between the clouds up the atmospheric gases in and around the when they pass one over the other. The flash flash]. produced by the discharge is called the Thunder Lightening. 76 Music The waves are periodic and Spaced out in an orderly manner. 77 Noise Non periodic and unpleasant to hear. 78 Electrostatics Study of electric charges at rest is called electrostatics. 79 Conductors Allows charges to pass through. Metals, Human body, Graphite, Charcoal etc, 80 Insulators Does not allow charges to pass through. Mica, Plastic, Ebonite, glass etc., 81 Atom Protons Positive Charge [No of Protons = No. of Electrons / Atom Electrons Negative Charge as whole neutral in nature]. Neutron Neutral Charges. 82 Force Two like charges Repulsive. Two unlike charges Attractive. 83 Polythene rubbed on wool Charging by friction 84 Lightening Rods Protect high rise buildings from the lightening strokes. 85 Electroscope Detect the presence , nature and quantity of electric charge. 86 Charges Charges escapes readily from sharp edges. ---- ----------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------Class Eight: 1 Earth The axis of rotation of earth with respect orbital plane inclined about 23.5 degree. 2 ISRO - Bangalore Indian space research organization was setup at 1969. INSAT Indian national satellite. IRS Indian Remote Sensing Satellite.

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SHAR METSAT Hydrostatics Thrust and Pressure [The pressure of liquid increases with the depth]. [Liquid having more density exerts more pressure.] Barometer [ Aneroid / Fortins] [Torcelli 1st measured the at.p] Manometer Archimedis Principle

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PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. GSLV Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle. Sathish Dawan Space Center Sriharikota. Andhrapradesh. Weather Monitoring. Equilibrium of fluids. The force that is acting perpendicular to the entire area. Unit of thrust Newton. Thrust acting normally on unit area. Unit of Pressure Nm-2 Used to measure the atmospheric Pressure. Used to measure the pressure of liquid or gas Contained in a vessel. Principle used in Submarines.

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Flotation

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Plimsoll Lines Historical sailor Captain Plimsoll. Hydrometer Layers of Atmosphere:

1.The weight of the floating body is equal to the weight of the water displaced. 2.The centre of gravity of the floating body and the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid[Centre of buyoyancy] lie in the same vertical line. Lines that are marked on the sides of the ship to ensure the stability and safety of the ship. To determine the specific gravity of the liquid and hence its density.

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Temparature Presence of Co2 in air. Fractional distillation Carbon-di- oxide. [Green House Effect Avg. temp. of earth increases Global Warming.] Carbon mono oxide Burning of camphor Fermentation

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1 Km increase in height 6 deg Celsius fall in temp. Carbondi oxide turns lime water milky. It is the technique used for the separation of the different gases of air. Co2 in the atmosphere absorbs infrared radiations reflected from the surface of the earth and heats up the atmosphere. Poisonous gas. Produces carbon di oxide and water vapour Milk turns into curd by the action of enzymes.

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Acidity Problem Stomach [Neutralization.] Oxidation reactions Oxidation: Removal of hydrogen Reduction: Removal of oxygen Atoms

Tablets consisting Magnesium Hydroxide are used for this purpose. Rusting of Irons. Burning of Sulphur. Protons + Electrons (negligible) Neutrons. Nucleus [Protons + Neutrons ]. total mass of proton. 1/12th of mass of one carbon atom. Theory of atoms. Based on scientific principles. Discovered electron. The number of electrons or protons are called atomic number. Sum of the number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom. Have same atomic number but different mass number. Protium no neutron. Deuterium 1 neutron. Tritium 2 neutron. Atoms combine to form molecules. Gold, Silver, copper, iron etc., Gold Available in free state. Mercury It is a metal. It is in liquid state. Solid state Carbon, Sulphur, and Phosphorous. Bromine liquid. Hydrogen, Oxygen and Helium are gases. Hardest known substance. Thin Sheets. Metals aremalleable. Property due to which a metal can be drawn in to wire is called the ductility. Good conductor of electricity. Making electrical appliances. Used to produce alloys like bronze and brass. Aluminium foils,paint, utensils and electric cables. Duralumin and magnalumin. Zinc is used to protect iron from rusting. Storage batteries. Important for bones and teeths of animals.Plant nutrients. Valcanisation of rubber. Transistors. Silicobronze Telephone wires.

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1 atomic mass unit John Dalton J.J.Thompson Atomic Number Mass Number Isotopes Isotopes of Hydrogen

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Molecules Metals Form of Compounds Hard, Lustrous, good con heat and el. Non metals Available in 3 forms. Brittle, Non lus, Poor con heat and el. Diamond(Non metal Carbon) Malleability Ductility Graphite(Non Metal) Copper Aluminium Rusting Lead Phosphorous Sulphur Silicon

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Noble metals

Gold and platinum are unaffected by air,water, acids and alkalies.

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Gold [ 91.6% = 916]

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Galvanisation Electroplating

24 carat gold is pure gold. 22 carat gold is called ornamental gold. (22 Parts of gold + 2 parts wt. of copper) Zinc coating on iron objects. Giving thin coating of one metal on the other metal object using electricity is called electroplating.

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Sodium and Potassium Soft metals Carbon Charcoal

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Allotrophs Crystalline form and amorphous form Graphite

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Diamond

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Dry Ice Solid Carbon Carbondi oxide

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Methane Natural gas 80 % Methane. Coal gas 30 % Methane

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Mechanics

Easily cut by knife. Coal, petroleum, Marble and lime stone contains carbon. Crystalline form - Graphite and Diamond. Amorphous form Coal , charcoal and lampblack. Have different physical properties and different chemical properties. Pencil lead Lubricant in fast moving machinery. Electrode in batteries. Neutron absorber in nuclear reactor. Pigment in paints. Used for cutting glass, sawing marbles and drilling rocks. Jewellery. High precision thermometers. Does not melt. Directly changes into gas co2. Fire extinguisher. Aerated soft drinks. Manufacture of washing soda(Sodium carbonate) and baking soda(sodium bicarbonate) Dry ice Refrigerant Liquid co2 Sugar Industry. Marsh gas. Used as fuel.(Blue flame). Making carbon black. Preparation of organic compounds like formaldehyde, chloroform, and methyl alcohol. Dynamics Study of motion of bodies.

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Statics Study of bodies at rest. Thanjavur doll The centre of gravity is low and the vertical line drawn from the centre of gravity always falls within the base even when it is tilted. Pisa tower in Italy. Racing car. Boat Persons in the boat are not allowed to stand. Stability becomes less. Inclined Plane Staircases, Over bridges and ghat roads are based on the principle of inclined plane. Friction Able to walk and run on the floor. Tyres of motorcycles grooves increase friction between tyres and roads. Streamlining When a train, car or an aeroplane moves fast through the atmospheric air, friction is produced.The front portion of ships and submarines are suitably designed to reduce friction offered by the fluid. Light Part of electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can detect is called the visible light. Refraction of light Velocity of light is Refraction is the bending of a light ray as it passes diff. in diff media. from one medium to another medium. Refraction: The objects in water appear to be at lower depth due to refraction.

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Velocity of light

Vel. of light is great in rarer medium like air and will be less in a denser medium like glass.

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Twinkling stars Spectrum Dispersion of light

Refraction of starlight through the earths atmosphere causes twinkling stars. The coloured patch of light produced by passing a beam of white light through a prism is called a spectrum. VIBGYOR Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.

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Convex lens Concave lens Sun - Convex

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Glass bottles Convex Convex lens Compound Microscope 2 Convex lenses Telescope

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Camera Eye balls Focal length 2.5cm.

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Defects of Eye

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Eyes of animal sparkle in the night.

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Optic centre Magnetite

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Lodestone

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Magnetic materials

Converging lens. Diverging lens. It is unwise to look at the sun. The large intensity and heat of sun rays produced on the retina will cause severe damage to the retina and hence to the vision. Not wise to leave glass bottle in the forest. Causes forest fires. Used in simple microscopes. Also used for reading. Used to magnify very tiny objects like bacteria and cells. 2 Convex lenses. The 200 inch Hale telescope on Mt. Palomar has photographed very distant faint celestial objects. Convex lens. Eye balls are filled with fluid Vitreous humour between the eye lens and the retina. Aqueous humour is present between eyelens and cornea. Myopia Short sight.(Can see only nearer objects). Hypermetropia Long Sight.(Can see only the distant objects.) In case of animals like cats, cattle etc. there is a reflecting layer containing crystals of quinine, behind theretina of their eyes called tapetum. This layer reflects the light back on to the retina. This improves the vision and causes the eyes of these animals to sparkle in the night. Geometric centre of the lens is called the optic centre. Composes of oxides of iron. It attracts pieces of iron. Magnet Like pole attract each other and unlike pole repel each other. When suspended freely from its centre, it always comes to rest in the north-south direction. For this property, it was given the name lodestone. Materials that are attracted by magnet is called magnetic materials. Iron, Nickel and cobalt.

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Compass Needle

It is a device used to trace the magnetic lines of force due to a bar magnet.

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Magnetic induction

Magnetic induction or induced magnetism is the phenomenon in which a magnet can induce magnetic properties on materials like iron.

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Curie point

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Earth

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Angle of dip Earth Dip Circle Measure the angle of dip. Magnetic effect Electromagnets

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Michael Faraday

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Sun Nuclear Fusion Total Energy 3.8*12P26 J/s. Conversion of solar energy into hydro and wind energy. Photo voltaic cell Calculators, traffic lights, and for the transmission of radio and television programmes. Wind Electricity can be generated using the windmills.

The temperature at which a magnet loses its magnetic power is known as curie point. For iron the curie point is 770 deg Celsius. Behaves like a big bar magnet. The earths magnetic axis does not coincide with its geographical axis and is inclined at an angle of about 17 degree. It is zero at the magnetic equator and 90 deg. At the magnetic poles. When electric current is passed through a conductor, magnetic effect is produced. Part of electric genarators, motors, telegraph instruments, loudspeakers, earphones and telephone receivers. Used in electric bells and tape recorders. Attached to cranes to lift heavy loads. Making new magnets or remagnetising the old ones. Discovered electromagnetic induction method used for commercial generation of electric power. Dynamos and generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Earth receives energy from the sun in the form of heat and light. The energy of wind and flowing water are due to solar energy. Solar energy is directly converted into electrical energy.

Convection current in the air. Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Tamilnadu and Gujarat Lead in the productin of wind energy. Kayathar of Thirunelveli district. Aralvaimozhi of Kanyakumari district.

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Hydro electric energy Hydel Power

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Pumped storage Power plant Bicycle Dynamo Thermal Power Plants Major share of electric energy in India.

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Nuclear Fission

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Atom bomb Nuclear Fission. Hiroshima Littleboy Nagasaki Fatman Nuclear Reactors

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The energy of falling water is used for generating electricity in hydro electric power plants. Turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical energy, which is further utilized for driving the electrical genarators. Mini Hydro projects at irrigation dams at lower Bhavani, Amaravathy, Thirumurty, Sathanur, Pechiparai, Perunchani, and Aliyar. Mettur dam. Hydro power stations have been commissioned on Lower Bhavani Dam, Pykara dam, and Vaigai dam. Kadamparai. Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. Principle of electromagnetic induction. Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, oil or gas. Thermal Power Plants: Neyveli, Ennore, North Chennai, Mettur and Tuticorin. Jeyakondam Perambalur dist.(Prelim work). The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavy atom into two or more smaller neuclei with the release of a large amount of energy is known as nuclear fission. When the bomb explodes a large amount of heat, light and radiation is released. These are used in world war 2 and were exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in japan. Babha atomic research centre for research Apsara, cirus, Zerlina and Purnima. Electricity Production: Tarapore Maharashtra Rana pratap sagar Rajasthan Kalakpakkam - Tamilnadu Kudankulam Tamilnadu

It is process in which two or more light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus. Hydrogen bomb is more powerful than the atom bomb. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Nuclear Fusion Energy produced in sun and stars. Hydrogen bomb.

Class Nineth: 1 Measurements SI System Internatinal

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1. Length Metre (m) 2. Mass Kilogram (Kg) 3. Time Second (S) 4. Electric Current Ampere (A) 5. Temparature Kelvin (K) 6. Amount of Substance Mole (mol) 7. Luminous Intensity Candela (cd) 8. Plane angle Radian (rad) 9. Solid angle Stredian (sr) Pierre vernier French Scientist Screw Gauge Measure lengths, One hundredth of a millimeter. Physical Balance Used to find mass of an object correct to a milligram. Types of Motion 1. Random Motion [Football,Mosquito] 2. Translational Motion[Arrow, Bullet] 3. Rotational Motion[Fan,Earth,Sun] 4. Oscillatory Motion[Pendulum] Quantity Scalar and Vector Scalar Vector Sclar Quantities that require only Displacement Mass magnitudes to specify them are called Velocity Lenth scalar quantity. Accelaration Time Vector Quantities that require both Force Temparature magnitude and direction are called vector Momentum Angle quantity. Weight Area Speed Distance Travelled / Time Taken Unit metre/Second (m/s ) Displacement The Straight line distance between the initial and final position of a body in a specific direction is called displacement. Unit metre(m) Velocity Displacement/Time. Unit metre/Second (m/s) Accelaration Change in velocity of an object per unit time. Negative acceleration An object thrown upwards, against the force of gravity, have negative acceleration. G=9.81m/s Acceleration due to gravity at or near earths surface is 9.81m/s. Objects of different masses released simultaneously from same height fall on the ground at the same time with the same velocity. Force Magnitude and Direction Force is that cause which produces acceleration in the body on which it acts. Newtons first law of motion Every body continues in its state of rest or of [Law of inertia] uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external force to change that state. Inertia The inability of the body to change, by itself, its

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Momentum. P = mass * velocity = m * v Kg * m/s Moving body Impulse

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Newtons second law F = ma Mass Kg [Mass remains the same everywhere in the universe].

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Weight kgwt or Newton [Maximum on the polar regions and minimum in equatorial regions / Wt. will also be less on the top of the hill] Spring balance Beam balance Newtons third law Periodic motion [Motion of earth around the sun, hands of the watch] Eamples of couple in action

state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is called inertia. The product of mass and velocity of a body is called momentum. The force required to stop a moving body is directly proportional to a) mass m and its b) linear velocity. Cricket ball catch When we move our hands backward while catching the ball, the time of contanct is increased and the force is reduced.So, we feel lesser force and pain and also catch the ball without jumping out of our hand. The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force and takes place in the direction of force. Mass of body is a measure of its inertia. A larger mass possess a greater inertia and therefore a larger force will be needed to overcome inertia. Mass is also the measure of the quantity of the matter in a body. The weight of a body is the force acting on the body due to the earths gravitational force of attraction.

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Work Done W= Force * displacement W= Fs = newton * metre Also called Joule. [Scalar quantity] Aeroplane

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Power

Used to find the weight of the body. Used to find the mass of the body. For every action, there is always and equal and opposite reaction. A motion of an object which repeats itself regularly after a fixed intervals of time is called periodic motion. 1. Opening a tap. 2. Opening a pen or bottle cap. 3. Steering wheel of a car. 4. Turning a pencil in a sharpener. 5. Turning a screw driver. 6. Unscrewing an ear-ring. 7. Winding up the spring of a clock. When a force F acts on a body and the body undergoes a displacement s in the direction of the force, then the work done, W=Fs. The force(force of gravity in the downward direction) and displacement(horizontal direction) are perpendicular to each other. There is no disp. In the direction of the force of gravity, and therefore, the work done by it on the aeroplane is zero. The rate at which the work is done by a force is

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P = W/t = Joule/Second 1 Watt= 1 Joule/Second Horse Power 100W bulb Energy Unit: Joule

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Potential energy

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Kinetic energy Law of conservation of energy Total energy of the body remains a constant. Transformation of energy

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Source of energy 1. Renewable source of energy. 2. Non Renewable source of en. Renewable energy

called the power. Work done per unit time is called power. 1 Horsepower = 746 W. A 100W bulb consumes 100J of electric energy per second. 1. Mechanical Energy Potential and kin. 2. Heat energy 3. Sound energy 4. Light energy 5. Electrical energy 6. Chemical energy 7. Atomic energy. PE of a body is the energy it possess by virtue of its position or state of strain. Simple Pendulum Maximum PE at its ex.end Water stored up in a reservoir. Compressed air posses PE. KE of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form into another form. Steam engine heat energy to mech.energy Electric heater Electrical energy to heat en. Microphone Sound energy into electrical en. Loudspeaker Electrical energy to sound en. Electric bulb Electrical energy to Light en. Match Chemical energy to light and heat en. Primary Sun.[Plants use this energy to prepare foods by the process of photosynthesis.] Renewable sources of energy are those which are produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible. 1. Hydro energy. 2. Solar energy. 3. Geothermal energy. 4. Wind energy 5. Tidal energy. 6. Bio energy and 7. Nuclear energy. Stored water(reservoir) has lot of potential energy. This electricity produced from flowing water is called Hydro electricity. Geothermal means heat of earth and therefore energy generated from the heat of the earth is called

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Hydro energy. Cheaper cost. Electricity production, transporting timber. Geothermal energy Available in volcanic regions of the earth.

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Wind energy Tamilnadu (forefront) is one of the windy states in the country. Can generate 1700 Mw. 1. Maharashtra 2. Tamilnadu Tidal energy Bio energy Biogas Methane Used for cooking and lighting. Nuclear energy

geothermal energy. Wind mills are operated using the kinetic energy of the wind. Wind resource assessment Tn gov 18km/h Shengkottah pass, Aralvaimozhi pass, and Palghat pass. The rise and fall of sea waves can be harnessed to generate power. The energy obtained by the decomposition of organic matter such as animal dung, rotton fruits, vegetables, and human excreta, is called Bio energy. 1. Nucleus of heavier elements like uranium, thorium or plutonium is spilit, two nuclei of lighter elements are formed.Nuclear fission. 2. By fusing two nuclei of lighter elements like hydrogen a heavier nucleus is formed and this process is called nuclear fusion. The nucleus of uranium, a radioactive element on colliding with a neutron splits into two smaller nuclei and a few additional neutrons are released. Nuclear Reactor - Heat Water Steam drive turbine Electricity. 1. Tarapore APS Maharashtra. 2. Rajasthan APS Rajasthan. 3. Kalpakkam APS Tamilnadu. 4. Narora APS Uttar Pradesh. 5. Kakrapar APS Gujarat. 6. Kaiga APS Karnataka. Work on the principle of Nuclear fusion Coal and Petroleum are obtained from fossilized materials they are also called fossil fuels. Wood, Coal, Lignite Kerosene, Petrol and diesel. When 2 objects at same temperature are brought into contact there will be no overall transfer of thermal energy between them. If the objects are at different temparatures, there will be a transfer of heat energy from hotter to the cooler object until both objects reach the same temperature. Heat is energy. Temparature is not energy. Common temperature measuring device.

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Nuclear fission [Heat energy produced can be used for generating electricity.] Chain reaction. 4% -World power. 350 nuclear stations. Atomic power stations(APS)

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Hydrogen bomb Fossil fuels [ Hydrocarbos and traces of oxygen and other subs.] Sold fuels Liquid fuels Heat transfer

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Heat Unit: Joule Temparature Kelvin or Celsius. Mercury thermometer (Liquid metal) High boiling Point = 357 deg Celsius.

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Low melting Point -39 deg Celsius. Kelvin and Celsius Human Body Temparature of gas

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Boyle law

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Charles law 1 Charles law 2

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Diesel engine Four stroke Petrol Have more efficiency 40% more. Absolute zero

Kelvin Scale(K) = Celsius+ 273 Celsius = Kelvin 273. Normal temperature of human body is 36.9 deg. Celsius. Temparature of gas increases the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases. As the temperature of gas decreases the kinetic energy of its molecules decreases. At constant temperature the Pressure of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. At constant pressure, the volume of given mass of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temp. At constant volume, the pressure of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature. No carburetor and spark plug. Temparature to which a substance can be cooled. All atomic and molecular motions of an ideal gas stop. A gas which obeys Boyles law and Charles law is called as ideal gas. 1. Mechanical Waves Sound waves, Waves on the surface of water, and seismic waves. (obey newtons law of motion). Travels through solids, liquids and gases. 2. Electromagnetic waves: Light waves, Radio waves, Microwaves, Infra red, Ultraviolet, X-rays,visible rays,Gamma rays do not require any medium to propagate. They travel through vaccum. 3*10P8 m/s. 1. Transverse wave 2. Longitudinal Wave. A transverse wave is one in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Crest: Maximum disp. in the upward direction. Trough: Maximum disp.in the downward direction Wavelength(metre): Distance bt. any 2 consecutive crests and troughs is called wave length. A longitudinal wave is one in which the particles of the medium vibrate along with the direction of the

64 65

Ideal gas Waves

66 67

Mechanical waves Transverse wave (S,L) (Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves).

68

Longitudinal Waves(S,L,G) Sound waves in air or gas travel in the form

of longitudinal waves.

69 70 71

Amplitude (Unit metre) Frequency (Unit Hertz)

propagation of the wave. Wavelength: Distance bt. any 2 consecutive compressions and rarefactions is called wa.len. Maximum displacement of the vib. Particle to the mean position. The number of complete vibrations of the particle of the medium in one second is called as frequency.

72

73 74 75 76

Sound Velocity of sound in air at 0 deg cel is331 m/s. Humidity Temparature 1 deg cel. = 0.61m/s Pressure

Sound travels through solids and liquids very faster than in gases. Velocity of sound is more in solids and liquids. Sound travels faster in humid air than in dry air. For every degree rise in temperature the velocity of sound increases by 0.61m/s. Pressure has no effect.

77

Resonance

When the frequency of forced vibrations of a body equals its natural frequency, the vibrations of the body build upto a very large amplitude. This

78 79

Soldiers Stationary wave

phenomenon is called resonance. Soldiers are not allowed to march on the bridge. Two waves of same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite directions superimpose with each other producing stationary waves. Node Point with minimum amplitude. Antinode Point with maximum amplitude. Sound from veena, sitar, violin and guitar. Sound from flute, Nadaswaram and clarinet. Sound navigation and ranging. To detect crack inside the metal casting. Drill hole in steel and glass. Ultrasonic echoes view soft tissue and organs which are invisible to X-rays. By using Doppler effect and ultrasonics doctors monitor the flow of the blood and diseases of brain,heart and kidneys. Pulverise and remove kidney stones, cure cancer, joint and muscular pains. The apparent change in the pitch or frequency of sound when there is a relative motion between the source and the observer is called the Doppler effect. Velocities and movement of submarine and aeroplanes. Speed of the vehicle are detected. Airports To find the height, speed and distance of approaching planes. Bats detect the location, distance and movement of the prey. Strip of plastic coated with a magnetic material such as iron oxide or chromium oxide. Sound is recorded in the form of varying magnetic fields. FF in open pipe is twice that of the closed pipe of the same length. 20Hz to 20000Hz. Sound with frequency above 20000Hz. 1 Mach is the velocity of an object travelling with the velocity of sound. The spherical mirror with a reflecting surface curved like interior of circle called a concave mir. The spherical mirror with a reflecting surface curved like exterior of circle called a convex mirror. The light beams reflected by the concave mirror are brought to focus at a point.

80 81 82 83 84

Stationary transverse waves Stationary longitudinal waves SONAR Ultrasonics in industries Ultrasonics in medical app. [Ultrasonics are harmless.]

85

Doppler effect RADAR (Radio detection and ranging). Radar Doppler application

86 87

88

Audio tape

89 90 91 92 93

Fundamental frequency Audible sound Ultrasonics Mach Spherical mirror

94

Concave mirror

95

Convex mirror

The light beams reflected by the convex mirror appear to diverge from a point.

96

The distance between the Principal focus and the pole is called the Focal length.

97 98 99 100

Real Images Virtual Images Spherical mirror Concave mirrors

APB- Portion of it reflecting the light is called aperture. Centre of hollow sphere Centre of curvature.(C) Geometrical centre of sp.mir. Pole.(P) The line joining the pole and centre of mirror is called Principal axis. The radius of sphere that forms the Part of the sp.mir is called radius of curvature( R) .[CP=R] The line that is parallel to the principal axis after reflection by a concave mirror converges at a point on principal axis. This point is called Principal Focus (F) of the concave mirror. The rays of light parallel to the principal axis, after reflection by a convex mirror appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis behind the mirror. This point is called the principal focus of the convex mirror. Concave mirror produces real images. All images produced by the convex mirrors are erect, diminished and virtual images. The focal length of a spherical mirror is half of its radius of curvature. 1. Shaving mirror. 2. Torch lights, Projectors and head lamps of automobiles are reflected as a parallel beam by the concave mirrors. 3. Investigate ear,nose , and throat. 4. Dentist Magnify and investigate the teeth. 5. Opthalmaloscope Doctors use to view the retina of the eye. 6. Concave mirrors are used to converges the solar energy and convert it into heat and electrical energy. This heat radiation is used to cook food in a solar cooker. 7. Hemispherical dish antennas receive radio waves and microwaves from artificial sat.

101

Convex Mirror

8. 9. 1. 2.

3.

and help in radio, television and telephone communication. Used in telescopes. Parabolic reflectors are used in search lights. Used as rear view mirror in automobiles. Convex mirrors are fixed in supermarkets to monitor the commodities and the customers in the shop. Convex mirrors are fixed in blind corners in road and buildings to view the persons coming in the opposite direction.

102

103 104 105 106

Substance Temparature In gases the effect is more. Surfaces 3 diff. states of matter Solids are held together by cohesion, which results from the attraction from the attractive forces between their atoms and molecules.

Substance exists in 3 states. Solid, Liquid and gas. All the three S,L,G increase with increase in temp, and decrease with decrease in temp. Solids and liquid have surfaces. Gas does not have a surface.

107 108 109

Solids Crystalline Solids Melt at sp.temp. Comparison

1. Crystalline solids 2. Amorphous solids Metals, Salt and Diamond.

110 111 112 113 114

Amorphous solids Glass, Carbon, Black and many resins. Fluids

115

116

117

Amorphous solids have neither crystalline structures nor specific melting points. Liquid and gases are also called fluids. Ex: Hydrogen and water. Hydrogen Diatomic molecule H2 Hydrogen Lowest density. Sun Hydrogen is converted into helium. Hydrogen It is a gaseous matter. It is the fuel of the future. Classification of matter 1. Compounds 2. Mixtures (They are made up of tiny particles such as atoms and molecules.) Pure substances Elements and compounds Consists of one substance only. No contaminating are pure substances. impurities. A pure substance melts and boils at specific temperatures. Elements Substances that cannot be chemically broken down Made up of only one kind of atoms. into simpler substances. (Are building blocks of matter). Ex: Silver is an element. It is made up of only silver atoms. Human body 1. Oxygen 65%. 2. Carbon 18% 3. Hydrogen 10% 4. Nitrogen 2%

118 119

Elements Atomicity

120

121

Compounds Ex: water ( 2 hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom, 1:8 by weight.) Commons salt: Compound of Sodium and Chlorine. Sugar:Compound containing 12 Carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms, and 11 oxygen atoms. Compounds:

5. Calcium and other elements 2% 112 elements identified. 21 artificially made. The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element is called atomicity. One : silver, potassium,carbon etc are monoatomic. Two: hydrogen, bromine, oxygen, nitrogen rep as h2, br2,o2,n2. Poly: phosphorous P4, sulphur S8. A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed ratio by weight. They are homogenous and exhibits definite physical and chemical properties.

122

Mixtures

123 124

125

A mixture is made up of two or more elements or compounds when mixed in any ratio physically. All mixtures are heterogeneous except solutions which are homogeneous. (Air, sugar, syrup, salt, solution, smoke, toothpaste are a few examples of mixtures). A solute is the thing that is dissolved, whereas a solvent is what it is dissolved in. For example a sugar cube is a solute and water will be a solvent. Solution In a solution a substance which dissolves is called a [Homogeneous mixture of solute and solute and the liquid that dissolves the solute is solvent]. called as the solute. Insoluble Calcium carbonate insoluble in water.

126

Emulsion

127

Colloids

128

Jhon Dalton

Oil and water do not mix. If you add cooking oil into water, the oil floats on water. If you shake the mixture vigorously a turbid liquid emulsion is formed. 1. The dispersed phase. (fat in milk, water drop in mist). 2. The dispersion medium. (Water in milk ,water in mist.). Defined an atom scientifically.

129

John Dalton

1. Matter consist of extremely small particles called atoms. 2. Atoms are indivisible. 3. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed

130 131

Atomic weight Limitations of Daltons Theory

132

Isotopes

during chemical reactions. 4. All atoms of one element are identical in all aspects such as size, shape , mass and structure. 5. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of atoms of elements in whole number ratio. Ex: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 2 atoms of chlorine (to form) = 2 molecules of hydrogen chloride. 6. Absolute wt. of an atom cannot be determined. Dalton, sugges. The use of relative wts. These relative wts. Are called atomic weights of elements. Atomic weight is defined as the ratio of the weight of an atom of an element to that of hydrogen. 1. After discovery of radioactivity it was proved that atoms are divisible. 2. Atoms are created and destroyed in nuclear reactions ie., new elements are formed. 3. All atoms of one element need not to be identical in all aspects. Ex. Isotopes of hydrogen. Isotopes are atoms of same element with different mass numbers. They have the same number of protons and electrons in each atom, but different no. of neutrons in the nucleus.

133

134 135 136 137 138 139

Avagadro Number J.J.Thompson Goldstein Chadwick Discharge tube Cathode rays

6.023* 10P23 Found electrons.(Study of cathode rays). Found protons. Found Neutrons. A long glass tube containing a gas at a low pressure. 1. Travel in straight lines. 2. Consist of material particle. 3. Cathode rays are negatively charged. 4. CR ionize the gas through which they pass. 5. CR produce X-rays when they are made to fall on metals like tungsten, copper etc., Uranium emits peculiar radiations which affect the

140

Henry Becqueral

141 142 143

Madame Curie Artificial radioactive element. Types of rays

144

Alpha rays

145

Beta rays

146 147 148

Gamma rays Radio carbon dating

photographic plates and which can ionize gases. He called uranium as radioactive element and its property as radioactivity. Found two more elements. Radium and Palonium. Thorium is also a radioactive element. Artificially radioactive elements are made by the method of transmutation. Alpha rays Positively charged particles and bend towards negative electrical field. Beta rays Negatively charged particles and bend towards positive electrical field. Gamma rays Electromagnetic radiations which are neutral, that are unaffected by magnetic field. Ionizing power is 100 times more than beta rays and 10,000 times more than gamma rays. Alpha particles can affect photographic plates. Have very high velocity; sometime it matches the velocity of light. Beta Particles affect the photographic plates. Penetrate aluminium foil. 7000 times lighter than alpha particles. Gamma rays are more penetrating than the x-rays because of their shorter wavelength. Age of rocks, wooden and organic objects may be measured by this method.

149

Alkali metals

Soft solids with relatively low melting points and low densities. When cut all these have silvery surface which quickly tarnishes. All noble are inert and do not react with other atoms

150

Noble gases

151 152 153

154

Sodium, Potassium and Lithium atom to Sodium, Potassium and Lithium Ions. Flourine, Chlorine and Oxygen atom to Flourine, Chlorine and Oxygen ions. Coal [Peat was transformed into coal under high pressure and temp under earths surface.] Petroleum. [Products Petroleum gas, Petrol, Diesel, and kerosene].

easily. These three atoms lose an electron to becomes ions. (Cations) These three atoms gain an electron to become ions. (anions). Black rock like material and an essential input in thermal power plants, steel industry and metallurgical processes. Is dark coloured viscous liquid and is a complex mixture of compounds containing mainly carbon and hydrogen.

155

156

Refining

157 158

Paraffins ( CnH2n+2) - Alkanes Olefins (CnH2n) - Alkenes

The process of separating petroleum into fraction with different boiling ranges and removing impurities is known as refining. The first member methane has the formula CH4 and the second member Ethane has the formula C2H6. The simplest olefin has the formula C2H4

159 160

Alkynes (CnH2n-2)

(Ethylene). The first member of alkyne has the formula C2H2 and it is known as acetylene.

161

Alkanes

162

Alkynes

163

Alkynes

Isomerism is the existence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula. 165 Methane Marsh gas. Main cons. Of natural gas. Firedamp in coal mines. 166 Ethylene or Ethene 1. Rippening of fruits. 2. Used in the preparation of polythene, Polypropylene, PVC(Poly Vinyl Chloride). 3. Preparation of glycol. 4. Ethylene dichloride which is prepared from ethylene is used in the preparation of a synthetic rubber called Thiokol. 167 Thiokol Synthetic rubber. 168 Acetylene Welding metals. Manufacture of acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, benzene and ethanol. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Class Ten: 1 Refraction of light The Phenomenon of bending of light as it passes from one medium to another medium is known as refraction of light. The refractive index of the medium does not depend upon the angle of incidence. It depends upon the nature of the medium. 2 Refraction of light through a prism 3 Planes. 1 is grounded(Base). 2 planes polished.(refracting surfaces). The angle bt. the two refracting surfaces is called angle of the prism. 3 Refractive index Diamond: 2.42 4 Optical fibre An optical fibre is a device based on total internal reflection by which a light signal can be transmitted from one place to another with negligible loss of energy. Uses: Endoscope. / Carry information in the form of digital code of light pulses with minimum loss. The y carry telephone messages and computer data. / Destroy tumours in solid organ like liver. 5 Convex lenses They are thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges.

164

Isomerism

6 7

Concave lenses

They are thicker in the edges and thinner at the middle.

Lens

9 10

Power of the lens Convex lens application

11 12 13 14 15

Concave lens application Twinkling of stars Mirage Looming Retina

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Human eye Myopia shortsighted ness (wearing concave lenses) Hyper Metropia Long sighted ness Telescope Microscope Simple(one convex lens) Compound microscopes (Two convex lenses) Astronomical telescope

1. Width or diameter of a lens Aperture of the lens. 2. Geometric center of the lens Optic centre. Unit: Dioptre. 1. Magnifying glass. Watch repair. Palmist. 2. Optical projector. 3. Inverted image formed by the terrestrial telescope can be erected by convex lens. 4. Long sightedness can be corrected. 1. Vision short sightedness can be corrected. 2. Eyelenses in Galilean telescope. Refraction of light rays. Optical illusion. Refraction of light. Refraction of light. Two photosensitive rods sensitive to light, but not to clour. cones. sensitive to light and color. The near point is 25 cm from the eye. The inability not to see the distant objects are called short sightedness. Wearing convex lenses. See things at vastly large distances. Magnifying and observing very small objects. Greater magnification. 1. Refracitng telescope(Large convex lens is used) 2. Reflecting telescope.(Large concave mirror is used). Splitting of white light to its constituent color is called the dispersion of light. Have longer wavelengths than the blue colour. The color of an object is the colour of light reflected by it.

23 24 25

Dispersion of light Red light Color of an object

26 27 28

Primary colours Colour filter Coloured pigments

29 30

Rainbow Camera

Red, Blue and Green. Which allows only the light of certain colour to pass through and absorbs the other colours. They are opaque substances which absorbs all components of white light except some components which are reflected. Ex: Chlorophyll in plants, dyes and paints. Happens when the sun shines onto the droplets of moisture in the earths atmosphere. Uses convex lenses. The exposure time is called the shutter speed. Stationary object 1/60seconds. Fast moving object 1/500 seconds. Dim light Size of the aperture should be large. The visual sensation of particular object or scene persists of about 1/16s after it disappears. Principle: Persistance of vision. Two pictures are initially photographed with a stereoscopic camera and projected on the screen simultaneously. As the picture in this case has 3 dimensions, it appears natural. The region in which a charged body can experience a force is called the electric field. Unit: Volt(Alessandro volta). Unit: Ampere. The resistance of the metal wire is directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area. Electric kettle, Electric iron and the electric oven are some of the household appliances which utilize the heating effect of electric current. (Nichrome) Asbestos, Fireclay, Porcelain or mica to prevent heat flowing out of the devices. Filament: Platinum or carbon. Osmium, tantalum and tungsten. The practical unit of power is 1 KW which is equal to 1000 W. Unit: Joule Aqueous solutions of inorganic acids, bases and salts. Phenomenon of the conduction of electricity through electrolytes is called electrolysis. The conductors by which the current enters and leaves the electrolyte are called electrodes. That electrode by which the current enters the

31 32 33

Persistence of objects Cine Projector 3D Pictures

34 35 36 37

Electric field Unit: Newton/Columb Electic Potential Electric Current Resistance

38

Heating effect of electric current

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Refractory materials Electrical lamp filament Electric Power Electrical energy Electrolytes Electrolysis Electrodes Anode(Electro ve)

47 48 49

Cathode(Electro +ve) Faradays law Electroplating

50 51 52 53 54

Eversilver Dry cell Primary cell Solenoid Electromagnets

55 56 57

Microphones Loudspeaker Galvanometer

58 59

AC generator Application of electromagnetic induction. DC Generators

60

Transformer

61

Step up transformer

62

Step down transformer

electrolyte is called the anode. That electrode by which the current leaves are called as the cathodes. About electrolysis. Electroplating is the process by which a thin coating of any desired metal can be deposited on another metallic object. Elctroplating the iron articles with nickel first and then with silver. Used in torches, telephones, transistor sets etc., Dry cell, Lechlanche cell and Daniel cell. A Cylindrical coil wire. Behaves like a bar magnet. 1. Used in motors. 2. Electric bells makes use of it. 3. Telegraphs and telephones make use of them. 4. Separate iron and steel from other materials. 5. Lifting and carrying heavy steel and cast iron articles, electromagnets are used. Converts sound energy into electrical energy. Electrical energy is converted into sound energy. A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow of current in a circuit. Uses: 1. Convert to voltmeter By connecting a high resistance in series with it. 2. Convert to ammeter By connecting a suitable low resistance in parallel to it. 3. In meter bridge and potentiometer circuits balancing conditions are achieved by means of the galvanometer only. 4. A multi meter is also a modified form of a moving coil galvanometer. A dynamo or electric generator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Produces a continuous and unidirectional current of constant magnitude direct current generators have been devised. A transformer is a device by which a low voltage in a circuit can be converted into a high voltage in a neighbouring circuit or vice versa. The Primary contains a few turns of thick insulated copper wire, while the secondary consists of a large number of turns of thin insulated copper wires. The secondary has few turns of thick wire while the primary has many turns of thin wire.

63

Ideal transformer

64 65 66 67 68

69 70

71 72

The input power and the output power is equal Practical transformers: output is always less because of losses. Overe load Fuses(low melting point), Circuit breakers and safety switches are used. Domestic Purposes Lead wire of 230 deg cel is used.(Fuses when the current exceeds 5 amps). Three pin plug Called the polarized plug. It is the current that kills and not the high voltage itself. Nuclear physics It is the study of structure of nucleus and nuclear processes such as radioactivity and nuclear reactions. Mechanical waves Ocean waves, Waves created by the wind in a flag, sound waves needs a material medium to propagate. Electromagnetic waves Consists of a magnetic field and an electric field vibrating at right angles to each other. Energy changes in atoms or electrons produce electromagnetic waves. Behaviour of Electromagnetic wave It is determined its wavelength. Properties 1. Travel at same speed 3*10P8 m/s. in vaccum or through space. C= freq*Wa.len 2. No medium is required. 3. All are transverse waves. 4. Exhibit reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction etc., 5. No electric charge they will carry. 6. Transfer energy from one place to another. 7. Emitted and absorbed by matter.

73

74

75

X- Rays

76

Properties of X-rays

77

Medicine

78 79

Forensic Infra red rays

80

Uses of IR

Discovered by Roentgen. X rays are also called as Roentgen rays. When fast moving electrons fall on a target of high atomic weight xrays are formed. 1. Affect photographic plate strongly. 2. Produce fluorescence in certain materials like zinc sulphide and Barium platino cyanide. 3. They ionize the gases through which they pass. 4. They cannot pass through bones(Calcium good absorbers of X-rays) and gold,lead. 1. Detect fracture and dislocation of bones. 2. Destroy malignant tumours and cure some skin diseases. 3. Detect given gem is genuine or artificial. 4. Detect defects in tennis ball, rubber tyres etc., 5. Study structure of crystals, organic and biological molecules. 6. Study the effect of heat treatment and the formation of alloys. 1. Detect counterfeit currency, forgery in documents, Hidden gold, explosive and opium in a luggage Sun is the source of infra red rays. Human body gives off IR radiation with a wavelength of 1/10mm to 1/100 mm. The human eye cannot see IR wave but we can feel the warmth. 1. IR waves are not absorbed by air of fog. IR rays are used to take photographs where visible light cannot penetrate. 2. IR waves enlarge blood vessels which increase the blood circulation.

81

82

Microwaves Wavelength 1mm to 10 cm. Uses of microwaves

3. IR is used to relieve pain from muscle and joints. 4. IR lamps were fitted to military vehicles for night driving. 5. Water absorbs IR radiation. Hence IR radiation to find water sources on earth.(Black color water bodies). 6. IR satellite pictures of the earth is used for weather forecasting. Generated by special electronic devices Magnetron, Klystron and travelling wave tube. Telephone links bt. cities are achieved by microwaves. Used in satellite communication and radar. Microwaves are used for cooking.(wavelength 12cm) Kill insects in grains stores and also used to kill bacteria without heating the food so much. 5. Used in the field of radio astronomy. 6. Study of atomic and molecular structure. Are produced by stars and galaxies. Produced by vibrating electrons using electronic circuits. Used in radio and television communication systems. Henry Becqueral. He found uranium and some of its salts emits continuous radiation which affected the photographic plates. The elements which emit radio active radiations are called radioactive elements. These rays are called Becqueral rays are radioactive rays. Uranium, radium, thorium, polonium etc., At.Wt greater than 206. 1. 2. 3. 4.

83

84 85

Radio waves Wavelength: .3 m to few km. Radioactivity Radioactive elements

86

87

88

Comparison of gamma rays and X-rays

89

Artificial radioactivity

90

Application: Radioisotopes

A transmutation of non radioactive element into radio active element by artificial means is called artificial radio activity. The induced radio active elements are called radio active radioisotopes. 1. Radio phosphorous p32 Used to monitor the intake of the manure and its utilization. 2. Help to raises crop yields. 3. Find whether particular plant requires roor feeding or foliage

91 92

Archaeology Medicine

93

Radioactive decay

94 95

Nuclear fission (Atom Bomb) Chain reaction

96

Nuclear reactor

97

Nuclear fusion

98 99

Breeder reactors Uses: Nuclear energy

feeding, for which radio phosphorous is used. 4. Used to measure the thickness of thin sheets of paper or steel. 5. Sodium 24 and Bromine 82is used to find the rate flow of the liquid through a pipe. 6. Radio isotopes are used to detect welding defects in pipeline. Age of fossils, rocks and earth can be determined using radioactive isotope of C14. This method is called radio carbon dating. 1. Radio cobalt CO60 Used in the treatment of cancer. 2. Radio Iodine I131 Used in the treatment of thyroid gland, locate brain tumours. 3. Radioactive sodium (Na24) check the effective functioning of heart. 4. Radioactive iron (F59) Used to treat anemia. 5. Phosphorous 32 or strontium 90 is used to cure skin cancer. 6. Nuclear battery Used in Heart pacemakers. When a radioactive nucleus disintegrates by emitting alpha and beta particles a new element is formed. Alpha decay: Its atomic no. decreases by 2 and mass number by 4. Beta decay: Atomic no. increases by 1 and mass no. remains the same. Gamma emission: No change in either the atomic number or the mass number. Otto han and strassman. Large amount of energy is released and it can be used as the electricity. The neutrons goes on multiplying rapidly during fission process till the whole of the fissionable material is disintegrated. Uncontrolled Chain reaction: Principle of atom bomb. It is device in which nuclear fission is produced under a self sustaining controlled nuclear chain reaction. Fuel: U235(enriched uranium), U233 and P239. Moderators: Graphite, Heavy water(D20), Berillium and its oxides are used as moderators. Control rods: Cadmium, Boron or Hafnium rods.(Absorbs neutrons). Coolant: Water, heavy water, air, carbon di oxide etc., Thermonuclear energy. Sun Heat energy is produced by this principle. (Stars get their energy from Carbon-Nitrogen cycle.) Fusion powers the sun and the stars where the temp. is very high. Required fuels like hydrogen, deuterium and lithium nuclei are plentiful supply in the sea. No waste materials. Produce nuclear fuels during the reaction. Generate power to propel the ships and submarines. Produce radio isotopes and neutron beam for medical and nuclear research applications.

100 101 102

Nuclear Accidents Safety Differences

Chernobyl, Russia./ Workers in the nuclear power stations, x-ray labs, mines wear photographic film badges. Radioactive materials kept Thick lead containers. Lead aprons and gloves are used when working in hazardous places.

103 104 105

Nuclear research centre NPCIL Operational reactors

Trombay Bhabha atomic research centre.(Apsara, Cirus, Zerlina, Purnima and Duruva) are research reactors located at BARC. Nuclear Power corporation of india limited.(20,000Mw at 2020).

106

Reactors under construction

107

Chemical reactions

108

Chemical reactions Energy

109 110

Rate of chemical reaction Factors affecting rate of reaction

111

Catalyst

1. Sodium metal reacts very fast with water to an extent that it explodes with a huge sound. 2. Yellow phosphorous is thrown on a heap of waste papers, it catches fire immediately. 3. Camphor burns quickly and coal burns slowly. Reactants combined together to form new products. Chemical bonds are broken in reactants and new bonds are formed in products. 1. Washing soda is dissolved in water to wash clothes, heat is given out. 2. Baking soda is touched with wet hand, the chillness is felt. Heat is either absorbed or given out. In chemical reactions, energy is either taken up or given out. Given in terms of concentration either of a product or of a reactant. 1. The rate of reaction generally increases with the increase in concentration of the reactants. 2. Cooked food is gets spoilt quickly during summer than winter. Souring of milk is faster in summer. Generally increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction. 3. The reaction which takes place on a photographic film also depends on the varying intensity of light falling on different parts of the film. A catalyst is a substance which is added to a reaction mixture to alter the rate of chemical reaction where the mass and chemical composition of the catalyst remain unchanged at the end of the

112 113 114 115

Slow reactions Rusting Equilibrium Constant Exothermic reactions

116 117 118

Endothermic reactions pH Acids

reaction. Iron is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia by Haber Process. In general, the reaction between covalent compounds are slow. Rusting is a very slow oxidation reaction. At equilibrium, the ratio between concentration of reactants and products become constant. The chemical reaction which proceed with the evolution of heat energy are called exothermic reactions. All combustion reaction are exothermic. Respiration.(Glucose in food burns in oxygen, heat energy is released). Exthermic reaction The chemical reactions which proceed with the absorbtion of heat energy are called endothermic reations. The functioning of enzymes is sharply pH dependent. 1. Sour in taste. 2. Turn blue litmus red. 3. React with certain metals and liberate hydrogen gas. 4. React with oxides and hydroxides of metals forming salt and water. 5. Aqueous solution conduct electricity.

119

Bases

120

Arrhenius

1. Have a bitter taste. 2. Their aqueous solution have a soapy touch. 3. They turn red litmus blue. 4. They react with acids to form salt and water. 5. Their acqueous solutions conduct electricity. Acids: It is substance which gives hydrogen ions in its aqueous solution. Strong acids: Hcl, H2so4, and HNO3(Nitric acid). Weak: Aceticacid (CH3COOH). Bases: A base is a substance which give hydroxyl ions in its aqueous solution. Strong bases: KOH, NaOH. Weak: Ammonium Hydroxide.

121 122

Bronsted and Lowry theory pH

Acid: It is substance that has the tendency to lose a proton and a base is a substance that has the tendency to accept a proton. Strength of acid and bases is measured on the pH scale. pH scale 0 to 14. pH scale 7(It is neutral Neither acidic or basic). Water pH < 7 Acid; pH > 7 Base. Measure pH pH meter (expensive). Universal Indicator.

123

Chemical Compounds

124 125

Hardness of water Baking Soda

Washing Soda: Sodium Carbonate decahydrate (Na2Co3.10H2O) First anhydrous sodium carbonate is manufactured by the sovay process (ammonia-soda process) and then it is converted into sodium carbonate decahydrate. 1. It is transparent, soluble in water, and the solution is found to be alkaline as it turns red litmus blue. 2. Efflorescence: Sodium carbonate monohydrate(It is a process of losing water of crystallization from a hydrated salt when kept exposed to air for a long time). 3. On heating it gives soda ash(anhydrous sodium carbonate). 4. Sodium carbonate reacts with acids to give Co2. Uses: Manufacture of soap, paper, textile,Paints etc., Laundry as washing soda. Important lab reagent in both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Softening of hard water. Due to the presence of calcium and magnesium. Sodium bicarbonate(Sodium hydrogencarbonate) is known as baking soda. White solid it is sparingly soluble in water. It is slightly alkaline which turns red litmus blue. When heated it decomposes with evolution of carbondioxide gas. It is used as a constituent of baking powder to soften the dough and to aerate the drinks. It gives brisk effervescence with acids due to liberation of Co2. Uses: 1. It is used in the preparation of baking powder. Bak.Pow is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid. It is used in aerated drinks and as an additive in food stuff to make it soft.

126 127

Carbondioxide Bleaching Powder

128

Plaster of Paris

129

Cement

130

Glass

2. Baking soda is used in fire extinguishers. 3. Important ingredient of antacids to reduce the acidity of stomach, as its solution is alkaline in nature. 4. Used as reagent in lab. 5. Important chemical in the textile, tanning, paper and ceramic industries. Enemy of fire. Bleaching powder is chemically, calcium oxychloride. Manufactured using Backmanns plant. Properties: Bleaching powder is a yellowish white powder with a strong smell of chlorine. Exposed to atm. It gives smell of chlorine. Bleaching powder reacts with co2 from the atm. To produce calcium carbonate and chlorine. Commercially prepared bleaching powder is seldom pure and it contains a small amount of slaked lime. Uses: 1. Used to bleach cotton and linen in textile industry and wood pulp in paper industry. Used to bleach washed clothes in laundry. 2. Used as a disinfectant and germicide. Since it liberates chlorine when exposed to atm. Which destroys the germs. It is also used for disinfecting water for the same reason. 3. Used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industry. Chemically known as Calcium Sulphate hemihydrate A powder is obtained by heating gypsum. This powder is called plaster of paris. Gypsum which was mainly used to get the powder was mainly found in Paris. Uses: 1. To make black board chalks, toys, decorative materials. Making smooth surfaces and ornate designs on walls and false ceilings. To make cast for statues. In setting broken or fractured bones and in dentistry. In labs it is used for ceiling air gaps in apparatus to make it air tight. Joseph aspdin. Portland cement(resembles limestone found in Portland). Rawmaterials: Limestone and clay(Lime, silica, alumina and ferric oxide). Uses: Cement is used in various forms such as mortar, concrete and reinforced concrete. Mortar : Cement and sand (3:1) ratio. Concrete: A mixture of cement, sand, gravel (Crushed stones) and water is called concrete. RCC: Embedding iron rod or steel mesh in the body of the concrete. Raw Materials: Sodium carbonate, Calcium carbonate and silica. (batch). + Small pieces of glasses (Cullet). The glass articles are made by pouring molten glass into moulds and then cooling. (Annealing process Cooling neither fast or slow). Properties: 1. Super cooled liquid.

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Etching of glass Type of glass

Hard and bittle. No fixed melting point. Practically insoluble in water. Not attacked by air and any other oxidising agents. Done with the help of paraffin wax. / Hydrofluoric acid. Soda glass Ordinary glass. Window panes, electric bulbs, test tubes, glass tumblers etc., Hard glass heat resistance apparatus. Optical glass: Fusing Potassium carbonate, Lead and silica. Lenses. Pyrex: Borax is additionally added. Used to make things that are used in laboratories. Flint glass: Decorative articles. Safety Glass: In making wind screen of automobiles, trains and areoplanes. Also used in making bullet proof glass. Glass Fibres: Used for fire proof clothing. Optical fibres.

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Steel

134 135 136

Mild Steel Hard Steel Alloy steel

137 138

Iron Ores

Most important commercial form of iron. Chandraraja iron pillar at delhi. (During gupta age.) Steel Plants: Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bilai, Durgapur, Bokaro, Salem and Vishakapatinam. Iron containing 0.1% to 0.4% carbon is called mild steel. Containing 0.5% to 1.5% of carbon. Stainless steel - 8 % Nickel , 18% Chromium. Utensils, automobile parts, cutlery, surgical instruments. Tungsten steel 20% Nickel, 5% Chromium and little of vanadium. Drilling and cutting tools. Nickel Steel, Cobalt steel, Manganese steel Silicon steel: 35% silicon, Transformers and Electromagnets. Deficiency of Iron: Anemia. Excess of Iron: Siderosis. It is believed that the ores in the earths crust have come from the underground magma.During the valconic eruptions the lava brought out the metals to the earths crust . The lava that came to the surface got cooled rapidly and seldom provided ores. The magma remained under earths crust cooled slowly and is found to be a rich source of minerals.

Metals and Non-Metals:

139

Minerals

Limestone and Marble: Important building materials. Gypsum and clay: useful to make cement Precious gems. Rubies Aluminium oxides with impurities of chromium compounds Saphhires Aluminium oxides with imp. Of cobalt and titanium compounds. Diamond.

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Ores

141 142

Metallurgy Iron King of metals

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Steel Iron Aluminium

Oxide Ores: 1. Bauxite Aluminium Ore, 2. Cuprite Copper Ore, 3. Zincite Mineral form of zinc oxide. 4. Haematite Iron oxide 5. Pyrolusite Manganese ore. Sulphide ores: 1. Copper Pyrirates, Argentite(Silver), Zinc blende, Cinnabar(Mercury), Galena(Lead) and copper glance. Carbonate ores: Limestone and calamine. Halide ores: Fluorspar. The process of extracting minerals from their ores is called metallurgy. Earths crust consists of about 5% of iron. Present in rbc. Wrought iron Purest form of iron. 0.1 0.25 carbon. Pig iron 2 5% carbon. Steel 0.25 2% Carbon. Ores of Iron: 1. Haematite. 2. Magnetite 3. Iron pyrates. Manufactured by Bessemer process. Pure iron is grey in colour and becomes reddish brown on rusting. Silvery white metal known for its strength and light weight. Ores: 1. Bauxite 2. Cryolite 3. Corrundum Uses: 1. Good conductor of heat and it does not get corroded. 2. Good conductor of electricity electrical wires. 3. Used for packing and wrapping food stuffs and drugs. 4. Anti corrosion paints and explosives. 5. Used in reflecting telescopes.

146

Alloys of Aluminium

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Alloys of Iron

148

Alloys:

149

Corrosion

150 151

Noble metals Hydrogen Lighter than air.

152

Ammonia Alkaline in nat. bring tears in eyes.

Some metals react with Oxygen, Moisture and pollutants present in the atmosphere and form compounds like oxides, carbonates etc., and the surface of the metals lose their shine. Ex: Gold, Silver and Platinum Not easily corroded. Manufacture of fertilizers, nitric acid and explosives. Manufacture of methanol. Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in the rockets of the American space programmes. Hydrogen have high calorific value. It is used in welding. Hydrogen is used in hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Joseph priestly prepared ammonia from slaked lime with sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride. Ammonia is extremely soluble in water. Uses:

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Sulphur Exhibits allotrophy

154 155 156 157 158 159 160

Valcanisation of rubber Sulphur di oxide Sulphuric acid - Vitriol Synthetic polymers Compounds of carbon Hydrocarbons Alcohol

Refrigerent in ice making plant. Ammonium carbonate Smelling salt. Frasch process. Yellow crystalline solid at room temp. Insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents like carbon di sulphide and toluene. Sulphur is poisonous to bacteria and fungi, so it is used as an antiseptic and fungicide. Sulphur is also used in valcanisation of rubber. Heating the rubber with sulphur to a definite temperature for a known period of time is known as valcanisation of rubber. Manufacture of sulphuric acid. Sugar industry for refining sugar. Can be used as refrigerant in place of freons. King of Chemicals. PET( Polyethylene terephthalate), Polyethylene,Nylon, Terelyne,Bakelite. Proteins, Fossil fuels, Antibiotic drugs, Synthetic Polymers, Soaps and detergents. Carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. OH group. Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol. Can be derived from alkane. If a hydrogen is replaced by hydroxyl group. CH4 --- (-h) ---- CH3OH Primary, Secondary and Tertiary alcohols. CHO group. Methanal, Ethanal. COOH group. Methanoic acid, Ethanoic acid. Commonly known as alcohol. Alcohol is produced by fermentation of sugar present in molasses. By product of the sugar industry in india. Uses: 1. Manufacture of Paints, varnishes and medicines. 2. Preparation of Chloroform and iodoform. 3. Antiseptic to sterilize wounds and syringes in hosp. and disp. 4. Beer 3to6, wine 8to10, Whisky 30 % 5. In spirit lamps as methylated spirit. 6. Generate power in internal combustion engines. Alcohol adulterated with methanol causes severe poisioning.

161 162 163 164 165

Aldehyde Carboxylic acid Ethanol Molasses Ethanol

166

Aldehyde

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Formaldehyde Methanol

168 169

Acetone Carboxylic acid

Formaldehyde is also known as Farmalin. Powerful disinfectant and antiseptic. It is condensed with ammonia to form urotropine, important medicine in urinary ailments. Propanone. Nail polish remover.

170

Detergent

Cleansing Agent. Soapy Soap Non Soapy Detergents.

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Laughing gas

Nitrous Oxide.