Lecture 6: Operators and Quantum Mechanics The material in this lecture covers the following in Atkins. 11.

5 The informtion of a wavefunction (c) Operators Lecture on-line Operators in quantum mechanics (PDF) Operators in quantum mechanics (HTML) Operators in Quantum mechanics (PowerPoint) Handout (PDF) Assigned Questions

Tutorials on-line Reminder of the postulates of quantum mechanics The postulates of quantum mechanics (This is the writeup for Dry-lab-II)( This lecture has covered postulate 3) Basic concepts of importance for the understanding of the postulates Observables are Operators - Postulates of Quantum Mechanics Expectation Values - More Postulates Forming Operators Hermitian Operators Dirac Notation Use of Matricies Basic math background Differential Equations Operator Algebra Eigenvalue Equations Extensive account of Operators Historic development of quantum mechanics from classical mechanics The Development of Classical Mechanics Experimental Background for Quantum mecahnics Early Development of Quantum mechanics

Audio-visuals on-line
Early Development of Quantum mechanics Audio-visuals on-line Postulates of Quantum mechanics (PDF) (simplified version from Wilson) Postulates of Quantum mechanics (HTML) (simplified version from Wilson) Postulates of Quantum mechanics (PowerPoint ****) (simplified version from Wilson) Slides from the text book (From the CD included in Atkins ,**)

Operators and Quantum Mechanics We now have

Re view

(Ia) A Quantum mechanical system is specified by the statefunction ( x )

( Ib) The state function ( x) contains all information about the system we can know

(Ic) A system described by the state function H( x) = E( x) has exactly the energy E

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

Re view We have seen that a ' free' particle moving in one dimension in a constant (zero) potential has the Hamiltonian 2 2
O

X H = h

2m x 2

The Schrodinger equation is

h ( x) = E ( x) 2 2m x
2 2
with the general solution :

( x ) = A exp

ikx

+ B exp

ikx

h 2k 2 and energies E = 2m

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

How does the state function (x, t) give us information about an observable other than the energy such as the position or the momentum ?

Good question

Any observable ' ' can be expressed in classical physics in terms of x, y, z and px , p y , pz .

Examples : = x, p x , v x , p2 , T, V(x), E x

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

We can construct the corresponding operator from the substitution : Classical Mechanics Quantum Mechanics
x y z px py pz h i x h y > y ; py > i y x > x ; px > h z > z ; pz > i z

Re view

(x,y,z, h d , h d , h d ) as i dx i dy i dz
Such as : = x, p x , vx , p2 , T, V(x), E x

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

Im por tan t news For an observable with the corresponding operator we have the eigenvalue equation :

n = n n

(IIIa). The meassurement of the quantity represented by has as the o n l y outcome one of the values

n n = 1, 2, 3 ....
(IIIb). If the system is in a state described by n a meassurement of will result in the value n

Quantum mechanical principle.. Operators

For any such operator
we can solve the eigenvalue problem
Im por tan t news

n = n n

We obtain

eigenfunctions and eigenvalues

The only possible values that can arise from measurements of the physical observable are the eigenvalues n

Postulate 3

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

Im por tan t news The x - component ' p x ' of the linear momentum

r r r r p = px ex + p y e y + pz ez

Is represented by the operator px = h ix

With the eigenfunctions

Exp[ikx ]

and eigenvalue hk

h Exp[ikx ] = hkExp[ikx ] i x
We note that k can take any value > k >

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

New insight

( x ) = A exp
For A = 0

ikx

+ B exp

ikx

( x ) = B exp

h 2k 2 and energies E = 2m ikx

this wavefunction is also an eigenfunction to p x With eigenvalue for p x of - hk

h 2k 2 Thus - ( x ) describes a particle of energy E = 2m 2 Px and momentum px = hk ; note E = as it must be. 2m This system corresponds to a particle moving with constant velocity px We know nothing about its position = -hk/m vx = m since | (x) |2 = B

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

New insight

( x ) = A exp
For B = 0

ikx

ikx and energies E = h2k 2 B exp

2m

+ ( x ) = A expikx

this wavefunction is also an eigenfunction to p x With eigenvalue for p x of hk

h 2k 2 Thus ( x ) describes a particle of energy E = 2m 2 Px and momentum px = hk ; note E = as it must be. 2m This system corresponds to a particle moving with constant velocity p We know nothing about its position v x = x = hk/m m since | (x) |2 = B

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

It is not an eigenfunction to p x since :

New insight

What about : ( x ) = A expikx + B exp ikx ?

h d h d ikx ikx x (x) = A p exp + B exp i dx i dx = Ahk expikx Bhk exp ikx
How can we find p x in this case ?

Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions

A linear operator A will have a set of eigenfunctions fn ( x ) {n = 1,2,3..etc} and associated eigenvalues kn such that :

Afn ( x ) = k n fn ( x )
The set of eigenfunction {fn ( x ), n = 1..} is orthonormal : fi ( x )* fj ( x )dx = ij
all space
= o if i j = 1 if i = j

Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions

An example of an orthonormal set is the Cartesian unit vectors
ei ei

e i e j = ij
ei

An example of an orthonormal function set is

n (x) = 1 nx sin L L

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5....
L

n ( x )* m ( x ) = nm

Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions

The set of eigenfunction {fn ( x ), n = 1..} forms a complete set.
That is, any function g(x) that depends on the same variables as the eigenfunctions can be written r

ei ; i = 1, 2, 3 form a complete set

ei ei

g(x) = anfn ( x )
i=1

all

where an = fn ( x )* g(x)dx all space

ei

r For any vector v r r r r r r r r r v = (v e1 )e1 + (v e2 )e2 + (v e 3 )e 3

Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions

In the expansion : g(x) = aifi ( x )
i=1 all

(1)

we can show that : an = fn ( x )* g(x)dx

V

* f ( x )dx = from the orthonormality : fi ( x ) j ij V

all * g(x)dx = a f ( x )* f ( x )dx g(x) = aifi ( x ) fn (x) i n i i=1 V i=1 V all
A multiplication by fn (x) on both sides followed by integration affords

or : : aan= or n =

x * dx g(x)fn ((x )dx n

all space all space

ij

Operators and Quantum Mechanics

( x ) = A expikx + B exp ikx is a linear combination of two eigenfunctions to p x
p x = hk
How can we find p x in this case ?
p x = hk

What you should learn from this lecture

1. Postulate 3 For an observable with the corresponding operator we have the eigenvalue equation : n = n n (i) The meassurement of the quantity represented by has as the o n l y outcome one of the values n n = 1, 2, 3 .... (ii) If the system is in a state described by n a meassurement of will result in the value n Illustrations : + ( x ) = A expikx is an eigenfunction to px with eigenvalue hk

( x ) = A exp ikx is an eigenfunction to px with eigenvalue - hk Both are eigenfunctions to the Hamiltonian for a free particle h 2 (px )2 h2k2 H= with eigenvalues E = 2m 2m + ( x ) represents a free particle of momentum hk ( x ) represents a free particle of momentum - hk

What you should learn from this lecture

2. Postulate 4. The set of eigenfunction {fn ( x ), n = 1..} forms a complete set. That is, any function g(x) that depends on the same variables as the eigenfunctions can be written : g(x) = anfn ( x ) where
i=1 all

an =

g(x)fn ( x )dx
all space