EATH AND ENVIORMENTAL SCIENCE STUDY NOTES

9.2 TECTOIC IMACTS: 1. LITHOSPHERIC PLATES AND THEIR MOTION

Lithosphere-Outer layer of the Earth. Includes-continental crust/Oceanic crust/the upper mantle. Lies layer of the earth-asthenosphere. Not a uniform layer all around the globe. It consists of a series of plates-lithospheric plates Ride/move relative to each other on the partially molten asthenosphere. Created-mid-oceanic ridges/destroyed-subduction zones. Describe The Characteristics Of Lithospheric Plates Upper layer of each plate-composed of crust Crust-either continental crust/oceanic crust. Continental crust-relatively less dense rock (granite). Oceanic crust-more dense rock (basalt). Oceanic crust carries sediments deposited on the oceanic floor. Some-just oceanic crust. Others-oceanic crust/some continental crust. Oceanic crust-thin-usally-5-10 Km. Continental crust-usally25-50 Km. y Under large mountain ranges-can be over 80 Km. Lithospheric plates-up to 70 km-oceanic crust-up to 150 km thick (where there is continental crust). Outline The Motion Of Plates And Distinguish Between The Three Types Of Plate Boundaries (Convergent, Divergent And Conservative) Plates move slowly-up to 12cm per year. Divergent plate boundaries: y Moves away/new oceanic lithosphere is created to fill the gap. y Usually found-mid-ocean ridges/sometimes-rift valleys on continental crust where the continent is beginning to divide (the African Rift Valley/the Dead Sea Rift Valley. Conservative plate boundaries (transform boundaries): y Neither created/destroyed. y Plates slide past each other along faults.

y Near mid ocean ridges-transform faults. y Continental crust-causes earthquakes (Alpine Fault System-N.Z/San
Andreas Fault-California, USA). Convergent plate boundaries: y Lithosphere is consumed. y One plate (usually consisting-oceanic material) is subducted beneath another plate. y Deep Ocean trenches-usually found along continents edge when subduction occurs. y Often-upper surface of the subducted plate is shaved off-creating folded sediments at the edge of the overlying plate. y As subducted plate moves deeper into the asthenosphere-partly melts/this molten rock rises as it is less dense than the material above it-creating magma chambers (hot spots)-from the hot spots volcanoes are produced in the overlying plate. Identify The Relationship Between The General Composition Of Igneous Rocks And Plate Boundary Type Divergent boundaries: y Mafic igneous rocks (basalt/gabbro/peridotites) y Mafic rocks-dark coloured-contain minerals richer in magnesium/iron (olivine/pyroxene/amphibole/biotite). y Form-direct upwelling of dense magmas from the asthenosphere-solidifies on contact with cold ocean water. Convergent boundaries: y Felsic rocks (andesite/rhyolite/granite). y Felsic rocks-light coloured-contain more feldspar/quartz minerals with more silica than the dark coloured minerals. y Produced from magmas with higher water content. Conservative boundaries: y Occasionally a variety of igneous rocks occur-molten rock fills cracks-form intrusions (dykes-sills). Describe Current Hypotheses Used To Explain How Convection Currents And Subduction Drive Plate Motion Idea 1: y Plates move-convection currents in the asthenosphere-transfer heat from the lower mantle the crust.

y As the currents move-drag the plates with them. (Shear traction).

Idea 2: y Higher density of cold rock compared to that of hot rock the lithosphere to be dragged by gravity (ridge-push). y From the relatively high mid-ocean ridge the subduction zone-sinking denser lithosphere (slab-pull). Idea 3: y Tensional force is placed on an upper plate-by subduction of the lower plate. y Subducting zone moves away (called roll-back)-the upper plate-create secondary volcanic arcs (trench suction).

9.2 TECTONIC IMPACTS: 2. MOUNTAIN BUILDING

Mountains-result of the interactions between plates. Types of mountains formed depend on the type of plate interaction. Gather, Process And Present Information From Secondary Sources Which Compares Formation, General Rock Type And Structure Of Mountain Belts Formed As A Result Of Thermal Uplift And Rifting With Those Resulting From Different Types Of Plate Convergence Good way to compare information-structure the information in a table. Well-designed tables assist you to identify useful information/notice trends/patterns. such as this one: Mountain belts formed by: Mountain belt features Formation General rock type Structure of mountain belts

thermal uplift and rifting ocean/ocean boundaries ocean/continent boundaries continent/continent boundaries

Distinguish Between Mountain Belts Formed At Divergent And Convergent Plate Boundaries In Terms Of General Rock Types And Structures, Including Folding And Faulting Divergent boundaries: Mountain belts formed from the action of thermal uplift. Rifting are of two main types: 1. Mid-ocean ridges: y Form a near-continuous underwater mountain chain-extends for 60 000 km right around the globe. y To over 2.4 km above the floor-from the 5 km deep ocean basins. y Can be 2000 km wide. y Formed-convective upwelling of mantle beneath thin oceanic lithosphere. y Formed along structurally weak zones-where the ocean floor is being pulled apart lengthwise along the ridge crest. y New magma from deep within the Earth rises through these weak zones/eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges-create new oceanic crust (called seafloor spreading). y Process creates-basalt lavas. y Lavas often form as pillow lavas. y Beneath-basaltic dykes/deeper down-gabbros. y Topography near the ridge axis-very rough/mountainous. y Centre-steep-sided troughs-several km wide-similar to rift valleys that occur on continents. y Mid-ocean ridges-offset by transform faults-that run perpendicular to ridge axis. y Faults-only active between the spreading centres. 2. Young rift zones: y Occur-within continental landmasses y Caused by convective upwelling of mantle beneath weak continental lithosphere. y When continental crust stretches beyond its limits-tension cracks begin to appear on the Earth's surface. y Magma rises/squeezes through the widening cracks/sometimes to erupt/form volcanoes. y Rift zones-intensive basaltic igneous activity. y Rising magma-whether or not it erupts- pressure on the crust to produce additional fractures/ultimately-the rift zone. y Uplift produces plateaus adjacent to the rift.

y These plateaus generally slope upwards towards the rift valley. y Escarpments in the rift valley-formed from normal faulting into the rift
(Africa along the East African Rift Zone). Convergent boundaries: y Three types-result in the following mountain types:  Ocean/ocean boundaries: o Mountains formed at ocean/ocean boundaries are of the volcanic island arc type. They form on an oceanic plate that has another oceanic plate subducting under it. There are two types of mountains that can form at ocean/ocean boundaries. o Faulting and folding:  comprise elongated mounds of ocean floor sediments that have been tightly folded/chaotically mixed in the trench  Caused as they are scraped from the down-going oceanic plate (the southern line of islands of the Indonesian Archipelago).  Form chains of explosive volcanoes.  These volcanoes form from andesitic magmas-generated as the subducted plate partially melts-comes in contact with the hot asthenosphere.  Steam/other volatile substances find paths upwards-creating vents for magma to reach the surface to create the volcanoes (the northern line of islands of the Indonesian Archipelago)  Island arcs can be deformed by strike-slip faults/folds.  Ocean/continent boundaries: o Oceanic plate-subducts beneath a continent. o Sediments on the upper surface of the lower plate will be scraped off to produce a wedge of sediment (accretionary wedge). o Accretionary wedge-forced directly against-leading edge of continental crust-subducting plate will be forced down steeply into the asthenosphere the plate will be partially melted. o Steam produced/also partially melts the upper mantle. o Andesitic magmas is produced. o Mountains-from the compression/uplift of the low density wedge sediments/the sediments/rocks of the continent/from the intrusion of magma-from the partial melting in the subduction zone. o Mountains-rise to very high altitudes/contain highly folded/faulted sedimentary rocks-from compressional forces. o The upper sections of sedimentary mountain ranges remain poorly consolidated/quickly erode, producing large amounts of sediment-rivers that drain from them.

o Intrusions of magma-form of large granitic batholiths beneath the volcanic belt. o Mountains contain explosive andesitic volcanoes. o Explosive volcanoes produce lots of pyroclastic sediment in the mountain areas. o Frequently form calderas-eruptions from large/shallow magma chambers (the Andes Mountain chain-South America).  Continent/continent boundaries: o Two continents collide-ocean between them has been subducted. o Continents-flanked by accreted sediment from the ocean floor-scraped off from the subduction-forms a huge wedge as it is folded/compressed/uplifted. o Old oceanic plate rocks (ophiolites)-can also be squeezed between the two continents/be uplifted as part of the mountain range formed. o Ophiolites-very mafic/composed-rocks (basalt/gabbro). o Two older sections of colliding continents meet-older sections of the continents (cratons). o Cratons-made of crystalline igneous/high-grade metamorphic rocksold/incompressible. o Rocks of the craton splinter/fault at low angles/stacking on each otherthey are compressed-form mountains (the Himalayas). o Low-angle thrust faults are common.

9.2 TECTONIC IMPACTS: 3. CONTINENTS EVOLVE

Outline The Main Stages Involved In The Growth Of The Australian Continent Over Geological Time As A Result Of Plate Tectonic Processes It is important to understand that the Australian landmass has existed as an island as we know it since about 55 million years ago (mya). Any outline of how the Australian continent has grown must be set in the broader context of a smaller Australia linked to other landmasses, particularly to the west and south. Often the eastern border met ocean with island arcs or with shallow seas. The oldest rocks of Australia are found in Western Australia and are 3800 million years old. They are found in cratons, areas that have been through a full cycle of continental crust building processes. An area is cratonised when it has been through stages of mountain building that includes folding, igneous emplacement and crustal thickening, and has become stable after continuous erosion and isostatic uplift until it is about 35 kilometres thick.

The general trend across Australia is that the rocks become younger as we move from west to east.
y

Stage 1: Formation of cornerstone blocks (cratons)  By 2500 mya, three large cratons were established in Western Australia. Stage 2: Welding the blocks together  From 2500mya to 900 mya, the cratons were separated by active, linear mountain chains, known as mobile belts, that welded the cornerstone blocks together. These belts were highly deformed and folded and contain metamorphic rocks and granite.  By 900 mya, the western two thirds of present day Australia had been cratonised. Australia was still part of Gondwana. Stage 3: Subduction and accretion in the east.  From about 500 mya to about 250 mya, the continent was developed further to the east in the formation of the Tasman Fold Belt. The rocks present in the eastern third of the Australian continent exhibit evidence of former island arcs and ocean trenches resulting from the subduction of an oceanic plate. Sediment accumulated between the continental edge and the island arc, filling the seaway.  From 320 mya to 280 mya, major mountain building occurred in eastern and central Australia, including the formation of the Lachlan Fold Belt and the New England Fold Belt. These belts supplied the sediment for sedimentary basins that developed along the eastern flank of Australia. The active, or mobile, belt then moved eastward to produce the Lowe Howe Rise. The current mobile belt lies along the Tonga-Kermadec-New Zealand Line in the Pacific Ocean.  By 200 mya, the eastern third of Australia was cratonised. Stage 4: Shallow seas  160 mya, an area called Argoland rifted away to the northwest. Rift valleys formed down the Western Australian coast and between Australia and the Indian continent. This was the beginning of the breaking up of Gondwana. sea levels rose, flooding over the Greta Artesian Basin.  132 mya, a narrow seaway had developed separating Argoland. South and west of Australia, spreading began and marked out the continental shapes including India. Faster spreading between India, Antarctica and Australia continued to 118 mya, opening an ocean up to 600 kilometres wide.  96 mya, the Lord Howe rise began rifting south of Tasmania and westward, separating Antarctica. The rift that was moving India away was cut.

 84

mya, the Indian continent moved further north with the same direction as the rift between Australia and Antarctica.  64 mya, the Tasman Sea continued spreading, until 49 mya when spreading stopped.  From 45 mya to the present, the Southern Ocean continued spreading. Resultant downwarping of the continent allowed shallow seas to cover the Murray Basin.
y

Stage 5: Intra-continental earthquakes and hot spot volcanoes  As the continent (now the island we recognise) continued its northward drift, it passed over a number of mantle hot spots, resulting in a series of parallel lines of volcanoes which are younger towards the south. The largest of these include Mount Warning on the NSW/Queensland border and Mount Canobolas in the NSW Central West. The most recent volcanic eruption was at Mount Gambier in South Australia only 4000 years ago  Tensional stresses acting within the continent as the plate boundary to the north pushed against the Asian and Pacific plates caused some very old faults to move periodically, and blocks to adjust isostatically. The Great Dividing Range was uplifted to its present height by this process. Stage 6: Continuing northward  Interaction between the converging Australian and Pacific plates has produced the current New Guinea mobile belt.

present information as a sequence of diagrams to describe the plate tectonic super-cycle concept the plate tectonic super-cycle The plate tectonic super-cycle is a theory to explain a sequence of events that have repeated at least three times. Formation of super-continents Pangea and Rodinia occurred 300 million years ago and 900 million years ago, suggesting a super-cycle time span for formation and breaking up of super-continents of about 600 million years. The following is a very general description of possible super-cycles. During plate tectonic development, a super-continent breaks up and the two new continents become separated by the new oceanic lithosphere that is produced at a mid ocean ridge between them. As the oceanic lithosphere grows, the continents drift further apart. If a subduction zone forms near the edge of one

of the continents, the oceanic lithosphere will be consumed in the subduction zone. The continents will be drawn back together, eventually to collide producing a super-continent again. If a subduction zone develops on the far side of one of the continents, oceanic lithosphere will be consumed. This may eventually cause the continent to collide with another continent producing a new super-continent. The following is another super-cycle scenario, using Pangea as an example:
y

Begin with a small super-continent, like Pangea, completely surrounded with ocean. (Pangea occupied 30% of the Earth's surface with the other 70% being ocean.) Spreading at a mid ocean ridge some distance from the super-continent will cause the oceanic lithosphere near the super-continent to begin to subduct beneath it. This subduction produces the characteristic andesitic volcanoes. The volcanism at the edges of the super-continent causes some weakness in the crust there. Subduction continues until the subduction zone becomes choked and ceases, causing a new subduction zone to develop a few hundred kilometres offshore. This new subduction zone will result in a chain of new andesitic volcanoes, and thus new continental material developing offshore. The weakness in the continental margin between the new island chain and the original supercontinent allows spreading to occur creating a trough called a back-arc basin. The area west of the islands of Japan is an example of this. Now, marginal seas and island arcs surround the super-continent. Back-arc basins eventually fill with sediment, thus extending the size of the supercontinent. Eventually, due to the presence of weaknesses in the zones that were once marginal seas, the super-continent is able to split up, allowing the formation of separate continents, like we see today. The cycles continue for each continent. If subduction of the ocean plates continues, it may bring continents together once again creating a supercontinent and thus the cycle can continue.

9.2 Tectonic impacts: 4. Natural disasters Background: Earthquakes are vibrations or tremors that occur in the Earth as a result of rocks suddenly moving against each other. The epicentre of an earthquake is the point on the Earths surface that is directly above where the movement occurred. The focus of an earthquake is the exact position of the

earthquake. The precise location of an earthquake can be described by stating the map coordinates for the epicentre and a depth for the focus. identify where earthquakes and volcanoes are currently likely to occur based on the plate tectonic model
y

Because we know that earthquakes are caused by sudden movement of rocks that are under stress, the location of earthquakes can be predicted by using the plate tectonic model to identify places where sections of rocks are being forced to move against each other. These places would correspond to known active fault lines and plate boundaries. y Rocks that are under stress can frequently adjust to the stress by folding or sliding. However, if sections lock up, stress may be released by the rocks fracturing, creating a sudden large movement. Earthqaukes are likely to occur in places such as these. y We know that volcanoes result from the upwelling of magma generated at hot locations in the mantle, and from partial melting of crust. This means that the location of volcanoes can be predicted by using the plate tectonic model to identify typical geological settings for magma generation.

Plate boundaries were discovered by plotting past earthquakes and volcanoes on a map of the world. The following predictions can be made from the plate tectonic model.
y y

Most volcanoes and earthquakes will occur on plate boundaries. Shallow focused earthquakes, down to depths of seven kilometres, will occur along those sections of transform faults that are between the spreading rift axes. Earthquakes and explosive volcanoes will be produced in subduction zones. Shallow focused earthquakes will occur near the ocean trench; deep focused earthquakes will occur further away from the trench. Earthquakes will frequently occur at conservative boundaries, down to depths of 30 kilometres. Volcanic eruptions occur progressively along the rifts of the mid ocean ridges. More activity will occur away from the hinge of rotation for the two plates. Relatively passive eruptions can be expected from volcanoes located at divergent boundaries. Mid plate volcanoes are usually the result of a hot spot under the plate. Observation of the direction of plate movement over the hot spot can assist in predicting where new volcanos will occur.

The plate tectonic model does not currently provide reliable predictions related to earthquakes in continental lithosphere. distinguish between plate margin and intra-plate earthquakes with reference to the origins of specific earthquakes recorded on the Australian continent
y

The Australian continent lies entirely within the Australia-India plate, and so it does not experience plate boundary processes. Plate margin earthquakes account for ninety percent of all earthquakes and are the result of the constant movement of the rocks at plate boundaries against each other. Intra-plate earthquakes are those that occasionally occur in the crust of plates and away from the more active plate boundaries. The causes of intra plate earthquakes are not well understood, but they are usually caused by compressive stress in rocks. Australia has three distinct regions of earthquake activity. These are: o the Eastern region, covering the eastern highlands and coastal areas o the Central region, extending from near Adelaide to the Simpson Desert o the Western region, encompassing several distinct zones. The most disastrous Australian earthquake in the last 200 years was the Newcastle earthquake of 28 December 1989. It was a magnitude 5.6 earthquake that caused $1.2 billion damage. The most likely cause was by readjustments along the Hunter-Mooki Thrust, a curved fault running from Newcastle and through Maitland, Murrurundi, Quirindi. Narrabri and Mackay, The fault is sporadically active due to strong easterly compression from the expanding Pacific Ocean floor. In the central seismic region of Australia, earthquakes have been associated with a 120 kilometre long fault as a result of north-south compressive forces. The stress causing intra-plate earthquakes may be associated with isostasy, which is the tendency for rock masses to rise or sink to achieve a balance between downward weight forces and upward buoyancy forces. Erosion and deposition change historically balanced isostatic forces, causing new regions of stress and strain. Some intra-plate earthquakes may be related to the stress at plate boundaries and to temperature changes in the lithosphere caused by processes in the mantle. The Australian plate has many north-south trending concentrations of earthquakes, so it may be that the Australian plate is adjusting to the twisting motion of the plate as it moves north. The forces that drive the continent may not be uniform and adjustment to the different stresses created by this may cause the earthquakes.

In Western Australia, a linear zone of seismic activity extends from near Moora, southeast to Albany. This is known as the Southwest Seismic Zone. It is the most seismically active area in Australia. The town of Meckering, that experienced a magnitude 6.9 earthquake on 14 October 1968, lies within this zone. Though the reason for the concentration of seismic activity in the Southwest Seismic Zone remains unknown, it could be caused by a major structure/discontinuity of crustal or lithospheric scale that has been reactivated. gather information from secondary sources to identify the technology used to measure crustal movements at collision boundaries and describe how this is used
y

Decide on a useful data collection technique to be used consistently across the group to gather the data. You may need to decide on the structure and components of a table and the language to be used by each team member. The following table is an example of one way to gather data. The table describes some of the developed or experimental technologies currently used to measure crustal movements. Many of these exhibit potential as technologies which might contribute to more accurate prediction of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Technology used to measure crustal movements Laser geodimeter How this is used

Measures changes in the distance between stable units on either side of the fault Measures the deformation of the ground surface around a fault Monitors ground tilting Monitoring the relative and absolute motion of stations set up across plate boundaries enables the determination of regional-scale deformation and associated stress fields. Measures crustal deformation along faults and near volcanoes. It is an ultra-precise, distance-measuring instrument that employs

Wire strain meter (10 m long)

Tilt meter Data gathered by satellite global positioning systems (GPS) is being used to analyse deformations in the Earth's crust Two-colour geodimeter

light pulses. It has a precision of 0.5 to 1.0 mm for ranges between 1 and 12 km. describe methods used for the prediction of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes The following are descriptions of some of the developed or experimental technologies currently used to predict volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. No reliable method of predicting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes has yet been developed.
y

Local seismic recording stations: used with artificially generated microearthquakes to produce precise estimates of the P-wave and S-wave velocities in a test region. An earthquake may be expected when the ratio of these velocities changes slightly. Modern seismic monitoring networks including the use of seismic instruments placed down boreholes (to depths of 500 m): Some large earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Knowledge of past earthquake patterns allows scientists to estimate the odds that an earthquake striking is a foreshock to a larger mainshock in the same area. Additionally, characteristic levels of background seismicity may drop substantially in the months or years prior to a large earthquake. Tiny changes in seismic velocity in the stressed region may be due to cracks forming just before failure. The VAN Technique measures changes in the earths electric field prior to an earthquake: Three Greek scientists, P. Varotsos, K. Alexopoulos, and K. Nomicos, (VAN) have pioneered methods of detecting, recording, and interpreting signals from the earth that precede an earthquake. These electromagnetic signals are apparently generated through piezoelectric processes, induced by tectonic stress. Other similar research is investigating if changes in the Earths background noise in the low (LF), very low (VLF), and extremely low (ELF) frequency bands may indicate a pending earthquake. Geochemical samplers: detect increases in the radioactive gas radon in the ground water prior to an earthquake. It is believed that changes in stress in the crust enables radon trapped in cracks to move toward the surface. Because increased earthquake activity is an indicator of an imminent volcanic eruption, the methods above can all be used to predict eruptions. Additionally, systematic seismic monitoring of activity before, during and after an eruption is used in some situations. Volcano monitoring consists of keeping a detailed record of the changes in a volcano over time. Scientists look for:
o increase

or decrease in steaming of vents

of new steaming areas o development of new ground cracks or widening of old ones o unusual or inexplicable withering of plant life o changes in the colour of minerals encrusting fumaroles o increase in volume of the volcano (swelling) o precise location of earthquakes associated with magma movement o localised changes in the Earths magnetic field o any other obvious and recordable change. describe hazards associated with earthquakes, including ground motion, tsunamis and collapse of structures
o

o emergence

Ground motion can cause built structures to collapse, can damage and displace vehicles, can cause water in harbours to be displaced, and can trigger other devastating events such as landslides and mudslides. People and other animals can be buried in crevasses. o Major earthquakes in the lithosphere below oceans can trigger tsunamis. Such earthquakes can change the level of the ocean floor by several metres and displace an enormous volume of water. The waves produced contain the energy of the earthquake as it lifts up to 14 kilometre of ocean above it. A wave generated has twice the wavelength of the diameter of the affected area and it travels very fast (800 km per hour). Upon reaching shallow water, the front of a tsunamis wave-set slows down while the back catches up to produce a massive wall of water. Tsunamis devastate low lying coastal areas. Houses and other structures are usually hit by a wall of water from the ocean and again as the water rushes back out to sea. Floating debris increases the impact on life and property.

describe hazards associated with volcanoes, including poisonous gas emissions, ash flows, lahars and lava flows and examine the impact of these hazards on the environment, on people and other living things
o

One of the greatest hazards of volcanoes is the explosive eruption. At least 200 000 people have lost their lives as a result of explosive volcanic eruptions in the past 500 years. Well known examples of explosive eruptions are:  Mt Pele, Martinique, in which erupted in 1902, killing 30 000 people  Mt St Helens, USA, which erupted in 1980 resulting in 57 dead or missing and $1.2 billion damage. Poisonous gas emissions from volcanoes include carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) hydrochloric acid

(HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), sulfurous acid (H2SO3) and boric acid (H3BO3). Carbon dioxide (CO2), although not poisonous, can asphyxiate by displacing air that contains oxygen. Most of these emissions are associated with eruptions. One specific example recently occurred in Lake Nyos, in Africa, where the crater-lake became saturated with carbon monoxide gas. A minor disturbance in the lake caused about one cubic kilometre of gas to be released, killing 1700 people in a nearby village and all livestock in surrounding areas. Ash flows can kill because of heat and poisonous gas. In March and April 1982, El Chichon in Mexico erupted three times producing high velocity incandescent ash flows that levelled villages up to eight kilometres away. The number of deaths exceeded 500. In 79 AD, Mt Vesuvius buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum so completely that they werent discovered again until 1700 years later. Different types of lava flow at different speeds. Highly viscous lava tends to block volcanic vents and lead to explosive eruptions. High temperature, low viscosity lava flows freely and is often associated with hot spot volcanoes and sea floor rifts. These lavas do not usually endanger human life because there is time for evacuation. However all property in their path is destroyed by the lava. Lava flows regularly from Mt Etna in Italy and Kilauea in Hawaii. Villages are buried but people have enough time to escape the flow. Lahars are mud and ash flows generated from the melting of an ice cap on a volcano or associated with release of water from a crater lake. Flows of volcanic debris can have the consistency of wet cement. They can sweep down the sides of a composite volcano burying everything in their path. Nevada del Ruiz Volcano, in Colombia, buried the city of Armero with a lahar, killing 25 000 people. A nue ardente is a highly mobile, turbulent gaseous cloud erupted from a volcano. It can be incandescent. The most infamous nue ardente occurred when Mt Pele erupted in 1902, killing 30 000 people.

describe and explain the impacts of shock waves (earthquakes) on natural and built environments
o

Shockwaves from earthquakes are of three main types: 1. P-waves are compression waves. 2. S-waves are transverse or shear waves. 3. L-waves are surface waves and can be transverse or elliptical. The elliptical waves are the slowest, but often the largest and most destructive, of the wave types caused by an earthquake. The impact of shockwaves is related to their intensity.

Factors affecting intensity include the location of the focus, the triggering mechanism, the quantity of energy released and the nature of the local geology. Earthquake intensity is measured using a relative scale, such as the modified Mercalli scale. The magnitude of an earthquake is an absolute value and is related to the amount of strain energy released, as recorded by seismographs. Magnitude is measured on the Richter scale, a numerical scale that describes an earthquake independently of its effects on people or objects such as landforms or buildings. The following table relates some of the Modified Mercalli scale of earthquake intensities to some well-known examples. The Richter scale values are provided for comparison. Intensity Title (Mercalli) II IV Feeble Moderate Rather strong VI VIII Strong Destructive Effects on natural and built environments Suspended objects sway Windows and dishes rattle Dishes and windows broken Chimneys topple Weak structures severely damaged; strong structures slightly damaged Total destruction of weak structures. Foundations damaged. Underground pipes broken Only best buildings survive. Ground badly cracked Few masonry structures remain standing. Broad cracks in ground Total destruction. Waves seen on the ground Kobe, 1995 (7.2) Western India, 2001 (7.9) Chile, 1960 (9.5) Meckering, 1968 (5) Newcastle, 1989 (5.6) Port Jackson, 1788 Lithgow, 1985 (4) Example (Richter magnitude)

IX

Ruinous

Disastrous

XI

Very disastrous

XII

Catastrophic

describe the general physical, chemical and biotic characteristics of a volcanic region and explain why people would inhabit such regions of risk Volcanic regions have extremely fertile soils. Volcanic rocks break down physically and chemically very quickly. Volcanic rocks weather readily producing soils rich in iron and magnesium . Soil formation can occur in as little as a few hundred years, but there are instances recorded of seeds germinating on erupted rock soon after cooling. Volcanic mountains often have very high altitudes resulting in favourable conditions for plentiful rainfall. There is generally a great diversity of biota in volcanic regions. If adequate rainfall is available, natural vegetation and crops grow quickly and these can support a great variety of animal species. Volcanic landscapes have aesthetic attraction for people. Mountains create beautiful scenery and symmetrical volcanic cones have been important to many cultural beliefs. People are often willing to take the risk that eruptions will not occur in their lifetime. Many people who live in volcano and earthquake prone regions accept earthquake activity, like climate, as a condition of life. justify continued research into reliable prediction of volcanic activity and earthquakes Some possible arguments for continued research are: y There are large populations in many areas prone to volcanic activity and earthquakes. Given that prediction of impending volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are currently unreliable, people will not move until it is too late. Thus reliable early warning would save many lives and reduce losses due to poor preparation for a disaster. y Although research and the use of new technologies are expensive, the cost is small compared to the possible savings in lives, the provision of emergency services and loss of work, after a devastating event. y The use of new technologies, such as modern microcomputers, and remote sensing technologies, offer great potential for reliable methods of prediction to be developed in the near future. Some alternative arguments: y Earthquakes are difficult or impossible to predict because of their inherent random behaviour. Efforts should be channelled into hazard mitigation. y Providing warnings can cause panic in a population, potentially causing more problems than if an earthquake or a volcanic eruption was not predicted.

y The geological hazards of most regions are now known and the choice to live
in a potentially hazardous area is an individual one. Education about ways to survive and cope with the effects of a natural disaster is more appropriate than continued research into prediction. 9.2 Tectonic impacts: 5. Plate tectonics and climate describe and explain the potential and observed impacts of volcanic eruptions on global temperature and agricture The potential impacts of volcanic eruptions on global temperature: The injection of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) into the stratosphere causes the greatest impact on the atmosphere and global temperatures. The SO2 converts to sulfuric acid aerosols that block incoming solar radiation and contribute to ozone destruction. The reduction in solar radiation can cause global cooling. The plume of ash from an eruption causes an increase in the amount of sunlight reflected by the Earth's atmosphere back to space causing the surface of the planet to cool. The potential impacts of volcanic eruption on agricture: Volcanic eruptions have the potential to devastate agrictural activity. Areas close to the erupting cone can be destroyed by lava and mud flows. Poisonous gases can kill herds of stock. Areas further from the cone can be covered in thick layers of pyroclastic debris. The observed impacts of volcanic eruption on global temperature: El Chichon and Mount Pinatubo emitted the greatest amounts of SO2 into the stratosphere. El Chichon produced about 7 million tonnes of SO2 and Mount Pinatubo produced about 20 million tonnes. Both of these volcanoes are at low latitudes but they both had high eruption rates. The impact of eruptions may not last very long. For a large eruption like Mount Pinatubo, the impact may last for up to three years. The observed impacts of volcanic eruption on agricture: Mt St Helens produced a layer of debris six-tenths of an inch (about 15mm) thick, five hundred miles (about 800km) away. In the regions affected by Mt St Helens:

y crop loss was estimated at $100 million, or seven percent of the national
crop value for that region. y fifty percent of the alfalfa hay crop was ruined y timber to the value of $100 million dollars was destroyed y the wheat, potato, and apple crops were above normal, through a decrease in popations of destructive insects. predict the possible effects of explosive volcanic activity on global and local climates Global effects: y Explosive volcanism will produce large amounts of ash and aerosols that can reach into the stratosphere. The high levels of material in the atmosphere at this height will rest in a reduced amount of radiation from the sun reaching the Earths surface. Less radiation reaching the surface reduces the surface temperature and the heating of air in contact with the surface. If widespread enough, there will be a reduction in the global temperature. Local effects: y Fine ash will increase precipitation in the area around a volcano. y The precipitation will be acidic because of the reaction of sulfur dioxide with water in clouds developing around the volcano. y There may be reduced local temperatures because of reduced radiation if a volcanic plume persists for a prolonged time.