Design for Manufacture

What constitutes a good design?

How should one make correct design decisions?
How should we make designs that can be manufactured inexpensively?
If we design an effective and efficient manufacturing processes & systems, the product
can be readily manufactured at low cost.
As a result, the design of products, processes and manufacturing system is an essential
part of manufacturing engineering.
It is said that 80% of productivity is determined by decisions made at the design stage.
The most important issue in design is How to make rational design decisions.
An example is the design of a refrigerator door.
The first question is what do we expect the door to do for us, or What kind of function
should the door fulfill?
1. Provide access to the contents inside.
2. Minimize energy consumption (energy or cost)
Engineers need to make national decisions early in the design stage to reduce the lead
time, decrease the development cost, and increase the productivity.
The design decisions may be performed using design principle or design Axioms.
The design Axioms are derived from common elements that are present in all designs.
Axiom 1 (The independent Axiom) Maintain the independence of
functional requirements.
Axiom 2 (The information Axiom) Minimize the information
content.
Now for a vertically hung refrigerator door we see that the first axiom is not satisfied,
since the functional requirements are coupled.
Solution to this problem is to use a horizontally hung door, like a chest freezer door.
This new design is an uncoupled design since when you open the door the cold are stays
in.
In this problem the door insulation and hinges are called design parameters.
FRs represent What we want the product to achieve.
DPs represent How we propose to achieve FRs through certain product designs.
Now in manufacturing we satisfy the DPs of the product by using specific Process
Variables (PVs).
DPs represent what we need to satisfy.
PVs represent How we are going to satisfy them.
The relationship between DPs and PVs are equivalent to relationship between FRs and
DPs.
An example of a good design is a bottle/can opener as shown.
FR
1
: Open beverage can
FR
2
: Open beverage bottle
In this design, the functions are physically integrated, but not functionally
Functional Requirements:
1. Open cans
2. Open bottles (But not at the same time)
This is a good example of axiomatic design,
Functional Requirement: Minimum set of independent requirements for a specific need
that completely characterize the design objective.
Design for Manufacture: Design of Products, Processes and Systems.
Sisco Ronters, they have beaten all other competitions in the routing signal business.
IBM: Thin film for magnetic read and write heads. Even reverse engineering did not
work.
This shows both the product and manufacturing system must be designed correctly to
produce a successful product. We can not manufacture a good product without a good
design.
Design is being discussed in this chapter.
Design of Products, Processes & Systems
How should one make correct design decisions?
(Sony Beta System)
How should we design a product to be manufactured cheaply?
We learned better designed products brings a better or higher valued-added market price
than the competition (U.S. cars & electronics vs. Japanese)
Better product Higher price Greater added value Higher productivity
Also Low Manufacturing Cost Higher Productivity (automation & cheaper labor)
Effective design and efficient manufacturing process & system lower cost
manufactured product.
Some say 80% of productivity is determined by decisions made at the design stage.
We need good design and good manufacturing process and systems for a successful
production.
To choose among different designs we need to make rational decisions. What criteria
should we use for our decisions?
Example: Design of a refrigerator door, an enclosure with a (cooling system and
insulation)
What are the functions of this door (Functional Requirements)
1. Provide access to the contents inside
2. Minimize energy consumption (minimizing operation cost)
a. Vertically hung door (can be opened horizontally)
b. Top-Opening, horizontally hung door.
Engineering requires rational decisions in the early stages of design of a product.
Reduced lead time, decrease development and cost
Increase Productivity
To make rational decisions, we need to use design principle called Design Axions:
Axim = Self evident universally recognized truth.
Axiums derived from good designs:
Axiom 1 (The independent Axiom) Maintain the independence of
functional requirements.
Axiom 2 (The information Axiom) Minimize the information
content.
For the refrigerator door, Axium 1 is not true for a vertically hung door (50% energy loss
due to opening and closing of the refrigerators door) (coupled design for the FRs), Bad
Design.
For the horizontally hung door, when the door is opened colder air does not spill out and
the design is not coupled and is a good design. (Uncoupled Design)
The amount of insulation in the refrigerator door and the hinges are design parameters
(DPs).
The relationship between FRs and DPs is established by the design of the product.
FRs = What we want in product or what product needs to achieve.
DPs = How we propose to achieve FRs through specific designs.
Information Conent = a measure of complexity
I = Information Content = log
2
(
1
/
p
)
P = Probability
It is measured in bits (base 2)
log is used to make information measure additive
Information is related to tolerance
L L
I
rod
= log
2

2
L
L
_

,
P =
2 L
L

probability being cat between (L + L & L L)

I = log
2

Range
Tolerance
_

,
.2
0.1 10%
2

Axiomatic Design
What constitutes a good design?
How should one make correct design decisions?
How should we design a product so that it can be manufactured inexpensively?
Some claim that as much as 80% of productivity is determined by decisions made at the
design stage.
How would you choose among design options?
What design criteria would you choose arriving at your selection?
The most important issue in design is: How do we make rational design decisions?
To understand these criteria, lets take a look at an example.
We would like to design a refrigerator door which consists of a cooling system and an
insulated enclosure.
What are the Functional Requirements of this door?
1. Provide access to the contents inside the refrigerator.
2. Minimize the energy consumption
What kind of door shall we design?
To make a rational decision in designing the door and avoid mistakes we must follow
some kind of a guideline, such as the following axioms.
Axiom 1 The Independence Axiom Maintain the independence of
functional requirements.
Axiom 2 The Information Axiom Minimize the information content.
If we choose a vertical door like a typical commercial refrigerator, can we satisfy Axiom
1? 50% energy is wasted by opening and closing refrigerators to take or place food items
in.
It is obvious these functional requirements are coupled.
Alternative: top opening, horizontally-hung doors, such as doors used in chest freezers.
Design Parameters: insulation to save energy and hinged door for convenience.
*Functional Requirements: What the product needs to achieve?
*Design Parameters: How we propose to achieve FRs through certain design (What
we need to satisfy)
*Process Variables: How are we going to satisfy our needs by selecting certain
manufacturing processes.
Example: The rod is designed to satisfy a set of FRs by the means of two design
parameters.
DP
1
= geometric precision (accuracy)
DP
2
= hardness: H
B
= 350 20 kg/mm
2
Brinell
Process Available
PV1 = Grinding
PV2 = Heat Treatment
DPs may be written as function of PVs
DP
1
= A
11
PV
1
+ A
12
PV
2
DP
2
= A
21
PV
1
+ A
22
PV
2
A
ij
are coefficients that relate DPs to PVs
Since heating and grinding affect the dimensions, A
11
& A
12
0.
But grinding does not affect hardness, therefore the equation may be written as:
1 11 12 1
2 22 2
0
DP A A PV
DP A PV
1 1

' ;
1 1
] ]
This is called a quasi-coupled design or decoupled, since we have to heat treat first and
then grind to avoid distortion and residual stresses caused during the heat treatment. This
will satisfy the first axiom.
The following example will elaborate on the second axiom that the best design is the
simplest design.
Design a bottle/can opener with the following FRs.
FR
1
= Open beverage bottle
FR
2
= Open beverage can
The answer is the simple bottle and can opener shown.
They are made as one piece but do not interfere in each others function
Another example to demonstrate axiom 2 is a shaft and its supporting assembly which
provide freedom of motion for the shaft and keeps it at a certain distance from the base.
Look at Design 1 and Design 2, the devices cost was reduced to $0.98 from $2.22.
The proposed axioms as shown in the examples provide us with useful corollaries which
may simplify the design process. Some useful corollaries are given here.
Corollary 1 (Decoupling of couple design, Decouple or separate
parts or aspects of a solution if FRs are coupled or
become interdependent in the designs proposed
(example 6.4)
Corollary 2 (Minimization of FRs) Minimize the no. of FRs and
constraints. Avoid complicated machines.
Corollary 3 (Integration of Physical Parts) Integrate design
features in a single physical part is FRs can be
independently satisfied in the proposed solution.
Corollary 4 (Use of standardization): Use standardized or
interchangeable parts if they are constant with FRs
and constraints.
Corollary 5 (Use of symmetry): Use symmetrical shapes and/or
arrangements if they are consistent with FRs and
constraints.
Corollary 6 (Largest Tolerance): Specify the largest allowable
tolerance in starting FRs.
Corollary 7 (Uncoupled Design with less information): Seek an
uncoupled design that requires less information than
coupled designs in satisfying a set of FRs.
The following design rules are recommended by Stoll (1986):
1. Minimize the total number of parts.
2. Develop a modular design.
3. Use standard components.
4. Design parts to be multi-functional
5. Design parts for multiuse.
6. Design parts for ease of fabrication.
7. Avoid separate fastners.
8. Minimize assembly directions
9. Maximize compliance
10. Minimize handling
Definition of Information
Information content is a measure of complexity
In the axiomatic mormat, it is related to the probability of achieving the functional
requirement when the information is supplied.
Information content, I, is defined as:
I = log
2
(
1
/
p
)
p is the probability. Information content is measured in bits because of log
2
. Also
because of additive nature of information, logarithmic function is used.
Example: How much information is required in cutting a steel rod to 1 m.
The amount of information is dependent on the accuracy of the dimension.
1 0.1 m or 1 10
-6
m
For more accuracy, many factors must be considered, such as, machine set up,
temperature control, jigs, etc. . . . .
For less accurate cut, we may use a hack saw.
For 1 10
-6
m 19 bits of information involved
For 1 10
-1
m 2.2 bits of information involved
In general:
I = log
2

2
L
L
_

,
where p =
2 L
L

L L
or I = log
2

Range
Tolerance
_

,
where probability p = (Range / Tolerance)
Information content of a given design is additive for the following reasons
1. Information is defined in terms of probability of achieving a given FR, which is
dimensionless.
2. Information contents to be added together are all related to fulfilling the specified
FRs only. Therefore, they must be added together.
Information content in Manufacturing Designer Specified Range
In manufacturing, the information required to make a part is dependent on two different
tolerances.
1. The designer tolerance.
2. The manufacturing system tolerance.
Both probability distributions are considered uniform &
1 pds

The Information Content I is defined as:

I = log
2

( )
( )
SystemRange
Common Range
L - L
d
(L L
a
)
L L + L
d (L + L
b
)
Design Specified
Tolerance
Common Range
Manufacturing
System Tolerance
(p)
Probability
Distribution
Fig. 6.15 Taguchis quality loss function in terms of the deviation from the target
value.
Fig. 6.14 The relationship among the design range, the common range, the system
range, the mean, variance, and bias of a design. (FR
i
)
o
is the desired FR
i
;
m is the mean, v is proportional to the standard deviation, thus the
variance; (DP
i
)
o
is the (DP
i
) that yields (FR
i
)
o
; and b is the bias between
the design range and the system range.
Example 3: Hardenss/Heat Treatment
A designer is requiring 200 10 kg/mm
2
hardness for a desired steel. The manufacturing
system available for heat treatment can produce steel with 190 20 kg/mm
2
. Determine
the information required to heat-treat the part.
I = log
40
20
= log
2
2 = 1 bit
The information Axiom requires the minimization of the Information Content by
reducing the complexity. In general the system probability distribution is not uniform as
shown in Fig. 6.14. in the figure, b is the bias or difference between the designer mean
and the system mean.
The information content equation for this Figure may be written as:
( ) ( )
1
log log
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
b
a
m m
a a
f FR d FR
I
f FR d FR f FR d FR
1
1

1
1
]

where the function f(FR) describes the probability distribution of the system range
associated with the FR in question.
In order to reduce the information content, we must make the denominator of equation
(2) larger. Therefore, m must increase the common range.
b must be reduced
or b 0
also
180
190 200
210 220
20
40
Hardness
p
System
Tolerance
Designer
Tolerance
Common
Range
v or variance must be reduced
Technique introduced a relationship between the deviation from the target point and the
cost to the manufacturer.
$

k
2
(Fig. 6.15)
or
L = K(y-m)
2
= K
2
(Eqn. 3)
Where
K = probability constant
y = the actual value obtained
= the deviation
m = mean
L = Lost $
Eqn. 3 is also called Quality Loss Function.
Mathematical Representation of the Independence Axiom (Design Equation)
The relationship between Functional Requirements and the Design Parameters may be
expressed as:
{FR} = [A]{DP} (Design Eqn.) (4)
where {FR} is FR vector
{DP} is DP vector
11 12 1
21 22 2
1
[ ]
...
n
n
m mn
A A A
A designmatrix A A A
A A
1
1

1
1
]
In general Aij =
i
j
FR
DP

(5)
Aij must be evaluated at the specific design point in the physical space unless Aij is
constant.
In non-linear case Aij is a variable that varies with both FR
i
and DP
j
When m = n A is a square matrix
Example:
11 12
21 22
[ ]
A A
A
A A
1

1
]
(6)
Simplest case is when (Aij)
i

j
= 0
Or
11
22
0
[ ]
0
A
A
A
1

1
]
(7)

1 11 1
2 22 2
0
0
FR A DP
FR A DP
1 1 1

1 1 1
] ] ]
(8)
FR
1
= A
11
DP
1
(9)

FR
2
= A
22
DP
2
Equation (9) satisfies the independence or First Axiom (uncoupled diesign)
When Aij are not 0 (zero), the design is called a coupled design
FR
1
= A
11
DP
1
+ A
12
DP
2
(10)
FR
2
= A
21
DP
1
+ A
22
DP
2
The following design is called quasi-coupled design
1 11 12 13 1
2 22 23 2
3 33 3
0
0 0
FR A A A DP
FR A A DP
FR A DP
1 1 1
1 1 1

1 1 1
1 1 1
] ] ]
(11)
When m n, the design is called coupled or redundant design
11
1
21 22
2
31 32
0 FR A
DP
FR A A
DP
FR A A
1


1

' ; ' ;
1


1
]
coupled design (12)
FR
1
= A
11
DP
1
+ A
12
DP
2
+ A
13
DP
3
Redundant Design (13)
FR
2
= A
21
DP
2
+ A
22
DP
2
+ A
23
DP
3
From these examples, two new theorems may be derived:
Theorem 3 (Redundant Design):
When there are more DPs than FRs, the design is either a redundant design
or a coupled design.
Theorem 4 (Ideal Design):
In an ideal design, the number of DPs equal the number of FRs
The following design rules are given by Stohl for efficient manufacturer:
1. Minimize the total number of parts
2. Develop a modular design
3. Use standard components
4. Design parts to be multifunctional
5. Design parts for multi-use
6. Design parts for ease of fabrication
7. Avoid separate fastners
8. Minimize assembly directions
9. Maximize compliance
10. Minimize handling