The Early Industrial Revolution, 1760-1851

Causes of the Industrial Revolution The Technological Revolution The Impact of the Early Industrial Revolution New Economic and Political Ideas The Limits of Industrialization Outside the West

Learning Objectives: After reading and studying this chapter you should be able to discuss: 1. Be able to describe the advantages enjoyed by Britain that allowed it to take the lead in the Industrial Revolution. 2. Be able to discuss the course and importance of Britain's Industrial Revolution; compare the pace and character of economic change in Britain with that in the rest of Europe and the United States; and assess the environmental, social, ideological, and political impact of the Industrial Revolution. 3. Be able explain the failure of industrialization to take root in nineteenth-century Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

Focus and Essential Questions: What caused the Industrial Revolution? What were the key innovations that increased productivity and drove industrialization? What was the impact of these changes on the society and environment of the industrializing countries? How did the Industrial Revolution inuence the rise of new economic and political ideas? How did the Industrial Revolution affect the relations between the industrialized and the nonindustrialized parts of the world?

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

Population Growth
Economic development propelled by population growth, an agricultural revolution, the expansion of trade, and an openness to innovation

Population Growth

The fastest growth took place in England and Wales The growth of population resulted from more widespread resistance to disease and more reliable food supplies, thanks to the new crops that originated in the Americas A high birthrate meant a large percentage of children in the general population People also migrated at an unprecedented ratefrom the countryside to the cities

The Agricultural Revolution

Innovations in manufacturing simultaneous revolution in farming that provided food for city dwellers and forced poorer peasants off the land *Agricultural revolution had begun long before the 18th century Rich landowners therefore enclosed the land allowing consecutive crop rotation removing tenants and sharecroppers

Trade and Inventiveness

Growth of population led to greater demand and an increased production Roads were improved and cottage industriesproto-industry Stimulated by the demands of an emerging consumer society, scientic discoveries, commercial enterprise, and technical skills Electricity, hot-air balloon, telegraph, interchangeable gun parts

Britain and Continental Europe

Industrialization did not take place everywhere at once Britain was the worlds leading exporter of tools, guns, hardware, clocks, and other craft goods They put inventions into practice more quickly than other people Britain was also highly commercial; more people were involved in production for export and in trade and nance

The economies of continental Europe also underwent a dynamic expansion From 1789 to 1815 Europe was scarred by revolutions and wars After 1815 the economies of western Europe were ready to begin industrializing European governments took action On the European continent, cotton cloth was the rst industry

The Technological Revolution

Five innovations spurred industrialization: (1) mass production (2) new machines and mechanization (3) increase in the manufacture of iron (4) the steam engine and transportation (5) electric telegraph

Mass Production: Pottery

*mass production, the making of many identical items by breaking the process into simple repetitive tasks Chinese porcelain, wooden or earthenware bowls *Josiah Wedgwood invented the pyrometer, a device to measure the extremely high temperatures that are found in kilns during the ring of pottery

*division of labor: repetitive tasks parsed out to different people The division of labor and new machinery allowed Wedgwood to lower the cost of his products while improving their quality, and to offer his wares for sale at lower prices

Mechanization: The Cotton Industry

*Mechanizationthe use of machines to do work previously done by hand Spinning Jenny drew out the cotton bers and twisted them into thread *Richard Arkwright invented another spinning machine, the water frame powered by water wheel

Samuel Crompton invented the mule which could make a ner, more even thread than could any human being and at a lower cost By the 1830s, large English textile mills powered by steam engines Mechanization offered two advantages: (1) Increased productivity (2) lower prices

India500 hours for a pound of cotton England3 hours for a pound of cotton Cotton mills needed very few skilled workers, often hiring children

The Iron Industry

While in China, forges had produced cast iron in large quantities Iron was a rare and valuable metal outside China before the eighteenth century deforestation eventually drove up the cost of charcoal

coke (coal from which the impurities have been cooked out) could be used in place of charcoal Puddlingstirring the molten iron with long rods Coke-iron was cheaper and less destructive of forests The availability of cheap iron made the mass production of objects such as guns, hardware, and tools appealing

The Steam Engine

The Industrial Revolution never slowed down but has instead only accelerated. *steam engine, a substitute for human and animal power The steam engine was what set the Industrial Revolution apart from all previous periods of growth and innovation Thomas Newcomen developed the rst practical steam engine *James Watt improved the steam engine, improving the design

Major innovations also occurred in Railroads and Communication interconnecting the world like never before

The Impact of the Early Industrial Revolution

The New Industrial Cities

The most dramatic environmental changes brought about by industrialization occurred in the towns and cities. Most of the European cities at the time increased its population during the Industrial Revolution. London for example increased its population from 500,000 in 1700 to 959,000 in 1800.

Industrialization resulted in great wealth, investing it in building new homes, churches, and museums in Europe This event triggered a population burst during the midnineteenth century

Inadequate municipal services and overpopulation were serious problems during the Industrial Revolution. Many of the Londoners threw sewage out of windows into gutters, causing several of the problems in England. Air pollution from the coal burning and other factories contaminated the rivers and the sky.

Railroads were built through the Industrial cities and throughout the countryside where railroad yards, repair shops, and warehouses were located. The new country homes and town homes were known as the rst suburbs.

The new diseases that were introduced during the industrial revolution were Rickets, which affect the bones because of poor sunlight and Cholera, which came from India. These diseases struck the impoverished areas very hard. The new diseases caused a decline in life expectancy. In England the life expectancy was about forty years of age.

Rural Environment
Long before the Industrial Revolution, Humans had begun to alter the land. Deforestation had the most harmful effect on the environment.

The Americans altered their land faster than the Europeans. They viewed nature as a hindrance for progression. Pioneers cut down trees, built homes and abandoned them. Cotton production was equally harmful as they cut down forests for cotton growth and moved on.

On the other hand, Industrialization relieved the abuse of the environment in some ways. The underground materials iron ore and coal replaced wood, hay, and wool. Wood ships would soon be made of iron.

To contemporaries, the most important changes were the development of transportation systems. Napoleon Bonaparte aided in the development of road transportation in France. However road development in Britain was neglected.

The boom of heavy freight trafc caused the development of canals. The engineering skills of canal building was applied to the next large development in transportation which was the railroads.

Working Conditions
Industrialization gave way to a wave of carpenters, metalworkers, and machinists but the use of the machines put all the workers and made them engineers.

Factory work did not vary with the seasons or the time of day but began and ended by the clock. Workdays were long and there were few breaks. Many of the workers preformed a simple task ad innitum so mistakes can be easily made and had little sense of achievement or connection to the nal product.

Woman workers mainly worked in textile mills because of tradition and it was less arduous than the other jobs done by men, yet women's wages were onethird as much as men. The money that unmarried woman use would make a dowry for marriage. Married women worked with their husbands at their work and mothers with children have to bring them to the factories or give them to wet-nurses to watch over.

Many young woman who needed employment became servants despite its low pay wages. Other childbearing woman worked at home doing the laundry, sewing, and millinery.

During the Industrial Revolution there were a lack of public schools for children. Consequently the children were hired to work at the factories because they were easy to teach and they helped with chores. About two-thirds of the workers were children in Arkwrights cotton mills. The children worked up to sixteen hours in the mill and in mines pulling carts.

When Cabot Lowell built a cotton mill in Massachusetts, he deliberately hired the unmarried daughters of New England farmers, promising them decent wages and housing dormitories under careful supervision.

In the 1870s, 700,000 slaves of African descent lived in the united States, but their numbers were diminishing and the founders of the American republic did not consider slavery as a serious problem. The Rising demand for cotton and the abolition of the African slave trade in 1808 caused an increase in the price of slaves. As the Cotton Kingdom expanded, the number of slaves rose through natural increase and by the reluctant of slaveowners to free their slaves.

Changes in Society
Industrialization deepened the divide between rich and poor. People who worked in obsolete crafts like handloom weaving were most affected by the industrial revolution. In England by 1832 their wages had fallen to two-thirds of what they were in 1790.

From 1792-1815, factory workers wages grew more slowly than the price of food. After the 1820s, industrial production grew at 3% a year, wages for workers increased, and prices for industrial products fell.

Business cycles occurred in industrial economies which created periods of rapid growth and high demand followed by periods of mass unemployment and low demand

The benets of industrialization, such as cheaper products, did not signicantly improve the standard of living for workers until after 1850. Those who beneted most were middle class entrepreneurs who often nanced new businesses by themselves.

A cult of domesticity developed causing middle class wives to be removed from the business world to take care of the children and to manage the household, the servants, and the familys social life

Many industrialists believed that people succeeded through their own efforts and virtues and that people had no one to blame but themselves for failure

New Economic and Political Ideas

Laissez Faire and Its Critics

Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo argued that the poverty of the working class was the result of over-population and that it could best be addressed, not by government action, but by delayed marriage and sexual restraint

Thomas Malthus An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) Population increases and always outstrip food supplies, and the less t individuals will starve. Poverty is the result of a law of nature. The natural laws of the system are all to be good in the end and it is fruitless to interfere with them.

Business people welcomed the idea of laissez faire. Critics of laissez faire such as Jeremy Bentham in England and Friedrich List in Germany argued that the state should take action to manage the economy and to address social problems

Utilitarian approach Rational individuals calculate prots and losses and act accordingly. This self-interest is all to the good of the system. Jeremy Bentham Utilitarianism: An action conforms to the principle of utility if and only if its performance will be more productive of pleasure or happiness.

Positivists and Utopian Socialists

In France, the count of Saint-Simon developed a philosophy called positivism, which argued that the scientic method could solve social as well as technical problems

HENRI DE SAINTSIMON (1760-1825) Stressed the positive implications of modernism. Praised productivity, efciency, innovation and technological discovery Progress required us to be forward looking

Positivism Best known scientic method All knowledge comes from experience. The only source of knowledge is experience. Positivists collect experience, then generalize individual statements and thus produce a theory. A positivist comes from observations to theories, From those he deduces predictions.

The utopian socialists include Charles Fourier, who imagined an ideal society without capitalists, and Robert Owen, who believed that industry could provide prosperity for all

 Owen tried to put his ideas into practice by carrying out reforms in his own textile mill and by encouraging Parliament to pass child labor laws and establish government inspection of working conditions

ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858) Successful entrepreneur [Welsh] Textile factory in New Lanark [Scotland] Introduced shorter working hours, safer working conditions, end to child labor, etc.. Criticized laissez-faire capitalism (encouraged heartless individualism)

Protests and Reforms

Workers initially responded to the harsh working conditions by changing jobs frequently, not reporting for work, doing poor quality work when not closely watched, and by engaging in riots or strikes

Workers gradually moved beyond the stage of individual, unorganized resistance to create organizations for collective action: benevolent societies and trade unions

Mass movements persuaded the British government to investigate the abuses of industrial life and to offer ameliorative legislation that included the Factory Act of 1833, the Mines Act of 1842, and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846

Parliamentary Commissions met to examine industrial working conditions through interviews of workers & employers Factory Act of 1833 forbade employment of children under 9; limited 9-13 to 9 hour days; two hours schooling; 4 inspectors nationwide

The Limits of Industrialization Outside the West

Egypt In the early 19th C. Egypts ruler Muhammad Ali undertook a program of industrialization that was funded by the export of wheat and cotton and protected by high tariffs on imported goods.

The prospect of a powerful modern Egypt posed a threat to the British, so in 1839 Britain force Muhammad Ali to eliminate all import duties Without tariff protection, Egypts industries could not compete with cheap British products; Egypt became an economical dependency of Britain

India
Cheap machinemade British textiles forced Indian spinners and hand weavers out of work. Most became landless peasants, and India became an exporter of raw materials and an importer of British goods

Railroads, coal-mining and telegraph lines were introduced to India in the mid-19th C. Some Indian entrepreneurs were able to establish their own textile mills but overall, Indias industrialization proceeded at a very slow pace because the British did nothing to encourage Indian Industry

Between 1760 and 1851 new technologies greatly increased humans control over nature and transformed the environment This newfound power over nature increased the disparities between individuals and between societies and brought changes in work and family life

The social results of the Industrial Revolution sparked sparked intense debates among individuals, but society was slow to bring abuses under control By the 1850s the Industrial Revolution had spread to Western Europe and the United States and was contributing to a shift in the historic balance of power between Europe and China