Psychology

UNIT 1, Module 1: Cognitive Psychology Memory

Models of Memory
Why do Psychologists use models? y y y Enables predictions about behaviour. To help generate hypotheses for further work. Is a representation of how something works.

The multi-store model y y y y Atkinson and Shiffrin Structural Linear Stores = Sensory store, STM and LTM they differ in encoding, capacity and duration. 3 Processes = 1)Attention, 2)Coding and 3)Rehearsal STM and LTM are unitary passive stores.

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Differences between STM and LTM STM Less that 18 sec without rehearsal P&P P & P = nonsense trigrams, e.g. BCB 371. Findings = Ps remembered 90% when 3sec interval. 2% with 18sec interval. Nairne found 96secs. Info remains in STM for longer unless new info. replaces it. 7+/- 2 - Miller Chunking increases capacity Large chunks decrease capacity Simon. Acoustic Baddeley Baddeley = Ps difficulty in remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM Some visual encoding when given visual task and no verbal rehearsal allowed Brandimore LTM Extremely long Bahrick asked Ps to name faces from high school yearbook. 48 years on, still 70% accurate.

Duration

Capacity

Unlimited

Encoding

Mainly semantic - Baddeley

Psychology
Evidence for three separate memory stores y The sensory store Sperling i. Ps saw grid of digits and letters ii. 3 rows, each with a diff tone iii. Asked to recall one row or all 12 items when tone was played iv. Recall poorer for whole thing v. Shows info decays rapidly in sensory store. The Serial Position Effect Glanzer & Curtis i. Ps remember words from start of list (primary effect) ii. Ps remember words from end of list (recency effect) iii. Primary = words rehearsed and enter LTM iv. Recency = these words are in STM when you recall v. Words at end displace words in middle Areas of brain associated with STM and LTM i. PET scans and fMRI scans ii. Prefrontal cortex is active when tasks involve STM. iii. Hippocampus active when LTM is engaged. Case Studies HM = had hippocampus removed. Could not from new long term memories but could remember i. things before surgery. Suggests LTM is memory gateway where new memories have to pass in order to be remembered.

Evaluation of the multi-store model y STRENGTHS o See above o Clear predictions about memory easy for psychologists to test it o Provides account of structure and process o Differences in STM and LTM WEAKNESSES o Oversimplified o Not unitary stores - KF had brain damage and had difficulty with verbal info. but not visual info. Therefore STM not unitary o Schachter suggested 4 Long term memory stores: 1. Semantic memory 2. Episodic memory 3. Procedural memory 4. Perpetual representation system o Amnesia patients have procedural memories and PRS but not the other two. o Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart. Not amount of rehearsal but how deeply you process info. o Too much focus on rehearsal cannot explain how we remember smells or flashbulb memories o LTM influences how info. goes into STM, (STM not involved first) e.g. washing clothes expt.

Psychology
The Working Memory Model Sensory Memory y y Baddeley & Hitch STM only Phonological store = words you hear (inner ear) Articulatory process = words seen (inner ii. voice) maintenance rehearsal. Limited capacity.

Directs attention to particular tasks. Limited capacity

For spatial tasks.

Added later. General store that holds info. relating to VSSP and PL. Integrates info. from CE to PL, VSSK and LTM.

Evidence supporting the Working Memory Model y Dual Tasks Baddeley & Hitch i. 2 tasks, 1st with CE, 2nd with AP ii. Slower when using same store at the same time. iii. No difference when using two diff stores at the same time Evidence for Central Executive Bunge et al i. fMRI showed same brain areas active in either dual or single task but more activation in dual task. ii. Supports CE as CE activity should increase in dual task. Evidence for phonological loop and articulatory process i. PL explains word length effect ii. PL holds info you can say in 2 secs so hard to remember a list of long words. iii. Long words can t be rehearsed as they don t fit. iv. Words length effect disappears if person given articulatory suppression task as it means you can t rehearse short words more quickly than longer ones. Evidence for visual spatial sketchpad i. Hard to track a moving light with a pointer whilst describing angles on a letter but not hard when performing verbal task (also supports dual task) Evidence for episodic buffer i. Recall better for related words than unrelated words. Shows immediate memory store for items neither phonological nor visual but draw on LTM. Evidence from brain damaged patients i. KF - no problem with long term learning but aspects of immediate memory impaired. - STM forgetting of auditory info. was greater than of visual. - Also forgetting was greater of verbal material (digits) but not meaningful sounds (phone ring) damage of PL

Psychology
Evaluation of the Working Memory Model y STRENGTHS o See previous page o Emphasizes process more than MSM. o Better explanation as has components. WEAKNESSES o Central executive what is it? Description is too vague and doesn t really explain anything. - Probably more components to CE. - E.g. EVR had cerebral tumour removed. He could perform well on reasons tests so suggest CE intact, but then had poor decision making skill, suggesting CE not intact. o Evidence from brain damaged patients cannot make before and after comparisons, so not clear whether changes are caused by the damage. Also brain damage can be traumatic which may change behaviour itself. And brain these cases are unique so can t really generalise.

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Memory in Everyday Life
Eyewitness Memory y y y Encoding this can be partial and distorted (crimes happen quickly and unexpectedly) Retention (storage) after a period of time info can get lost or modified. Forgetting. Retrieval - nature of questioning or retrieval cues can affect accuracy

Studies of the accuracy of EWT y Broken glass study Loftus o Tested misleading information o 3 groups 1st = smashed, 2nd = hit and 3rd = control. o One week later, asked 10 Qs, including critical Q: Did you see any broken glass? (no glass in film) o Results : Verb condition Hit 7 43

YES NO o

Smashed 16 34

Control 6 44

However, Yuille & Cutshall looked at EWT in real life and in an armed robbery; EWT was accurate even with 2 misleading qs.

Shoplifting Study List o Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory. o List drew up list of elements in shoplifiting scenario and people rated them on how likely they would occur. o She showed Ps 8 videos showing diff shoplifting incidents. o Week later they had to recall what they saw. o Results = more likely to recall high probability events. Some recalled high probability events that did not occur. o Conclusion = SCHEMA affect EWT therefore not reliable. War of the ghosts - Bartlett o Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory. o Students asked to read story about ghosts o Week later they had to recall story. o Their recall was modified and rationalised to make it more relatable to their knowledge. Graduate Office Study Brewer & Treyens o Tested how SCHEMA (stored knowledge) affects memory. o Ps asked to wait in office like room for 35 secs o Asked to recall items in that room o Correctly recalled items consistent with SCHEMA, e.g. table o Also recalled items not present e.g. telephone.

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How does anxiety influence EWT? Study Method/Design o Meta-analysis o Observational o Nonexperimental Procedure Meta- analysis of o 18 studies between 1974 1997. Tried to see if high levels of anxiety had an effect on recall. Survey - 110 people who witnessed 22 bank robberies. Some bystanders and some directly threatened. Ps overheard argument in adjoining room. Two conditions: 1st = man leaving with pen and greasy hands 2nd = man leaving with knife and blood on hands o Findings High levels of stress did make witnesses less accurate in their EWTs. Commentary AO2 studied lab expts so lack ecological validity. C&H contradicted findings. D suggested it was due to the Yerkes-Dodson Law performance increases up to an optimum point and then declines with further increase. It is curvilinear. Can be argued that this doesn t fit into YerkesDodson Law as the people threatened DID experience high levels of anxiety. o o o o

Deffenbacher

o o Christianson & Hubinette

Natural experiment Observational

Threatened (most anxiety) = more detail & accuracy. Still true 15 months later. Condition 1 = 49% accurate identification of man. Condition 2 = 33% accurate

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Field experiment Independent measures design

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Loftus

Weapon focus effect Explains poor recall in violent crimes. AO2 =BUT in C1 51% still got it wrong so EWT is still inaccurate. AO2 =FE so offers more reliable results - real life situation. AO2 =But FE studies vary so can be hard to compare.

Psychology
How does age influence EWT? Study Method/Design o Lab expt o o Independent measures o design Procedure Primary skl and college students Compared ability to identify target individual following a slide sequence of a mock crime. Children 3-8 Saw science demonstration. Parents read them story with SC elements in it. Children asked to talk about SD Then asked where they got info from Elderly and young adults Asked qs about staged event Findings Child higher rate of choosing. Children more likely to make errors. Commentary AO2 = lacked EV no real emotion Ps may have met demand characteristics o o o Parker & Carranza o

Lab expt

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Poole & Lindsay o o o Lab expt o o Yarmey

Incorporated story with original memory O. children revised and realised. Y. children didn t

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Y. Children not reliable. AO2 = young children may not have understood task. AO2 = children have short attention span. Strength parents there so can monitor events (consent.) EP not reliable HOWEVER, another study by Yarmey showed no diff in accuracy (but less confident). Asked Ps about woman they spoke to 15 mins earlier. Own age bias Many individual differences that can change outcome of results.

80% of EP failed to mention attacker had knife in hand 20% of young people

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Lab expt

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Anastasi & Rhodes

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(18-25) (35-45) (5578) Shown 24 photos from 3 diff age groups. Rated them in attractiveness. Short filter activity Shown 48 photos and asked recall.

Correct recognition rates higher in young and middle. But all better in identifying photos from same age group.

o o

Psychology
The Cognitive Interview y y y Created because standard interviews had: closed and direct Qs (limited detail), witnesses were interrupted, and qs not asked in order leading to disrupted memories. Fisher & Geiselman 4 distinct components CR context reinstatement mentally go back to crime scene and recreate memory and feelings RE Report everything whether they think its relevant or not CP recall from changed perspective POV of other witnesses RO recall in reverse order alternative way through timeline to try and obtain info from diff routes CR and RE use retrieval cues. Tulving researched that people remember things more when they are in the same mood that an event happened Encoding Specificity Principle CP and RO used as observed info. can be retrieved from diff routes so more productive vary route questioning.

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Research into the effectiveness of the Cognitive Interview y y Khnken meta-analysis of 53 studies showed 34% increase in accuracy when using CI compared to standard. Milne & Bull tested 4 components separately. Most useful were CR and RE. All 4 together produced higher recall. Recall similar to standard when only using one component.

Evaluation of the Cognitive Interview y Kebbel survey of policeman asking them about CI. They said: o useful but not always correct o CI requires more time than available o CR and RE used the most Different police forces use diff versions The enhanced version (with additional cognitive techniques proving witness s mental image of event) of the CI requires even more training in interviewers and demands more on them.

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Psychology
Strategies for Memory Improvement Method What is it? How it works/ psychological theory o o o Acronym o Verbal mnemonic Word/sentence formed from initial letters of other words. E.g. ROYGBIV used to remembers colours of the rainbow. o o o o Organises material into things that are more distinctive Organisation means things are easier and quicker to remember Creates link or associations that help recall Elaborates info Use of retrieval cues

o o Acrostic o

Verbal mnemonic Poem/sentence where the first letter in each word forms the item to be remembered E.g. Many Vile Earthlings Munch Jam Sandwiches Under Newspaper Piles to remember the planets. Visual mnemonic Forming mental images of the words you need to remember by hanging it on one of the pegs , e.g. if you needed to remember eggs, you would form a mental image of eggs in a bun for one is bun Visual mnemonic Requires the learner to associate the info to be memorised with different places landmarks (usually a route) in the order to be recalled. Visual mnemonic Making notes of info in a drawing, using colours etc. Main topic in centre, branches Add visual cues

See acronym

o o Peg Word System

o o o

Use of elaborative rehearsal makes things more memorable Use of retrieval cues Words encoded as word AND as an image dual coding hypothesis (increases likelihood of retrieval)

o o Method of Loci

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See peg word system Tulving s encoding specificity principle memory better if retrieval context is like encoding context.

o o Mind Maps/Spider diagrams o o

o o

See peg word system Use of colours forms mental image and better elaborative rehearsal.

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Psychology
UNIT 1, Module 2: Developmental Psychology Early Social Development
Attachment
LearningTheory y y All behaviour is learned rather than inborn Classical Conditioning o Learning through association o Food (unconditioned stimulus) produces a sense of pleasure (unconditioned response). The person who feeds the infant (conditioned stimulus) becomes associated with the food. Mother eventually produces pleasure associated with food, so pleasure is now a conditioned response. o Association between individual and sense of pleasure is the attachment. Operant conditioning o Learning though rewards o Infant cries when hungry. Gets food (primary reinforcement) from the mother (secondary reinforcement). Infant will cry again when it is hungry. o Mother also being reinforced for stopping the child crying which is a negative reinforcement (unpleasant stimulus). Mother will repeat this action to remove unpleasant stimulus. o Attachment occurs because infant seeks the person who can supply the reward.

long lasting 2 way emotional tie

Evaluation of the Learning Theory y STRENGTHS o Provides adequate explanation we do learn through association and reinforcement o But food may not be reinforcer; it is the attention from caregiver. WEAKNESSES o Strong psychological evidence that feeding has nothing to do with attachment - Harlow s monkeys. o Schaffer & Emerson observed 60 babies from Glasgow working-class homes for a year. Not attached to person who fed them but the person who was most responsive and interactive.

Social Learning Theory y y y y y Theory that develops learning theory Children learn behaviour through observation and imitation of other people who act as role models. Role modelling: parents show child affectionate behaviours which the child imitates. Direct instruction: parents teach child to reciprocate affection e.g. give me a kiss goodbye Social facilitation: parents watch and help child carry out attachment behaviours, e.g. playing with friend or siblings.

Evaluation of the Social Learning Theory y STRENGTHS o Takes into account the importance of parents as role models. o Doesn t deny importance of innate influence (but focuses on social) WEAKNESSES o Does not explain why attachments are so emotionally intense.

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Bowlby s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment 1. Attachment is adaptive and innate - Promotes survival - Innate drive to become attached to a caregiver 2. Social Releasers - Smiling, crying etc. makes caregivers respond Dance of Interaction - Care giving is also adaptive also promotes survival 3. Critical/Sensitive Period - Certain time when infants are most sensitive to form attachments. - As time goes on it becomes harder to form attachments 4. Monotropy/Hierarchy - Primary attachment person who responds most sensitively to social releasers. - Secondary attachments form hierarchy still important in development 5. Internal Working Model - Based on their relationshop with their primary caregiver - Infant develops ideas about how and what they expect relationships to be 6. Continuity Hypothesis - IWM leads to this - Link between early attachment relationship and later emotional behaviour - Securely attached children will go on to be socially and emotionally competent.

Evaluation of Bowlby s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment y STRENGTHS o Adaptive = imprinting in goslings (Lorenz) o Sensitive period = Hodges & Tizard found children who didn t form attachments had problems with peers. o Universality = Tronick et al - African tribe showed that even though infants were breastfed by diff women (but slept with their mothers at night) they still showed primary attachment in mother. o Monotropy and Hierarchy = Schaffer & Emerson found that infants maintained one primary attachment. Also Tronick study. o Continuity hypothesis = Hazan and Shaver Love Quiz . WEAKNESSES o Some psychologists e.g. Rutter think that all attachment figures are equally important. For example Grossman & Grossman - key role for fathers in attachment. And relationships with siblings are important in negotiating with peers. (But this is not far from what Bowly intended, he thought other attachments were important too, but central one was key.) o Temperament hypothesis (Kagan) . Some may have an innate friendly personality leading to have secure relationships. Evidence = twins have same temperamental differences. And Belsky & Rovine found babies with calm temperaments were more likely to be secure.

Psychology
Types of Attachment y y Mary Ainsworth constructed the Strange Situation. Tested Separation Anxiety and Stranger Anxiety Episodes (3 mins long) Behaviour assessed 1. Parent and infant play 2. Parent sits while infant plays Secure base 3. Stranger enters and talks to parent Stranger anxiety 4. Parent leaves, infant left with stranger Separation anxiety 5. Parent returns, stranger leaves Reunion behaviour 6. Parent leaves, infant alone Separation anxiety 7. Stranger enters Stranger anxiety 8. Parent returns Reunion behaviour Group of people recorded what children were doing ever 15 secs. Also scored them on scale of 1-7 on diff behaviours, e.g. contact-seeking behaviours. Ainsworth combined data from several studies and discovered 3 types of attachment: o Secure attachment 60% o Insecure avoidant attachment 22% o Insecure resistant (ambivalent) attachment 12% Main and Solomon also proposed insecure disorganised (disinhibited attachment)

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Evaluation of the Strange Situation and Types of Attachment y STRENGTHS o Reliable as almost perfect agreement when rating exploratory behaviour o Takes a short period of time o Easy to replicate o Looks at a whole range of measures to assess attachment o Reliable as repeated many times o Good Predictive Validity Hazan and Shaver Love Quiz WEAKNESSES o May not be valid- studying relationship not attachment. Relationship with father may be diff, but bowlby would argue that this doesn t matter as its not primary attachment. o Ethical issues for distress on infants o Lab expt lack EV Bronfenbrenner measured attachments at home and they were less strong o Predictive validity = correlational

Factors influencing Attachment Type y Ainsworth suggested: o SECURE = mothers are sensitive, accepting, cooperative and accessible o INSECURE RESISTANT = mothers are more unresponsive to crying, less affectionate, tended to be occupied whilst looking after child. Didn t know how to look after the child well. o INSECURE AVOIDANT = mothers are more unresponsive to crying, less affectionate, more rejecting, paid less attention. Slade et al suggested maternal reflective functioning (understanding what someone else is thinking and feeling) was what established attachment type.

Psychology
Cultural Variations in Attachment y Cross cultural similarities: o Ainsworth Uganda Study infants use mothers as safe base, and mothers of secure are more sensitive o Tronick et al African Tribe Study o Fox studied infants in the Kibbutz system children cared for in communal homes by metaplot (nurses). Appeared to be equally attached to both caregivers but showed stronger reunion behaviours with mothers. Cross cultural differences: o Grossman & Grossman - German infants classified as insecurely attached. However this is due to differences in German culture which involve keeping interpersonal distance between parents and children and where they teach children to be independent. o Takahashi Japanese infants had high rates of insecure-resistant attachments (32%). Japanese infants rarely experience separation with mothers or experience isolation with strangers. Emphasis on close family relationships. These studies show that despite some differences, strongest attachments are still formed with the mother. Van IJzendoorn and Krooenberg did a meta-analysis to study inter-cultural differences and intra-cultural differences: o Secure most common o Then insecure-avoidant (except Israel and Japan) o Found that intra-cultural differences 1.5 times greater than inter-cultural o Overall meta-analysis shows global patterns to be similar and secure is the best for healthy social and emotional development.

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Evaluation of Cultural Variations in Attachment Criticisms on Research y Rothbaum et al argued that attachment theory is limited to only western cultures, e.g. in Japan: o sensitivity is promoting dependence not independence, o competence is being able inhibit your emotions not being able to explore and regulate one s emotions, o and being group-orientated is more important than being self-orientated. Rothbaum et al suggested a set of indigenous theories should be made. HOWEVER Rothbaum talked about the differences inter-culturally but there are many subcultures where there are larger differences study in Tokyo had similar findings to the West but a rural sample found an overrepresentation of insecure-resistant. Van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg suggested media was the cause for cross-cultural similarities. Issue in cross-cultural research with indigenous researchers as they may be from diff cultures. Issue with tools used use of intelligence tests and observational methods (i.e. strange situation) are related to cultural assumptions of the test designer. This is decribed as imposed etic . This results in children appearing to be insecure though they may be secure, e.g. in Japan.

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Psychology
Disruption of Attachment y y Deprivation separation, bond disruption. Short term effects of separation: o PDD Model = Protest Despair Detachment o Case Study of 2 year old goes to hospital:  R&R used camera to record observations of Laura who was admitted for 8days.  She alternates between periods of calm and distress.  Visited occasionally by parents but begs to go home.  She has to deal with disappointment of staying.  Laura s struggle is hard to watch. Case study of Jane, Lucy, Thomas and Kate:  All under 3 and placed in foster care with Robertsons as mothers were in hospital  Robertsons gave high level substitute emotional care and kept routines similar  Fathers visited to maintain emotional links  Kate went to visit mother and was settle after this  Children adjusted well  Showed some sign of distress, e.g. Thomas rejected cuddles  Did not reject mothers when reunited  Some reluctant to part with foster mother. Case study of John:  Placed in residential nursery for nine days whilst mother having baby  Father visited regularly  First few days was normal  Gradually he tries to get attention from nurses but cannot compete with more assertive children  John fails to find people who will respond and finds comfort in oversized teddy bear  Gradually breaks down and refused food and drink, stops playing and cries a lot  Gives up getting attention and nurses always change shift (no constant care)  First week greet father happily, second week he just sits quietly  On ninth day when mother come, John struggles and screams.  For many months after he still has outbursts towards his mother.

Long Term Effects of Separation: o Extreme clinginess o Detachment o Child more demanding Effects depend on: o Duration o Child (personality) o Age o Sex o Whether routine is maintained

o o o o

Good emotional substitute care Type of attachment Overprotective relationships with mothers Easier if multiple attachments

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Failure to form an Attachment y y Privation when a bond is never formed, e.g. with institutionalised children Tizard & Hodges o Longitudinal Study o Independent measures (and matched pairs) o Self report method questionnaires, interviews, assessment scales o 3 groups: 1st = adopted children, 2nd = restored children, 3rd = remain institutionalised (also matched companions in status, relationships, sex etc.) o Assessed at regular intervals up to age of 16 o Findings:  Ex institutionalised more adult-orientated than control group  Also less popular  Less likely to have special friend  Restored group had bad relationships with siblings  Restored had more problems with peers more quarrelsome and attention seeking (disinhibited attachment)  20/21 adopted formed secure attachments to parents by 8 years old o Therefore early privation has negative effect on relationships. Supports sensitive period. o Evaluation:  High subject attrition rates  Can t be sure that children suffered privation in institution  Good as used a range of research methods to collect info. triangulation  Ethical issues as sensitive area of family relationships.  Result in bias results as problem families may have dropped out. Rutter o o o o

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Longitudinal Study Orphans in Romania adopted by British Orphans compared with adopted babies in UK before 6 months 58 adoptees < 6 moths 59 adoptess >6 moths 48 adoptees between 2-4 years Assessed at 4,6,11 Used triangulation interviews, observations Findings:  At 6, evidence of disinhibited attachment, especially in late adoptees  At 6, <6 months showed same emotional development as British  At 11, DA persisted 56% adoptees Evaluation:  See Tizard & Hodges  Didn t know quality of care in Romania

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y Genie o o o o o y Found when 13 Couldn t speak or stand properly Taught how to speak etc. Discovered late but findings inconclusive. Maybe she couldn t recover as she was brain damaged like her father said not because of privation. Can t generalise

Czech twins o Found when 7 o Couldn t talk o Cared for by two sisters and by 14 had near normal intellectual and social functioning o By 20 had higher than average IQ o Good relationships with foster family and went on to form positive romantic relationships o BUT can t generalise, they had each other (formed attachments to each other) etc.

Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation y Attachment disorder: o Inhibited shy, withdrawn, unable to cope socially o Disinhibited over-friendly and attention seeking o Generally no preferred attachment figure and inability to interact or relate with others. Poor parenting Quinton et al found that ex-institutionalised women in their 20s were experiencing difficulties in parenting. Deprivation Dwarfism being physically small can be from lack of emotional care not malnourishment. Girl has a malformation and mother never cuddled her in fear of dislodging tube. At 8 months girl was physically stunted and went to hospital for treatment, she was given no change in her diet but given care and soon changed back to normal size. Gardner suggests, emotional disturbance could affect the production of hormones.

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Psychology
Attachment in Everyday Life
The Impact of Day-care y Negative effects on social development: Study Method/Design Sample NICHD o Longitudinal o 1000 (National o 1991 children institute of from diverse child health families from and human 10 diff development) locations o America Findings At 5, more time spent in day-care, the more disobedient, assertive and aggressive child was. Children in full time daycare 3x more likely to show behaviour problems. Belsky (2007) assessed children after primary education and found link between day-care and aggressiveness. Low quality day-care showed poor social development Explanations/commentary o Friedmen said 83% children who spent 1030 hours did NOT show levels of aggressions o Mother s sensitivity = better indicator of behaviour problems. o Higher maternal education and income predicted lower problem behaviours o 2006 data suggests children s development more affected home factors o cannot show that daycare causes aggression, just that they are linked cannot show that daycare causes aggression, just that they are linked -

Violato & Russel

Metaanalysis

88 studies

Belsky & Rovine

Infants receiving < 20 hours day -care per week before 1 years.

o o

Regular day-care for more than 20 hours a week had negative effect on sociodevelopmental behaviour. More likely to be insecurely attached. o Lead us to expect children in day care to be less successful in peer relations

y Positive effects on social development: Study Method/Design Sample Clarke o 150 Stewert children who had experienc ed diff kinds of daycare EPPE o Longitudinal o 3000 pre(effective school provision of children in pre-school the UK education project) Field

Findings Children who attended nurseries had better social development then children who stayed at home with mothers,

Explanations/commentary o Encourages social relationships with peers o Provides social stimulation o Mother s provide better care as they are less depressed being with their kids all the time

Increased independence and sociability in children who attended daycare.

Allows development of social strategies

Amount of time spent in day-care correlates positively to no. of friends made at school

Could negotiate better with peers (Clarke Stewert)

Psychology
Mediating factors of Day-Care y Quality of care o If substitute emotional care is provided then there will be no ill effects o High child-to-staff ratios and staff turnover means children will be looked after strangers who they cannot form secondary attachments to NICHD shows low quality care results in poor social development o Even so, carers do not have the same interest and commitment so this can result in poor social development Individual Differences o Some find day-care harder to cope e.g. shy o Insecurely attached children may find it harder o NICHD found children with mothers who lacked responsiveness did less well in day-care (on the other hand Egeland and Hiester found the opposite insecurely attached might have got the care they needed). Child s age and number of hours o Gregg et al found children under 18 months had more negative effects o But Clarke Stewert et al found no diff between children spending a lot of time in day-care (30 hours a week) compared with less time (10 hours a week).

The Implications of Research into Attachment and Day-care y Attachment Research: o Substitute emotional care when children go to temporary care o Maintaining routines o Allowing frequent visits to parents o Babies are adopted within first week of birth to allow attachments in sensitive period. Day-Care Research: o Low child-to-staff ratios gives consistent care and children get enough attention o Minimal staff turnover maintains attachments and stops feelings of deprivation or anxiety o Sensitive emotional care high sensitive care means happy and secure children o Qualified staff EPPE found higher qualifications lead to better social development Availability of high quality care: o In UK it s legal standards must be met o Day-care nurseries are inspected by Ofsted o UK government initiated the Sure Start programme that aims to deliver the best start in life for every child. Success of this initiative is the focus of the NESS project which is studying the outcomes of the Sure Start Programme.