S0300-A8-HBK-010

CHAPTER 6 SUNKEN AND CAPSIZED SHIPS

6-1 INTRODUCTION Ships sink or capsize because they lose their buoyancy or stability through battle and weather damage, collision, intentional flooding, and other means. The damage makes their salvage more difficult than it would be for an intact ship in the same location. Beyond this, and the fact that the ships are supported largely or totally by the ground, common circumstances of stranded ships do not apply to sunken ships. Usually, ships are salvaged only if sunk in relatively shallow water. While it is technically possible to recover ships and other large objects from great depths, the cost is usually prohibitive. The difficulties and cost increase rapidly with depth; ships sunk with more than 100 feet of water over their decks usually are considered beyond economic salvage, although high-value or sensitive cargo may justify their recovery. Submarines, because of their construction, can be recovered from somewhat greater depths; high replacement cost and strategic value may justify salvage. Salvage of sunken vessels is not usually as time-critical as salvage of strandings. A vessel sunk in protected waters, or in water deep enough to protect it from surface conditions, is unlikely to deteriorate unless severe storms develop. More time can be taken to plan and marshal forces for the salvage effort. A ship partially sunk on an exposed coast, however, is in a situation similar to that of a strandingthe casualtys condition deteriorates over time. Wreck removal and harbor clearance operations involving sunken ships are often urgent because of the necessity to open obstructed waterways and port facilities. All marine salvage work is a combination of seamanship and engineering. In stranding salvage, seamanship predominates; salvage or clearance of sunken ships requires a greater proportion of engineering. The salvage engineer has four principal tasks:

Predict the behavior of sunken and capsized ships by applying the principles of buoyancy and stability discussed in Chapter 1. Determine required lifting and/or righting forces. Determine effects of environmental forces on the casualty and salvage systems. Devise methods of applying forces to right or lift the casualty in a controlled manner.

The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses righting and raising sunken ships in detail. This chapter provides amplifying information on factors influencing methods of salvaging sunken ships, such as sinking conditions and the environment. 6-2 SINKING CONDITION A sunken ships attitude relative to both the seafloor and water surface is a principal indicator of the complexity of her salvage. The magnitude and distribution of ground reaction are the most important elements of a ships stranding condition. Analogous elements for sunken ships are the required lifting and parbuckling forces. The relative degree of submergence is equally important, because of its effect on stability during raising. Degree of submergence and distribution of the ships weight between ground reaction and buoyancy profoundly influence a sunken ships behavior. The position, attitude, and orientation of a sunken ship can either mitigate or intensify environmental effects. Important factors of the sinking condition include:

Whether the ship is capsized. How deeply the ship has penetrated or settled into the bottom. Depth of water around and above the ship. Damage suffered before, during, and after sinking. Vessel attitude, i.e., list, trim, contact with the bottom, etc. Distance to protected shallow waters. Degree of submergence.

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Sinking often results from flooding following hull damage; additional damage may result when the ship strikes or settles on the bottom. A diving survey can provide an accurate picture of the ships condition, but indications of some conditions may be visible from the surface. If the casualtys masts either converge or diverge, the ship may have broken in sinking. If one end of a ship sank rapidly while the other end remained afloat for several hours, it is likely that little or no damage occurred to the slowly sinking end, and that the vessel lost buoyancy through slow seepage. Differences between water levels inside and outside of a partially sunken ship, and between compartments within the ship (as the tide rises or falls), may indicate the extent of damage to shell and bulkheads.

6-3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Environmental effects on sunken ships include responses of the seafloor to loading by the casualty and fluid forces of the surrounding water. In a sinking, much of the casualty is exposed to hydrostatic pressure, current forces, and current-induced scour or silting. Work on the casualty must be accomplished through the water column. Wind and weather affect salvors and salvage vessels alike. 6-3.1 Seafloor Effects. Effects of the seafloor on a sunken casualty include:

Gradual sinkage into the seafloor. Suction on cohesive seafloors. Hull girder stresses caused by uneven support. Obstructions presented by the bottom topography. Scour. Silting.

Composition and consistency of the seafloor under the ship, and slope of the seafloor near the casualty, are the two most important characteristics influencing seafloor effects. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses the general effects of the seafloor on sunken vessels and lifting operations. Paragraph3-7.3 describes calculation of bottom breakout forces required to break seafloor suction. Silt and mud that settle in the ship constitute weight that must be either removed or overcome during the refloating. Removing silt and mud lightens the ship and makes her behavior more predictable. Chapter 5 discusses the use of air lifts and other underwater excavation methods suitable for removing accumulated silt from sunken ships. The weight of mud varies with the type of soil. Table 3-3 lists some typical values for underwater weightthe weight of the soil less the weight of the displaced water. Because of internal voids, one cubic foot of soil displaces less than one cubic foot of water. The actual volume of water displaced by a volume of soil depends on the compactness, or porosity (ratio of volume of voids to volume of soil particles) of the soil. Porosity ranges from 0.3 for dense, settled sand to 0.6 for recently deposited, loose silt. Mud removed from a casualty is sometimes deposited on a barge or ashore. The weight of spoil can be estimated from the change in barge draft. This weight is greater than the weight removed from the casualty because it includes weight of water trapped in the soil. The weight removed can be estimated by multiplying spoil weight by the solids proportion (1 porosity). Wet weight can be determined simply by weighing a bucket of mud brought up from the wreck; if time permits, the weight of solids for a given volume of mud can be determined by drying the mud before weighing. A microwave oven is convenient for drying soil samples. 6-3.2 Fluid Forces. Fluid forces on a sunken ship derive from the depth of water in which the ship lies and the effects of tide, waves, swell, and current. 6-3.2.1 Water Depth. Because hydrostatic pressure increases with depth, water depth determines the hydrostatic pressures on the casualty both as it sits and as it is raised. The fact that pressure complicates the salvage of sunken ships is a major reason why deeply sunken ships are seldom salvaged. Pressure varies with depth according to the following relationship: ph = wd where: ph d = = = hydrostatic pressure weight density of water = g/gc (seeParagraphD-4.1) water depth

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If depth is measured in feet, density in pounds per cubic foot, and pressure is desired in pounds per square inch, the relationship can be simplified: ph = d 144 = 0.445d = 0.433d where: ph d = = = hydrostatic pressure, lb/in2 water density, lb/ft3 water depth, feet (seawater) (fresh water)
I I I II II II 1 2 3 1 2 3

Table 6-1. Shipboard Manhole Cover Specifications (ASTM Standards F1142, F1143, and F1144). Bolted, Semi-flush, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type Grade Plate Thickness, in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Overall Size, in. 15 23 15 23 15 23 18 24 18 24 18 24 Cover Overall Size, in. 21 29 21 29 21 29 24 30 24 30 24 30 Number of Bolts or Studs 22 22 22 24 24 24 Design Pressure psi 12.0 27.0 47.9 8.9 20.0 35.6

Rectangular, Raised, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type Grade Plate Thickness in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Cover Overall Overall Size, Size, in. in. 15 23 213 4 293 4 15 23 213 4 293 4 15 23 213 4 293 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 Number of Bolts or Studs 30 30 30 34 34 34 Design Pressure psi 7.5 17.0 30.3 6.7 15.1 27.0

Pressure acts equally on all surfaces of a sunken ship filled with water. Pressure differentials across structures resulting from dewatering of spaces can be sufficient to cause failure. Ship decks and bulkheads are designed to withstand a pressure differential of four to six feet of water head greater than the depth of the bulkhead. If the ship is old, has been sunk for a long time, is damaged, or the bulkhead is otherwise in poor condition, this pressure differential may be excessive. If the pressure differential is greater than six feet of seawater or the strength is questionable, bulkheads should be reinforced by shoring or by building false bulkheads adjacent to them and placing concrete between the real and false bulkheads. If concrete is not available, dense bulk material, such as loose stone, sand, coal, ore, etc., can be placed between the bulkheads to provide shoring weight.

I I I II II II

1 2 3 1 2 3

Raised, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type I I I II II II Grade 1 2 3 1 2 3 Plate Thickness, in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Overall Size, in. 15 23 15 23 15 23 18 24 18 24 18 24 Cover Overall Size, in. 22 30 22 30 22 30 25 31 25 31 25 31 Number of Bolts or Studs 24 24 24 28 28 28 Design Pressure psi 12.0 27.0 47.9 8.9 20.0 35.6

Strength of stiffened and cross-stiffened bulkheads can be estimated by the methods described in Paragraphs 2-2.2 and 2-2.3. Unstiffened bulkhead strength is given by the flat plate formulae described in Paragraph 2-5. The following guidelines can be used to estimate strength of miscellaneous structures and fittings under distributed loads:

A rule of thumb for commercial vessels is that a main deck submerged more than 6 feet must be shored. Steel and aluminum watertight doors built to U.S. commercial standards are designed for a uniform pressure of 9 psig; glassreinforced plastic (GRP) watertight doors are designed for a uniform pressure of 5 psig. Design pressures and dimensions for watertight and oiltight manhole covers built to ASTM standards are given in Table 6-1.

For ships built to U.S. Navy specifications (GENSPECs): Shell and weather deck plating is designed for a hydrostatic load of 500 pounds per square foot (approximately 3.5 psi or 7.8 feet of seawater). Vertical stiffeners on structural bulkheads are designed as pin-ended columns. Watertight bulkheads are designed to withstand flooding to the damage control deck. Due to their load-bearing requirements, structural watertight bulkheads may be able to carry a higher hydrostatic head. An air test schedule indicates test pressure for certain watertight compartments. Although they are usually stronger, compartment boundaries can carry at least the specified pressure. The air test schedule for the casualty or for sister ships may be obtained from the planning yard, squadron maintenance officer, or a sister ship.

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6-3.2.2 Tide. Tide is important when salvaging sunken ships for five reasons:

Depth of water over the deck varies with tide. In partially exposed ships, downflooding through hatches, doors, and other openings can occur as the tide rises. As the tide falls, larger portions of the ship are exposed, permitting work to be performed without diving. The buoyancy in partially exposed watertight spaces increases as tide rises. The amount of tidal lift is directly related to the height of the tide. Water level in partially exposed holds or compartments relative to that outside the ship can give important clues about hull damage. An appreciable time lag between the rise or fall of the water level inside a compartment and that outside the ship indicates slow leakage and relatively small openings in the hull or piping. Little or no lag indicates one or more large openings or many small openings.

Patches, cofferdams, and other structures affected by either hydrostatic pressure or water depth should be designed for the highest tide likely to occur during the salvage operation. A generous margin should be allowed, but not so generous that the freeboard of a full cofferdam inhibits handling materials from boats into the cofferdam. 6-3.2.3 Waves and Swells. Waves entering a casualty through large openings can be channeled into narrow passages; the wave energy is concentrated, and the waves strike obstructing bulkheads or patches with great force. There may be a strong and violent surge inside a vessel, while only a moderate swell is running outside. High internal pressures can occur if waves enter the hull, or the water inside the casualty is excited by the waves. The rapidly varying water level alternately compresses and expands the air in the space, subjecting space boundaries and patches to high cyclic loading. Even small swells, when confined, can dislodge sturdy patches, especially those fitted externally. Patches on deck openings may be struck and damaged by the rising water surface. A partially sunken ship on an exposed coast can be severely battered. A sunken ship may retain sufficient buoyancy for one end to float while the other end rests on the bottom. In this condition, the casualty is moved about easily by wind and seas; loss of buoyancy because of progressive flooding or venting of trapped air may allow the floating end to sink, endangering nearby personnel and craft. 6-3.2.4 Current. Current forces push and rotate sunken ships. The effective center of pressure of current force may be high enough to cause a heeling moment. Paragraph 3-4.5.1 describes the calculation of the force exerted by a current against a sunken ships hull. To find the depth correction factor (K) from Figure 3-13, total height of the immersed ship should be substituted for draft in the water depth to draft ratio (d/T). If water depths and degree of immersion vary along the length of the casualty, total current force can be calculated with a value for K based on average d/T ratio, or by numerical integration. If there is a significant vertical current gradient, it is necessary to integrate vertically as well as horizontally to determine the center of pressure for heeling moment calculations. Varying currents, coupled with other effects, may cause instability as the casualty is raised. Current drag on the casualty tends to move both it and any attached lifting vessels laterally. Current intensity and direction may vary with depth. When current direction varies with depth, current force vectors on the suspended vessel and the lift craft may come from different directions, resulting in increased lift force. When lifting a sunken vessel clear of the bottom, enough tugs and moorings must be available to control the ship in the maximum current expected during the lift. When the vessel is moved to a new site, moors must be ready to receive her and be capable of holding her securely in the conditions prevalent at that site. Current is a major factor limiting diver work. Divers should be given priority use of slack water periods.

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6-4 STABILITY OF SUNKEN SHIPS

Sunken ships are grouped into four categories by stability characteristics:

Completely submerged. Partially submerged, with a substantial portion of the watertight envelope above the surface. Partially supported by their buoyancy. Dewatered with cofferdams.

Sunken ships refloat before all of the buoyancy lost in sinking has been recovered. Water remaining on board can cause dangerous free surface and problems with stability, list, and local and overall hull strength. Salvage of a sunken ship requires not only recovering enough buoyancy to refloat the ship, but also distributing buoyancy to obtain suitable conditions of stability, trim, and strength. Capsized ships are sometimes refloated upside down. This technique is particularly suitable when the:

Ship is capsized to more than 90 degrees. Ships bottom is relatively intact or can easily be made airtight. The ship is sunk in deep water or top hamper, superstructure, and other objects that increase the navigational draft of the inverted ship can be removed easily. Channel to the ultimate destination is sufficiently deep to accommodate the inverted ship. Ship is to be sunk in deep water or scrapped.

Capsized ships have been refloated successfully on their sides or upside down. Experience has shown that ships floated upside down are usually quite stable when raised to a freeboard roughly equivalent to, or only slightly greater than, the height of the double bottom. Similarly, fullbodied ships refloated at heel angles of 130 to 150 degrees with the turn of the bilge a few feet out of the water are generally quite stable. 6-4.1 Completely Submerged Vessels. Completely submerged vessels have no metacentric radius because there is no waterplane; IWP, and consequently BM, is zero. Both transverse and longitudinal stability depend solely on the relative positions of the centers of buoyancy and gravity. A submerged vessel free of external restraints assumes trim and list that bring W L W L UPSETTING MOMENT the centers of buoyancy and gravity into vertical line. Stability of a completely submerged ship is not a concern while the ship G is restrained from capsizing by the seafloor. However, it is of major concern between B B the time the ship leaves the bottom and G when it establishes positive stability on the surface. The vertical separation of the centers of gravity and buoyancy (BG), after accounting for the effects of free surface, is the measure of stability for a sunken ship. As shown in Figure 6-1, if:

SHIP UPRIGHT, CLEAR OF BOTTOM B IS ABOVE G - SHIP IS STABLE

G IS ABOVE B, SHIP IS UNSTABLE.

B is above G, the ship is stable. B and G coincide, the ship has neutral stability. G is above B, the ship is unstable.

Figure 6-1. Stability of Completely Sunken Ship.

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6-4.1.1 Free Surface in Submerged Vessels. Free surface reduces righting arm in submerged vessels in the same manner as in surface vessels. The opposing shifts of liquid and air can be considered to cause a shift in the center of gravity (added weight method) or center of buoyancy (lost buoyancy method). In the added weight method of calculations, reduction in righting arms is calculated by determining an equivalent rise of the center of gravity: GG1 = i GG1

BGeff = BG where: BGeff i GG1 = = = =

effective (virtual) separation of the centers of buoyancy and gravity, after accounting for free surface effect moment of inertia of the liquid surface in the compartment volume of displacement of the vessel vertical distance from the old center of gravity G to the new center of gravity G1

When a large free surface is in W L W L N communication with the sea, as when K K capsized ships are raised with compressed B1 D1 air, the lost buoyancy method of calculation F B0 F B0 F2 D sometimes gives a more enlightening E O F1 O F1 H1 picture of submerged vessel stability. The H1 R S free surface is the lower boundary of the G O N M1 ships intact buoyancy. For cargo ships M0 H H floated upside down without hatch covers, or ships with large hull openings, the free surface can be viewed as an internal (a) WITHOUT LONGITUDINAL SUBDIVISION (b) WITH LONGITUDINAL SUBDIVISION waterline. For a ship either upright or capsized to 180 degrees, the internal waterline is perpendicular to the Figure 6-2. Submerged Ship With Large Free Surface. centerplane. If the ship is heeled, as shown in Figure 6-2(a), the internal waterline (free surface) is no longer perpendicular to the centerplane. A wedge of buoyancy (HOH1) is transferred from one side of the ship to the other (FOF1), causing an attendant shift of the center of buoyancy from B0 to B1. For the ship shown, the centers of buoyancy and gravity are located so that the opposing forces of weight and buoyancy form an upsetting couplethe ship is initially unstable. A submerged metacenter (M0), can be defined in terms of the initial waterline FH and center of buoyancy B0: B 0 M0 = I0

where I0 is the moment of inertia of the internal waterplane FH (free surface) and is the volume of displacement (buoyancy). If the center of gravity lies below the metacenter, the line of action of the downward force of buoyancy will be outboard the line of action of the upward force of buoyancy for small angles of heel, creating a righting couple. A longitudinal bulkhead NN, as shown in Figure 6-2(b), prevents the formation of the buoyancy wedges HOH1 and FOF1. Instead, wedges of buoyancy are transferred within the compartments formed by the bulkhead (DED1 to FEF2, SOH to DOR). Metacentric radius is no longer based on I0, the moment of inertia of the waterplane FH, but on the sum of the moments of inertia of the component surfaces FD and DH. If the surface FD is small compared to FH, then O and O can be assumed to correspond, and the combined moment of inertia can be approximated by: I = I0 Ad 2

where A is the area of the surface FD and d is the distance from the center of area FD to the ships centerplane (EO). If longitudinal subdivision is symmetric about the centerline, O and O correspond, and the sum of the moment of inertia of the component surfaces can be closely approximated by deducting Ad2 for all the component surfaces, except the center surface, from I0. If the internal waterline FH corresponds to a watertight deck or bulkhead, i.e., the compartment is completely dewatered and there is no free surface, there is no transfer of buoyancy from one side of the ship to the other with heel; the center of buoyancy does not move. The ship is stable so long as the center of gravity lies below the center of buoyancy.

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6-4.1.2 Transition from Submerged to Surfaced Stability. As the ship begins to surface and develop a waterplane, a metacentric radius is formed and surface (form) stability becomes applicable. The metacentric radius is quite small at first; the metacentric height often is negative and the ship unstableespecially if there is appreciable free surface. A partially submerged ship with a large free surface has both external and internal waterlines, as shown in Figure 6-3. The volume between the external and internal waterlines, represented in the figure by FF1LL1, is approximately equal to the volume of displacement (). As the ship inclines, the external waterline becomes HH1 and the internal waterline becomes SS1. Since both the external and internal waterplanes change as the ship inclines, both a surface stability metacenter (M1) and a submerged metacenter (M0) can be defined. M1 is defined in the usual manner by the waterplane FF1: B 0 M1 = IFF
1

F W L H B1 B3 M1 B0 B2 S O M2 M0 L1 F1 S1 H1 L

Figure 6-3. Refloated Ship With Low Freeboard and Extensive Free Surface.

(a)

(b)

(c)
M

W G M B G B

G B

M0 is similarly defined by the internal waterplane LL1: B 0 M0 = ILL

1

SHIP COMPLETELY SUBMERGED. SHIP HAS NO WATERPLANE OR METACENTRIC RADIUS. B IS BELOW G. SHIP IS UNSTABLE.

PART OF SHIP EMERGES AND FORMS WATERPLANE. SUBMERGED VOLUME IS STILL VERY LARGE. METACENTRIC RADIUS IS SMALL. METACENTRIC HEIGHT IS NEGATIVE.

SHIP RAISED FURTHER, SUBMERGED VOLUME DECREASES. METACENTRIC RADIUS INCREASES. METACENTRIC HEIGHT BECOMES POSITIVE. SHIP BECOMES STABLE.

It can be seen from Figure 6-3 that the wedge of buoyancy at the external waterFigure 6-4. Development of Stability in Raising a Completely Sunken Ship. line is transferred from the high side to the low side, shifting B0 to B1, while at the internal waterline, the wedge is transferred from the low side to the high side, shifting B0 to B2. The effects of the transference of buoyancy at the two waterlines tend to cancel, leaving the center of buoyancy at B3. The effective metacenter (M2) is determined by the final position of the center of buoyancy (B3). The governing metacentric radius can be defined in terms of the initial center of buoyancy (B0): B 0 M2 = B 0 M0 To be stable, the ships center of gravity must lie below M2. As the ship is raised further out of the water, the external waterplane area increases, with an attendant increase in moment of inertia while the volume of displacement decreases simultaneously, increasing B0M1. If the free surface (internal waterline) is eliminated, B0M0 becomes zero, and B0M2 = -B0M1, i.e., M1 and M2 coincide and surface (form) stability considerations apply. The period between the time the ship begins to develop a waterplane and the time it attains positive form stability is critical. During this period, the ship must be stabilized to prevent capsizing. Figure 6-4 illustrates the stability of a ship being raised from a completely submerged condition. Sunken ships are seldom, if ever, raised without restraint. Ships floated keel up should not be raised high out of the water, especially when a large free surface exists. As can be seen from Figure 6-3, a waterline slightly below the double bottom will maximize the area and moment of inertia of the external waterplane. On the other hand, little reduction in the area of the internal waterline will occur until the compartment(s) are virtually emptied. Increasing freeboard will lower the center of buoyancy relative to the center of gravity without reducing free surface, and very likely lead to an unstable condition. B 0 M1

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6-4.1.3 Attitude When Freely Floating. A sunken ships center of buoyancy cannot be assumed to lie directly above the center of gravity. There is nearly always some longitudinal separation. The salvage engineer must determine how much vertical lift force must be applied, and how it should be distributed, to bring the centers of buoyancy and gravity into a vertical line. Buoyancy of a sunken and flooded hull consists of pockets of buoyancy distributed throughout the ship. The center of buoyancy is not simply the center of the enclosed volume of the ship, but is derived by dividing the sum of individual buoyancy moments by the total buoyancy in the same way that the center of gravity is calculated. External lifting forces are treated as vertical forces applied where lift wires or slings are attached. With the centers of buoyancy and gravity located, the attitude of the vessel when clear of the bottom can be calculated by simple geometry as shown in Figure 6-5. = tan
1

B BG V BG L G

B G

BGL BGV

= tan

BGT BGV

where: = angle of trim = angle of heel BGL = longitudinal separation of Figure 6-5. Submerged Equilibrium Attitude. centers of buoyancy and gravity BGV = vertical separation of centers of buoyancy and gravity BGT = transverse separation of centers of buoyancy and gravity To determine a submerged vessels response to external forces, a righting arm (GZ) curve can be constructed with the relationship: GZ = BGVtan The same relationship is used to construct longitudinal and transverse stability curves. If there is free surface, effective or virtual BG is used to develop the stability curves. In wholly submerged ships (no waterplane), effective longitudinal BG is nearly always less than effective transverse BG because tanks and compartments in most ships are longer than they are wide, and have greater moments of inertia about a transverse, rather than longitudinal, axis. Free surface is more detrimental to longitudinal stability than to transverse stability. Sunken ships are normally raised from depths less than their length. Longitudinal inclinations are therefore limited by the low end of the ship striking bottom, the high end reaching the surface, or both. The ship is supported partially by its buoyancy and partially by the ground, as described in Paragraph 6-4.3. The maximum longitudinal inclination a rising ship can attain is limited by the ratio of water depth to length: sin where: L D = = = ships length water depth angle of inclination D L

Longitudinal inclination (trim angle) should be kept to less than 15 degrees.

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6-4.2 Partially Submerged Vessels. If the ship lies with part of her watertight volume above the surface, a metacentric radius can be calculated from the moment of inertia of the partial waterplane. Because of the relatively small moment of inertia of the waterplane and the large underwater volume, the metacentric radius may be quite small. Depending on the location of the center of gravity and extent of free surface, the metacentric height may be positive, negative, orrarelyzero. As buoyancy is restored, the external waterplane area increases, causing the moment of inertia to increase. The underwater volume decreases simultaneously. The overall result is that the metacentric radius increases and the ship becomes potentially more stable. The overall stability of the ship depends upon the position of the center of gravity and the free surface in partially flooded spaces. Figure 6-6 illustrates the stability of a ship being raised with the main deck initially partially above water. If the bulk of the main deck is above the surface, there is a substantial waterplane and the metacentric radius (BM) and metacentric height (GM) can be calculated or estimated. Normally, G lies above B, and ordinary stability considerations pertain.

l
W L

b
W L

M B G

ONLY THE PORTION OF THE WATERPLANE ABOVE THE WATER -THE SHADED SECTION- CONTRIBUTES TO THE METACENTRIC RADIUS

If B lies above G, the ship is stable, as Figure 6-6. Sunken Ship Stability. Main Deck Above Water. shown in Figure 6-7. If the ship is refloated by restoring buoyancy, the center of buoyancy moves down in the hull, crosses the position of the center of gravity, and eventually reaches a position B1. As M the ship refloats, BM increases because the W L W L moment of inertia of the waterplane (IT) M remains approximately constant as draft G decreases, while the displacement volume B B1 () decreases. Until B moves below G, G stability is a function of the distance BG; K the metacenter has no significance. If a positive metacentric height is developed by K the time the center of buoyancy crosses the position of the center of gravity, the ship remains positively stable throughout the AS BUOYANCY IS RESTORED: refloating. However, if there is zero or B MOVES DOWN negative metacentric height at the time B G REMAINS AT THE SAME POSITION reaches G, the ship loses her stability and I REMAINS THE SAME develops a list. If there is a small positive V DECREASES GM, the effective GM may be negative I BM = ( _ ) INCREASES when corrected for the free surface that V always exists as the ship is dewatered. If the ship was unstable in her afloat Figure 6-7. Sunken Ship Stability. Main Deck Above Water. condition, she will be unstable as she is refloated, unless the conditions causing her instability have been corrected. Addition of high weight or removal of low weight during the salvage operation can cause an unstable afloat condition. Far more common is a loss of stability caused by free surface. It is possible that the free surface effect will be so great that the ship cannot be stabilized by shifting internal weights. When this occurs, the ship must be stabilized by use of external forces. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses methods for stabilizing sunken ships during refloating.

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6-4.3 Ships Partially Supported by Their Buoyancy. A ship can sink so that one end lies in contact with the ground and the other end remains afloat, as shown in Figure 6-8. Although unlikely, it is also possible for a ship to be completely submerged with one end off the ground, supported by buoyancy, as shown in Figure 69. As in the case of a stranded ship, the sum of ground reaction and buoyancy must equal the total weight of the ship. By the added weight method, a ships total buoyancy is the volume of its immersed portion plus the volume of all topside appendages, multiplied by water density. The total weight is the presinking displacement plus the weight of floodwater. By the lost buoyancy method, weight remains equal to the presinking displacement, while buoyancy is proportional to the volume of immersed structure, cargo, stores, etc. The amount of buoyancy lost is therefore equal to the weight of floodwater. If permeability of the flooded spaces is known or can be estimated, weight of floodwater can be calculated as described in Chapter 1. The volume of immersed topside appendages adds some buoyancy. By summing moments about the center of gravity as shown in Figure 6-9, ground reaction at the equilibrium inclination can be determined: B BGH = R RGH R = where: B BGH R RGH = = = = = = B BGH RGH

W 5 A PEAK FLOODED SPACES Figure 6-8. Sunken Ship Partially Supported by Buoyancy. 4
D/TK

L
E/R

F PEAK

B
B G

BG H

RG H

Figure 6-9. Ground Reaction for Partially Buoyant (Submerged) Ship.

total buoyancy horizontal separation between B and G (LCG - LCB)sin ground reaction horizontal separation between R and G LCGsin (aground at the bow) (L - LCG)sin (aground at the stern) angle of inclination

The relationship is simple, but centers of gravity and buoyancy may be difficult to determine accurately. A ship supported partially by its buoyancy is in a precarious situation. Loss of additional buoyancy by progressive flooding or damage can cause the ship to sink completely, sometimes rapidly and with little warning. Intact spaces must be examined thoroughly, and secured against progressive flooding early in the salvage operation. A ship partially afloat is affected by current, wind, and waves. Lateral forces tend to cause both translation and rotation around the grounded end. Because current strength and direction both may vary with depth, the resultant current force is the vector sum of current forces at different levels. Trapped air can hold a completely submerged casualty at an angle of list. If the air vents, the casualty may settle into either an upright or capsized position. A sunken ship protruding over the edge of a reef or ridge may be partially supported by her buoyancy. Loss of buoyancy may cause the casualty to drop over the edge into deeper water. A sunken ship in a potentially unstable position can be stabilized by taking an upward strain on the vessel with pontoons, lift craft, or sheer legs capable of holding the vessel in position. The floating end of a partially sunken vessel might be held up with pontoons or lift craft made up alongside. In some cases, it may be necessary to vent trapped air from the casualty to allow it to settle to a stable position, at the expense of incurring extra work to raise it from that position.

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6-4.4 Ships Dewatered with Cofferdams. A ship with main deck submerged that is raised by dewatering with a complete cofferdam exhibits stability characteristics similar to those of a ship with main deck initially above the water. The waterplane area and moment of inertia of the cofferdam are nearly as large as those of the hull, although the displacement volume is much larger from the time the ship leaves the bottom until it is floating at a normal draft. The cofferdam is a large, high weight that raises the center of gravity and reduces metacentric height. Construction and application of salvage cofferdams are discussed in the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). A ship raised by dewatering through partial cofferdams is similar to a ship with a partial waterplane. As the ship begins to float, metacentric radius is determined initially by the relatively small waterplane of the cofferdams. The plan area of partial cofferdams is usually smaller than that of the spaces over which they are placed. When the internal water level has been pumped down past the main deck, the free surface area is larger than the waterplane area. The free surface is almost always at least as wide as the cofferdam, and usually is wider. Thus, the moment of inertia of the free surface (i) is greater than that of the waterplane (I), and metacentric height is negative: BM = BMeff = I I FS = I i I i =

since i is greater than I, BMeff is negative, and unless KG is greater than KB, GMeff is also negative. If there is free communication within the hull so that the water level falls simultaneously in several compartments, free surface effect may be much larger than metacentric height. As the main deck breaks the water surface, waterplane area increases, and depending on the relative sizes of the waterplane and free surface moments of inertia, GM may either become positive or remain negative until free surface is suppressed by dewatering. 6-4.5 Buoyancy and Free Surface. Sunken ships are raised by one of three methods:

Internal (buoyant) lift. External lift. Combined internal and external lift.

How and where the buoyant and lift forces are applied affect stability of the casualty. Buoyant forces can be grouped into four types, based on their effects on stability:

Fixed buoyancy without free surface. Fixed buoyancy with free surface. Variable buoyancy with free surface. Variable buoyancy without free surface.

Each type of buoyancy behaves differently as the ship ascends. 6-4.5.1 Fixed Buoyancy without Free Surface. Fixed buoyancy without free surface can be provided by:

Compartments vented at the bottom and blown dry by compressed air. Completely dry tanks or spaces capable of withstanding ambient pressure, such as submarine hard tanks. Blocks of buoyant solid, such as cast-in-place foam, or buoyant cargo held firmly in place. Lifting forces from submerged lift bags, pontoons, etc.

Buoyancy remains constant and stationary relative to the ship. Center of buoyancy and total buoyancy remain unchanged as the ship ascends. Pontoons rigged above a casualty on lifting pendants provide constant buoyancy until they reach the surface, where the volume of the emerged portions of the pontoon no longer provides buoyancy. Pontoons are often rigged this way to arrest the ascent of the ship or object being raised at a specified depth. 6-4.5.2 Fixed Buoyancy with Free Surface. Fixed buoyancy with free surface exists in partially dewatered compartments not exposed to ambient pressure, e.g., submarine internal compartments. The buoyancy of loose masses of objects that can be considered incompressible, such as rigid buoys, floats, and some types of cargo, remains constant as the ship ascends. Unless the objects completely fill the space, a free surface exists and the center of buoyancy can shift as the objects move to one side or to the end of the space.

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As soon as the ship leaves the bottom, the buoyancy in each compartment shifts, causing the center of buoyancy to move. This is the equivalent of the free surface effect in surface stability. The effect of free surface on stability of a sunken ship is discussed in Paragraph 6-4.1. 6-4.5.3 Variable Buoyancy with Free Surface. Compressed air in a ships hull expands while hydrostatic pressure decreases as the ship rises. Air in partially dewatered compartments exposed to ambient pressure, partially filled lift bags, or any other space where the water level is above the vent opening, expands as the ship rises. In addition to the free surface effects discussed above, buoyancy increases rapidly as the ship rises, causing rapid and probably uncontrolled ascent. A ship raised from a shallow depth will be on the surface before it can assume an extreme trim. A ship raised from a significant depth may develop extreme trim, which can cause air to spill from vent holes low in air-filled compartments. If this happens, buoyancy is lost as the compartments flood, and the ship may sink again. The casualty may be damaged in its second sinking. Topside rigging can be overstressed and parted by the sudden weight increase as the casualty floods, or by the uneven loads caused by extreme trim. In addition, subsurface rigging can become hopelessly tangled. 6-4.5.4 Variable Buoyancy without Free Surface. Lift craft and surface pontoons can be rigged to provide a submerged vessel a form of reserve buoyancy and waterplane. If slings are made up to solid attachment points on opposite sides (or ends) of the sunken vessel, inclination increases tension on slings on one side. If the slings are made up to pontoons or lift craft on the surface, the lift craft sinks to gain buoyancy equivalent to the increased tension and restore equilibrium. 6-4.6 Longitudinal Stability. Because of the effect of length on a waterplanes moment of inertia, ships with any significant length of waterplane are inherently longitudinally stable. In ships with limited or no internal transverse subdivision, free surface may overcome longitudinal stability while the ship is being raised. It is impractical to keep a ship perfectly horizontal while it is raised; free water shifts to the low end, causing trimming moments. Because the ship trims as the water shifts, large trim angles can be reached before the mass of water reaches the low end. The mass of water rushing to the low end of compartments can have enough momentum to cause significant impact loads on patches and internal structures. Impact loads and extreme trim can have several detrimental effects:

Downflooding can occur through topside openings or over the tops of cofferdams, with subsequent loss of buoyancy and plunging. The casualty may rise out of lifting slings on one end and overload and part slings at the other end. Impact loads can damage patches, internal structure, or shell plating. Impact forces may be transmitted to lifting slings, overloading them. Impact forces on bulkheads and shell plating can cause longitudinal surging, while downward components momentarily increase trimming moment, causing pitching. Uncontrolled motions can allow the casualty to slip out of lifting slings, or to overload them.

A ship with no waterplane has only the longitudinal righting moment provided by the relative positions of the centers of gravity and buoyancy. The ship must be raised without trim or must be kept in contact with the bottom as she is moved into water shallow enough for a waterplane and adequate longitudinal metacentric radius to develop. 6-4.7 Keeping the Ship Upright. As the ship is raised, various methods can prevent capsizing while it passes through unstable phases:

Refloating one end of the vessel, while keeping the other end firmly in contact with the bottom. Compartments in the raised end can be dried out completely, topside weight removed, or double-bottom tanks flooded to improve stability before raising the other end. Keeping the vessel in contact with the bottom by pulling it into shallower water as it is raised. Keeping full-bodied vessels in water shallow enough that the bilge strikes bottom and prevents the ship from capsizing. Dewatering holds or major subdivisions one at a time to limit free surface. Breaking up large free surfaces by repairing damaged bulkheads and building temporary bulkheads in the flooded spaces. Applying external forces to produce righting moments that counter upsetting moments: (1) Lifting on the deck edges with sheer legs or cranes to prevent excessive list. (2) Holding the vessel upright by tensioning a line led from a mast or kingpost to a deadman.

Rigging barges, pontoons, or lift craft tightly alongside to provide added buoyancy and waterplane.

It is not always advisable to bring a sunken ship directly to the surface, particularly from great depths. A single long lift involves greater pressure changes of air in the casualty and pontoons, with greater possibility of losing control. Hydrodynamic drag or currents can cause instability as the casualty rises through the water column. While a casualty is submerged, work on it must be performed by divers, whose effectiveness is reduced with depth. These factors may dictate raising the casualty in a series of short lifts, and moving it to shallower water after each lift to re-rig for the next one. With the casualty resting in shallower water, divers can make preparations for raising it to the surface with greater efficiency and safety. It may be advisable to keep some cargoes or munitions submerged until specialized facilities for handling and receiving them are available. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses these methods in greater detail.

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6-5 STRENGTH OF SUNKEN SHIPS Local, longitudinal bending and shear strength of sunken ships are often impaired by the damage that led to their sinking. The strength of the sunken ship can have a major influence on the salvage methods selected. Bending and shear stresses in sunken ships are determined by the same methods used for intact ships. These methods are described in Paragraph 1-11. If an evaluation of the longitudinal and shear strength reveals adequate strength, the salvage may proceed. There must be an adequate margin of strength at each stage of the salvage to allow for unknown conditions. If the survey or initial strength evaluation shows that the hull girder has failed, or that failure is probable during the salvage, the hull must be reinforced or extraordinary measures must be adopted to prevent catastrophic failure and to allow completion of the operation. Even in ships destined for disposal, structural failure must be prevented, as it may occur at the worst possible time and may create a situation worse than the initial sinking. When the hull girder has failed or can be expected to fail during salvage, the hull may be reinforced by providing additional material in way of incipient failure to restore the section modulus or increase the shear area. Structural reinforcement and repair are addressed in Paragraph 2-11. In cases where there is massive failure of the hull and it is impractical to restore any hull strength, zero-shear/zero-stress methods are appropriate. These methods load the hull so that zero shear or zero bending moment occurs at the point where the hull has failed and plastic hinges have formed. They require the parts of the ship between hinges or badly damaged sections to be treated as independent hulls, coupled with rigorous and accurate weight and buoyancy analysis to determine proper loading. 6-6 RIGHTING CAPSIZED SHIPS When ships are capsized, their salvage or removal usually requires a detailed engineering analysis and plan. Most capsized ships are righted first and then raised. In this approach, the work is done in two distinct phases. The first phase brings the ship upright, then the second raises her like any other upright sunken ship. When righting and refloating are done by stages, refloating work may start as soon as the ship is sufficiently upright that men can work aboard her. Ships are righted by creating a moment with buoyancy or externally applied force that acts around a pivot point to overcome the moment of weight acting through the center of gravity holding the ship in a capsized position. When a ship is being righted, the ground under the pivot point must have enough bearing strength to support the ship during the righting operation. If the ground is too soft, the ship may either sink into or slide along the bottom, inhibiting the righting process. During rotation, if only the pivoting axis (usually the bilge) is in contact with the ground, bearing pressure (PB), equals the bearing force (FB), divided by the minimum contact area (A): PB = FB A

If the casualty is being righted by internal buoyancy moments, the bearing force is the ground reaction, and is equal to the total weight less the total buoyancy of the casualty: FB = W - B If externally applied forces generate righting moments, the bearing force is the total weight of the casualty, less the buoyancy, plus the downward component of the righting forces (FRz): FB = W - B + FRz Bearing force must be calculated using the minimum buoyancy that exists as the vessel is rotated. Soil bearing strength is determined by the methods described in Paragraph 3-7. Table 3-6 gives approximate bearing strengths for different types of soil. If the ground under the ship is not sufficiently firm, it may be stabilized by laying in gravel, crushed rock or coral, or shell.

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