A spectral method for the estimation of a thermomechanical

heat source from infrared temperature measurements

N. Renault
b,
**
, S. Andr
a,
*
, D. Maillet
a
, C. Cunat
a
a
LEMTA, Nancy-University, CNRS, 2 Avenue de la Fort de Haye, B.P. 160, 54504 Vandoeuvre-ls-Nancy, France
b
L2MGC, Universit de Cergy-Pontoise, Site de Neuville, UFR sciences et techniques 5 Mail Gay-Lussac, 95011 Neuville-sur-Oise cedex, France
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 May 2009
Received in revised form
2 March 2010
Accepted 3 March 2010
Available online 14 April 2010
Keywords:
Heat source
Inverse problem
Spectral methods
Quantitative thermography
Thermomechanics
a b s t r a c t
The inverse problem of 2D time-dependent heat source reconstruction is solved. The scientic objectives
are the quantication of thermal effects associated to the mechanical deformation of materials during
tensile tests. The experiment provides infrared measurements of the specimens surface temperature and
the inverse algorithm aims at providing a volumic heat source that is free of errors due to heat diffusion.
This algorithm is based on an analytical solution of the direct problem in the Laplace-Fourier domain.
The solution proposed here is compared to a previously used method [1] based on an adjoint formulation
and a regularization of Tikhonov type. This allows to check the validity of the results.
2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Source reconstruction by inverse methods generally means
that one aims at determining the support of the source function
(spatial localization), a measurement of its magnitude as well as its
temporal evolution. The source emits matter or energy and
under various modes. This subject has now been widely studied in
numerous scientic elds such as for example the characterization
of pollutant emissions, functional neuroimaging like for magneto-
encelphalography, sub-marine acoustic detections to analyze
seismic activities.. In the face of such multiple applications, it is
difcult to establish a panorama of the types of mathematical
techniques used for solving the inverse problem. Depending on the
structure of the equations (PDEs or Integral equations) underlying
the physical phenomena at stakes (propagation, diffusion, scat-
tering, convection-diffusion.), it is possible to dene a rst type of
classication relying on the involved mathematics. In the limited
framework of conductive (diffusive) heat transfer, the bibliography
[2e7] shows that many different approaches have been used to
solve the inverse heat conduction problem with the objective of
a source reconstruction. They depend:
on the sought objectives (temporal dependence, spatial local-
ization, or both)
on the type of metrology used to produce the experimental
signal(s) used for inversion (nature of the physical process of
measurement and therefore of the noise production, eld or
local measurements.)
on the dimensionality of the problem and geometry of the
source: point, line, 2D sources.
on the mathematical technique chosen for solving the direct
problem, especially among the classical analytical versus
numerical dichotomy, but also all their possible combinations,
and various types of implementations.
All that can nally lead to adopt different strategies for solving
apparently very close problems (in their formulations but in their
objectives as well).
In this paper, we want to rebuild a 2D time-dependent heat
source in a conductive transfer problem, i.e. controlled by the
following diffusion type equation,
u;
t
lr; tu;
r
;
r
f r; t (1)
or also
u;
t
v u; r lr; tu;
r
;
r
f r; t (2)
if one wishes to account for the advective heat transfer produced by
a material displacement at local velocity v. The source appears in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 33 3 83 59 57 30; fax: 33 3 83 59 55 51.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: norbert.renault@u-cergy.fr (N. Renault), stephane.andre@inpl-
nancy.fr (S. Andr).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Thermal Sciences
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ i j t s
1290-0729/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2010.03.001
International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406
right-hand side of the above two equations (1) and (2). In the liter-
ature, this problemis mostly referred to as Inverse Heat Conduction
Problem (IHCP) by members of the thermal sciences community
and Sideways Heat Equation by members of the applied mathe-
matics community. Let us recall that this problemobviously consists
in the determination of the unknown f, which is inaccessible to
experiment, by the direct measurement of another quantity u,
knowing the direct mathematical model linking both quantities
(equations (1) and (2) along with appropriate boundary conditions).
This constitutes an inverse approach. On a physical point of view,
uncertainties due to the measurement of u, makes a lot of solutions
available for f, that sometimes can be very distant each other. This ill-
posed character forces the metrologists-experimentalists to apply
some regularization of the problem. Regularization techniques
can be seen as a way to combine the physical model used for the
inversion with either prior information, or appropriate selection
criteria, or ltered data [8,7], or can even consists in a substitution of
some equivalent but coarser physical model for the prior envisaged
one (Model reduction). The initial problem is then changed in
a neighbourhood problemwhich solutionis unique androbust inthe
sense that small errors on the data will not dramatically affect the
approached solution [9]. In a previous paper [1], the authors have
describe a technique based on regularization by optimization [10]
applied to the heat source reconstruction. This article can be seen
as a continuation of this former work. It will give a solution based on
a method that couldbe referredto as regularization by seeking quasi-
solutions, which relies on a spectral approach for solving the direct
problem[11e15] and lead to svd-type truncation approaches for the
regularization [16].
In what follows, we will give a short presentation of our physical
problem (Section 2). The nal application is the reconstruction of
localized heat sources, possibly evolving in time, produced by a spec-
imen of matter subjected to mechanical loadings. This is an important
topic for scientists working on the elaboration of constitutive laws for
complex rheological behaviors like elasto-visco-plasticity, combined
with damaging phenomena. A quick review of the literature devoted
to this subject [17e20] will easily convince the reader that this
problem is far from being close and that quantitative reliable results
are not common. Of course, the recent interest raised since the 90s
in the mechanical community is due to the use of infrared cameras,
that combine two interesting features. They are very easy to use and
constantly improving in quality (sensitivity of the detectors, signal-to-
noise ratio, acquisition frequency, matrix size .). But these positive
aspects candissimulate the very preeminent inverse problemto solve,
that consists in translating the temperature data (observed effects) in
the thermal loads applied to the system(objective causes). Facing this
problem, the aim of this paper is rstly to propose a solution of the
inverse problem of 2D heat source reconstruction using a technique
belonging to the class of spectral methods. This will be done in Section
3. In 4 the technique employed initially to solve the same problem
will be briey summarized. Then both methods will be applied on
simulated test cases to produce inversion results that will serve as
benchmarks and cross-validate both methods.
2. Physical problem
2.1. Governing local balance equation
Applied to a Representative Elementary Volume (REV), the 2D
advection-diffusion heat equation describes the temperature eld
evolution q(x, y, t) in a plate.
rC
p
_
vq
vt
0
V
0
x
vq
vx
0
V
0
y
vq
vy
0
_
l
_
v
2
q
vx
02

v
2
q
vy
02
_

2h
e
qq
amb
q
0
(3)
Equation (3) exhibits an advection term that represents heat
transport caused by local movement of the matter as a consequence
of the deformation of the specimen by stretching. Heat exchanges
along the third direction are taken into account through a heat sink
representing the front and rear surfaces heat uxes modelled
through the use of a h coefcient in the n approximation.
This equation is put under a dimensionless form:
vT
vt
Pe
_
V
x
vT
vx
V
y
vT
vy
_

_
v
2
T
vx
2

v
2
T
vy
2
_
2B
f
T q (4)
Nomenclature
A1, A2 Designation of the two algorithms used for
reconstruction. A1 is presented in this paper, A2 is
presented in [1].
B
f
Front (or back) face Biot number dened as (h
f
L
x
2
)/(el)
B
l
Lateral Biot number dened as (h
l
L
x
)/l or (h
l
L
y
)/l
e Thickness of the specimen
h
l
, h
f
Convective-Radiative heat exchange coefcients
H Heavisides function
L
x
, L
y
Spatial dimensions of the observed zone U
o
Pe Peclet number dened as V
0
L
x
/a
q Dimensionless source eld
q
0
, Source eld on U
q
0
1
Source eld of test case n

1
q
0
2
Source eld of test case n

2
t Time variable
T Dimensionless simulated temperature eld
T
i
Dimensionless simulated temperature on the ith edge
of U
o
(for 1 i 4)
V Local velocity vector
x, y Space variables for the 2D problem
Y Dimensionless measured temperature eld
l Thermal conductivity
D Laplacian operator
U Overall physical domain also noted U
P
U
o
Observed domain
U
i
Local zones with different source activities q
i
P
1
1-D Gate function P
1
(a, x) H(x a/2) H(x a/2)
P
2
2-D Gate function P
2
(a, b, x, y) P
1
(a, x) P
1
(b, y)
r, C
p
Density and specic heat capacity
q Temperature eld on U
q
amb
Ambient temperature
h$i denotes spatial integration over the image
0
dimensional variables
w
coefcient of Fourier transform
z
coefcient of Double Fourier transform

Laplace transform
^ estimated variables
n, m index of the mode numbers in Fourier basis
n
t
, m
t
used number of modes for inversion (truncation)
n
t
N
N, M total number of pixels in x and y direction NM in the
application
r number of future time steps
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1395
The characteristic length corresponds to the exact width L
x
of
the observation frame of the camera in the direction of axis x (the
tensile axis in the application). It is equal to L
x
3 mm in our case.
1. x, y stands for the dimensionless space variables: x x/L
x
and
y y
0
/L
x
.
2. t stands for the dimensionless time: t at
0
/L
x
2
, where a is the
thermal diffusivity of the material.
3. V is the dimensionless velocity: V V
0
/V
0
. V
0
is a reference
velocity that can be estimated as L
x
_ 3
11
where _ 3
11
is the defor-
mation rate imposed on the sample in the x direction.
4. Pe V
0
L
x
=a is the Peclet number. It compares the inuence of
the advection mechanism to diffusion.
5. B
f
h
f
L
2
x
=el is the Biot number associated to the thermal
convective (and linearized radiative) heat exchanges h
f
with
the surrounding environment and present on the parallel faces
of the specimen in the (x, y) plane. l is the thermal conductivity
and e the thickness of the sample.
6. T is the variable associated to the dimensionless temperature
eld. It corresponds to the thermal contrast eld (difference
between the specimens temperatures and initial one) that is
normalized with a reference temperature.
Tx; y; t
qx; y; t hqt 0i
Dq
ref
(5)
The temperature difference noted Dq
ref
used as a reference is
arbitrarily chosen as the difference between the spatially averaged
temperatures of the rst andlast images takenduring the experiment.
Dq
ref
hqx; y; t t
final
i hx; y; t 0i, with hqt 0i q
amb
.
7. q is the dimensionless heat source dened as:
qx; y; t
q
0
x; y; tL
2
x
lDq
ref
(6)
One of the underlying implicit assumption used in the above written
balance equation concerns the behavior of l and C
p
. It is considered
that the thermophysical properties of the material are constant and
independent of the deformation (and then of space and time). Based
on the opinions of consulted polymer scientists, this assumption
should not be limitating as in polymers (at least for HDPE), the
matter reorganizes with deformation (crystallites decomposition)
but no notable differences exist in the thermal properties between
amorphous and crystalline phases. Moreover phase transitions may
exhibit a heat release or consumption that have not to be mix up with
a specic heat variation. They appear in the local heat source termwe
precisely want to reconstruct and analyze though a thermodynami-
cally based behavior law. The values of l and C
p
have been determined
experimentally in the un-deformed state with the equipment devel-
oped in the heat transfer metrology department of our laboratory and
have been used to simulate the conditions of the future experiments
(see Section 4). The values obtained on a polymer (HDPE, Rchling
Engineering Plastics, Mw500 kg/mol, X66%) are: l 0.473
W m
1
K
1
, rC
p
1.724 10
6
J m
3
K
1
, r 0.95 g cm
3
, and thus
a 3.65 10
6
m
2
s
1
.
In dimensionless form, it is possible to justify the use of a 2D
equation. The n approximation can be used for small Biot number
(<0.1). Considering a value of the heat exchange coefcient of
hx10 W$m
2
$K
1
(upper estimation for natural convection in
a conned cell and with lowtemperature radiative exchanges), and
a thickness e smaller than 4 mm, the physical Biot number is equal
to (h e)/(l) 8$10
2
which justies the assumption.
It is also possible to calculate the Peclet number. For an imposed
deformation rate of 10
2
s
1
, which is a maximum for quasi-static
tensile tests, the Peclet number is of the order of 0.25. This value is
small enough to consider, at least in a rst stage, that advection will
not participate in a measurable way to the global heat transfer.
The direct problem is now closed by considering the boundary
conditions. In this work, it is important to state that in real experi-
ments, the observation frame U
o
is smaller than the physical domain
U
P
(the specimen in its whole). Therefore, the boundary conditions
associated to the direct problem (and used for inversion) are
necessarily the edge temperatures, that is the temperatures as they
are measured along the contour vU
o
of the observation frame U
o
.
This is one of the constraints we face inthis inverse problem. Here, as
only simulatedtest cases will be considerednext inorder to compare
two different methods, the reconstruction algorithms will be
checked for a problemwhere the physical domain U
P
coincide with
the observation zone U
o
. The boundary conditions requested for the
simulation of the direct thermal problemon U
P
will be given later in
the text when the test cases will be dened. The contour tempera-
tures produced by these boundary conditions will be used as entry
for the inverse problem (after having been corrupted with articial
noise). The sketch on Fig. 1 summarizes the modelling.
3. Inversion method
We present nowthe approach used to reconstruct heat sources. It
relies on a direct modelling based on the intensive use of integral
transforms [21,22]. The problemwill be solvedinthe Laplace-Fourier
domain, thus linking linearly the components of the source and of
the temperature in the transformed space. Return to the temporal
space is performed by calculating numerically the temporal convo-
lution integral of the inversion formula. Optimization is based on
a least-square formulation and a regularization is obtained by
truncation of the spatial modes of the solution and using the future
times method of Beck [23]. In this section, we will present the
mathematical treatment made for the reconstruction algorithm.
As explained previously, the Partial Differential Equation (PDE) 4
under consideration is:
vT
vt
DT B
f
T q
where the initial condition is : T T
0
on U (7)
and the boundary conditionBCis : T T
i
on vU (8)
Now on, notation T will be reserved for the dimensionless
temperature variable that is the output of the direct model.
3.1. Laplace transform and decomposition on orthogonal basis
The Laplace transform in time is dened as:
Lff x; tg f x; p
_
N
0
e
pt
f tdt (9)
Fig. 1. General scheme of the problem.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1396
Applied to the heat equation, the PDE is now restricted to the
space variables x and y.
pT T
0
DT B
f
T q
with the following BC : T T
i
on vU
(10)
The initial condition is transferred into equation (10) as a result of
the derivation properties of the Laplace transform. A nite Fourier
integral transform on the space variable is nowapplied. For variable
x for example, dened on interval [0, L
x
], the sine Fourier transform
of a function (already transformed in Laplace domain) is dened as
F
s
ff x; pg
~
f a
n
; p
2
L
x
_
Lx
0
f x; psina
n
xdx (11)
where a
n
np=L
x
with n 1, 2, 3. denoting the spatial modes.
The inverse transform back to the real variable x is obtained thanks
to the Fourier series.
f x; p F
1
s
f
~
f a
n
; pg

N
n1
~
f a
n
; psina
n
x (12)
Constant 2/L
x
is considered here in the Fourier transform denition
(eq. (11)) rather than in the inversion formula 12 as a result of the
denition of 11 froma normalized scalar product (see Appendices A
and B). The same applies for variable y and the Fourier coefcients
of the temperature in the 2D domain are now given by:
p
~
~
T
nm

~
~
T
0
nm

_
a
2
n
b
2
m
_
~
~
T
nm
B
f
~
~
T
nm

~
~
q
nm
(13)
3.2. Solution in the transformed domain
Function f x; p is then approximated with a decomposition on
a spectral (or modal) basis. The functions of this basis are orthog-
onal. a
n
and b
m
correspond to the eigenvalues of the diffusion
operator (along with the associated BC). The sine transform is used
as it is the basis adapted for BC of Dirichlet type (ideally with null
values for temperature). A few important remarks can be made at
this stage:
1. The rst one is relative to the treatment made on equation (10).
The problem is 2D and of course a double nite integral
transformis performed on intervals [0, L
x
] and [0, L
y
]. Hence the
double subscripts nm for the spectral modes
~
~
T.
2. The second one refers to the innite series theoretically
required by equation (12). In practice, the decomposition is
made on a nite number of modes that in our case, is limited to
the maximum number n
max
of the available discrete tempera-
tures (SVD approach).
3. A smaller number of modes can be considered that is n
t
< n
max.
This truncation will be helpful to bring some regularization of
the problem in producing a quasi-solution of the problem
(TSVDapproach). Diminishing the number of modes reduce the
number of degrees of freedom on the approximated function. It
will then be less sensitive to measurement noise.
4. Any other function of the problem will be decomposed in an
approximate manner on the same basis. This is the case for the
heat source term. This implies a classical drawback: the exact
reproduction of the values of the heat source function on
the boundaries will be difcult. This latter has not -a priori-
the same behavior on the boundaries of the domain as the
temperature function for which a special set of (adapted) basis
functions has been chosen. As an example, it is easy to imagine
a problem with a uniform source function all over the domain
but with the contour temperatures maintained constant at zero
level. This gives rise to the well known Gibbs phenomenon
recognizable by strong oscillations of the function on the limits
of the denition domain or at locations where discontinuities,
singularities or non-homogeneous part of the solution arises.
The temperature and source functions will then be approxi-
mated on the same basis of orthogonal functions [24]. In order to
satisfy precisely the temperature conditions at the boundaries of
domain vU, a slightly different basis of functions is chosen instead
of pure sine. Two high frequency modes are replaced by one low
frequency mode in sine form and another one in cosine form in
order to force the approximated solution to match the values at the
boundaries (contour of the images).
We developed in Appendix A the continuation associated to any
function f, the basis onwhich this continued function is decomposed
as well as the associated scalar product. As a result, the temperature
proles on the contours of vU are decomposed as follows:
T
1
x Q
41
cos
_
px
2L
x
_
Q
12
sin
_
px
2L
x
_

N2
n1
~
T
1n
sin
_
npx
L
x
_
T
2
y Q
12
cos
_
py
2L
y
_
Q
23
sin
_
py
2L
y
_

M2
m1
~
T
2m
sin
_
mpy
L
y
_
T
3
x Q
34
cos
_
px
2L
x
_
Q
23
sin
_
px
2L
x
_

N2
n1
~
T
3n
sin
_
npx
L
x
_
T
4
y Q
41
cos
_
py
2L
y
_
Q
34
sin
_
py
2L
y
_

M2
m1
~
T
4m
sin
_
mpy
L
y
_
where temperatures Q
12
; Q
23
; Q
34
; Q
41
correspond to the 4 corner
temperatures of the contour identication domain (observed area
U
o
) in Laplace space. From the physical domain U
P
point of view,
this contour is made of internal points which therefore could be
subjected to the volumic heat source. But as they appear as pure
Boundary Conditions of the PDE 7, the idea was here to parametrize
the temperature proles and identiy these 2(N M) 4 param-
eters with the corresponding measured values. In a similar way,
and setting the following notations:
s
x
sin
_
px
2L
x
_
; c
x
cos
_
px
2L
x
_
; s
y
sin
_
py
2L
y
_
;
c
y
cos
_
py
2L
y
_
; s
nx
sin
_
npx
L
x
_
; s
my
sin
_
mpy
L
y
_
the 2D temperature eld Tx; y is decomposed according to
Tx; y Q
41
c
x
c
y
Q
12
s
x
c
y
Q
23
s
x
s
y
Q
34
c
x
s
y

N2
n1
~
T
1n
s
nx
c
y

M2
m1
~
T
2m
s
my
s
x

N2
n1
~
T
3n
s
nx
s
y

M2
m1
~
T
4m
s
my
c
x
sx; y 14
with
sx; y

N2
n1

M2
m1
~
~
T
nm
s
nx
s
my
All the Fourier coefcients appearing in equation (14) and recog-
nizable by one or two upper tildes are dened by the associated
scalar product as illustrated in Appendix B. It can be veried that
these modes are independent, orthogonal and constitute a complete
set of functions B fc
x
c
y
; s
x
c
y
; s
x
s
y
; c
x
s
y
; s
nx
c
y
; s
my
s
x
; s
nx
s
y
; s
my
c
x
;
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1397
s
nx
s
my
g. It is therefore intended to look for an approximation of T in
the subspace of this generating set.
Let us remark that for an image UWvU, built on N
2
21 21
pixels with M N, the non-truncated modal decomposition on 4
corner modes 4 (N2) contour modes (N 2)
2
interior
modes will lead to N
2
modes, the exact value of the number of
pixels and hence of the measurements used.
In the Laplace-Fourier space, by setting a
0
p=2 L
x
,
b
0
p=2L
y
, a
n
np=L
x
, b
m
mp=L
y
, and thanks to the orthog-
onal properties of the modes, problem 10 can be specied for each
family of modes. We have:
For the corner modes of the domain:
pT
ij
T
0
ij

_
a
2
0
b
2
0
_
T
ij
B
f
T
ij
q
ij
(15)
with i; j4; 1; 1; 2; 2; 3; 3; 4
For the contour modes of the domain:
p
~
T
1n

~
T
0
1n

_
a
2
n
b
2
0
_
~
T
1n
B
f ~
T
1n

~
q
1n
p
~
T
2m

~
T
0
2m

_
a
2
0
b
2
m
_
~
T
2m
B
f ~
T
2m

~
q
2m
p
~
T
3n

~
T
0
3n

_
a
2
n
b
2
0
_
~
T
3n
B
f ~
T
3n

~
q
3n
p
~
T
4m

~
T
0
4m

_
a
2
0
b
2
m
_
~
T
4m
B
f ~
T
4m

~
q
4m
16
For the interior modes of the domain:
p
~
~
T
nm

~
~
T
0
nm

_
a
2
n
b
2
m
_
~
~
T
nm
B
f
~
~
T
nm

~
~
q
nm
(17)
Thus, in a generalized formwhere the decomposed temperature
is noted with the double upper tilde symbol
z
and with
K
nm
a
n
2
b
m
2
B
f
:
~
~
T
nm

~
~
q
nm

~
~
T
0
nm
p K
nm
(18)
Like for classical heat transfer problems where Laplace-Fourier
integral transforms are applied [25] a linear relationship is obtained
that links, in transformed space, both the Fourier coefcients of the
temperature (that can be computed from the experimental data)
and of the ux. Knowing the values of
~
~
q
nm
, we are able to calculate
the Laplace transform of the heat source function
q

modes
~
~
q
nm
f
nm
(19)
where f
nm
denotes all the vectors of basis B.
3.3. Back to the time-space domain
From relation 18, the inverse transform in time domain is
obtained by a simple convolution integral which weighting
function is the delayed-exponential involving the eigenvalues a
n
and b
m
.
~
~
T
nm
t
~
~
T
0
nm
expK
nm
t
_
t
0
~
~
q
nm
t
0
expK
nm
t t
0
dt
0
(20)
The algorithm for solving the inverse problem uses only temporal
data. The estimation of coefcients
~
~ q
nm
is obtained by a numerical
discretization in time of equation (21) that is based on the time step
of the image acquisition system. By setting t k Dt and E
nm
exp
(K
nm
Dt), we obtain the following central formula of our
algorithm:
~
~
T
k
nm

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
_
iDt
i1Dt
exp K
nm
kDt t
0
dt
0

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
1 E
nm
K
nm
E
ki
nm
21
A future time regularization procedure [23] is applied to this
equation. The future time method leads to a quite involved devel-
opment of equations and they have been rejected in Appendix C in
order to preserve clarity of the paper.
3.4. Optimization by minimization
A least-square cost function S
nm
M
is dened which is limited to
the number r of future times. This corresponds for each space nm
mode to a switch from exact matching estimation (1 temperature
and 1 unknown-new- ux at a given time of the sequential esti-
mation) to an OLS formulation: r equations for 1 future ux lasting
on the corresponding r time steps.
S
M
nm
_
~
~
q
M
nm
_

r
i 1
_
~
~
Y
Mi1
nm

~
~
T
Mi1
nm=M
_
2
(22a)

r
i 1
_
~
~
Y
Mi1
nm

T
Mi1
nm=HM

1 E
i
nm
K
nm
~
~
q
M
nm
_
2
(22b)
It is minimized with respect to the unknown
~
~ q
M
nm
at the M
th
time
step. This condition writes
vS
M
nm
v
~
~
q
M
nm

r
i1
2
1E
i
nm
K
nm
_
~
~
Y
Mi1
nm

T
Mi1
nm=HM

1E
i
nm
K
nm
~
~
q
M
nm
_
0 (23)
which produces the requested output of the algorithm
~
~
q
M
nm

r
i 1
_
~
~
Y
Mii
nm

T
Mi1
nm=HM
_
1 E
i
nm
K
nm

r
i 1
_
1E
i
nm
Knm
_
2
(24)

T
nm=HM
is dened in Appendix C and denotes the r temperatures
estimated under hypothesis H
M
. This means that for the r future
times following instant M1, the heat source coefcients
~
~ q
M
nm
are all
considered equal to 0. The successive stages of the algorithm are (i)
projection of the experimental temperature eld on the vector basis
B for the r time steps following a special time M1, (ii) calculation of
the values of

T
nm=HM
for these same time steps using equation C.4
and nally (iii) computation of the coefcients 1 E
i
nm
=K
nm
. We
may mention here that besides the future times, regularization will
also be achieved by truncation of the spatial modes of the solution.
4. Validation of the inversion method on test cases
The algorithmjust presented is referred to as A1 in the following
text and gures. It will now be used to rebuilt the sources consid-
ered in two test cases that will serve as benchmarks. A few
appropriate and basic results will be given and compared to those
obtained with a second algorithm referred next as A2 [1]. This
second algorithm was developed earlier in view of the same ther-
momechanical application. It is based on an adjoint formulation
that leads to a simple linear inverse problem. A minimization
functional is settled that involves the error between experimental
and modelled temperature data along with two constraint terms.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1398
The rst one is in fact the constraint according to which the
modelled temperature eld must fulll the heat balance equation.
The second constraint is a regularization term based on the resid-
uals between the sought source term and some prior information
on it. This latter information is simply the spatial average value of
the source term which is always perfectly estimated in a prelimi-
nary run of the algorithm performed without considering any kind
of regularization. Temperature and heat ux variables are calcu-
lated upon a nite difference scheme. The interested reader may
refer to paper [1] in order to get all the details of the method.
4.1. Test-cases description
Synthetic data have been produced by solving direct problem 7
with known heat source q(x, y, t) using a nite element code (Flex
PDE

). This prevent us from committing the inverse crime as

dened by Kaipio in [9]: distinct model structures must be consid-
ered between the direct resolution and the inverse solution. This
statement is fullled in our study as the discretization approaches
considered in both inverse algorithms A1 and A2 are the modal
approach and nite difference approach respectively. This allows to
check the quality of the reconstructed source compared to the true
source functionwhich has been used to produce the simulated data.
The data produced by the nite element simulations are corrupted
with a random noise. A gaussian random variable with zero mean
and constant variance s
2
is assumed as a result of the typical oper-
ationof the infrared camera used in the experiments. In the different
tests performed to check the algorithm, only the magnitude of the
noise (its variance or standard deviation) will be modied.
A plane domain is considered denoted by U[L
x
/2, L
x
/2] [L
y
/
2, L
y
/2]. FEM computed temperatures are interpolated on a regular
gridto simulate the informationbrought byanarray of IRdetectors (as
in the camera). This introduces a rst numerical bias on the synthetic
data that will allows to check the sensitivityof the inverse solution. For
the simulation of inversion and referring to the sketch of Fig. 1, we
have considered that U
P
U
o
U: the observed domain corresponds
to the physical domain. The discrete grid input le corresponds to
MN21
2
pixels. The boundary conditions on vUwill be of Dirichlet
type but will be made non-uniform in space and time in order to
simulate some arbitrary temperature behavior of the contours of a real
observed zone, due to sources located outside the observed domain.
The case of a spatially homogeneous and only time-dependent heat
source is not considered here. This problem has been treated previ-
ously by Wong & Kirby [18] and does not pose any problem for
inversion. Inparticular, it does not impose any regularization to obtain
the solution. Two different test cases have been studied. All the data
used in the calculations are given in Tables 1 and 2. The thickness of
the sample is 4mm. An ambient temperature of 23

C has been
considered along witha heat exchange coefcient of h
f
8 Wm
2
K
1
.
Case 1. The source is made of two components: the rst ground
component is spatially homogeneous and keeps a linear increase in
time. The second component is a sinusoidal uctuation in time that
is added to the ground but only on a restricted zone U
0
[c, c]
[c, c] with c L
x
/2 L
y
/2 (inset of Fig. 2(a)). This source model
aims at containing some possible behavior for a thermomechanical
source: a ground dissipative phenomena, a localization effect, and
possible cyclic behavior (under fatigue cycling). This source is
described mathematically by:
q
0
1
x
0
; y
0
; t
0
t
0
A cos2pft
0
P
2
c; c; x
0
; y
0
t
0
< t
0
max
(25)
The boundary conditions imposed in the simulation are also
time varying and non-constant in space. They are dened as
T
0
b
T
0
amb
F t
0
cos2Gps
0
(26)
where F and G are two coefcients set at different values for each of
the edges of the contour domain (see Table 2) and where s
0
stands
for either x
0
or y
0
variables.
Case 2. The source is made heterogeneous both in space and time.
Two distinct temporal evolutions (constant and linear) are applied
Table 1
Data used in the simulations for the model sources.
Case 1 A c f Lx Ly
0.01 W/cm
3
0.75 mm 0.025 s
1
3 mm
Case 2 q
0
U1
D xc1
cx1
t
1
0.2 W/cm
3
12.5 mm 7.5 mm 20 s
E yc1
cy1
Lx Ly
7.14e-4 W/(cm
3
s) 17.5 mm 12.5 mm 50 mm
q
0
U2
C xc2
yc2
cx2
cy2
t
2
0.75 W/cm
3
46.25 mm 3.75 mm 124 s
Table 2
Data used in the simulations for the boundary conditions.
Case 1 Egdes number 1 2 3 4
F 1e-4

C/s 5e-5

C/s 2e-4

C/s 7e-5

C/s
G 2 mm
1
2.8 mm
1
2.4 mm
1
1.2 mm
1
Case 2 h
l
10 W/(m
2
$K)
Fig. 2. Representation of input theoretical sources q
0
1
(x
0
, y
0
, t
0
) and q
0
2
(x
0
, y
0
, t
0
).
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1399
on two distinct subdomains U
1
and U
2
of domain U and switched
on at two different instants t
1
and t
2
(Fig. 2(b)). One will note that in
this case, unlike Case 1, there is no mean component of the source
that is applied on the whole domain. In other words, a null ground
source is considered on subdomain U U
1
U
2
.
q
0
2
x
0
;y
0
;t
0
Dt
0
EP
2
_
c
x1
;c
y1
;x
0
x
c1
;y
0
y
c1
_
Ht
0
t
1

CP
2
_
c
x2
;c
y2
;x
0
x
c2
;y
0
y
c2
_
Ht
0
t
2
27
where c
x1
, c
y1
, c
x2
and c
y2
are the half-lengths of the sides of squares
U
1
and U
2
and x
c1
, y
c1
, x
c2
and y
c2
the coordinates of their respective
centers. The boundary condition imposed in this case is the same all
over the contour domain and consists in Fourier or Robin mixed
boundary conditions:
vT
v n
!
B
l
T n
!
(28)
We do not claim that Case 2 corresponds to any thermo-
mechanical real situation. It corresponds to a more difcult case for
the inversion and is considered here with the only purpose of
checking the algorithmin the worst situations. Fig. 2(a) and(b) show
the two heat source elds q
0
1
and q
0
2
and picture their denitions.
4.2. Performances on unnoisy ideal signals
Fig. 3 allows to visualize the spatial thermal source proles
identied for test-case 1. The proles are identical in x and y direc-
tion due to the symetry of this case. The ideal heat source rate
(imposed in the simulation) is plotted with the solid black line (Gate
shape). The sources identied with the present algorithm A1 and
previous one A2 are plotted (solid-dotted lines) on the right and left
sides respectively. The dots correspond to the pixel data. Curves 1
and 2 corresponds to the results obtained for unnoisy ideal signals
and the reconstruction is performed without activating any regula-
rization tool. From these results, it can be veried that both algo-
rithms work well. The performance is substantial considering that
only 21 pixels are used in each direction. Two observations can be
made. The rst one is that the central spatial domain (where a sine
uctuation was added to the ground source magnitude) is found
correctly (withina one pixel marginat the discontinuityas a result of
the discretization). The magnitudes of the averaged source on both
domains are also correct (withina 1%of error whenthe two pixels on
either side of the interface are excluded). The second observation is
that the source values found with A1 for all pixels located on the
contour vU of the observed image are going down to zero and thus
introduce an articial false discontinuity on the boundaries of the
reconstructed image of the source. This is not so for algorithmA2. Of
course, this is a consequence of the basis chosen for a temperature
decomposition that ensures the modelled temperature at the
contour to respect the experimental true ones. This choice was made
in order to avoid oscillations of the approximated temperature map
near the boundaries and thus to have a good control of the identi-
cation process regarding the temperature residuals over the whole
identication zone. Equation (24) imposes this results. This draw-
back of the method is not involved: one must simply be aware that
using A1, results can be considered pertinent at a certain distance
from the boundaries inside the image (two pixels typically).
Next Fig. 4 shows the temporal behavior of the uctuating
component of the source which is located on U
0
(and which is aver-
aged on this zone). Both the reconstructed sources from algorithms
A1 and A2 and the theoretical one are shown. This allows to quantify
the error made by the reconstructionprocess which is small and only
due to the bias resulting from the different ways of solving both the
forward and inverse problem. Correspondence can be made between
Figs. 3 and 4 considering the nal time t
0
t
0
nal
400 s. A value of
8 W/cm
3
is found for the signal source over domain U
0
at this time in
Fig. 5 which is the level of the plateau that can be seen on Fig. 3.
4.3. Test-case 1: performances reached from noisy data
We now turn our attention to the case of noisy temperature
maps. For test-case 1 at the same time of t
0
t
0
nal
400 s and for
a noise level of std s 0.03

C, Fig. 3, curves 5e6 (below with

readings on the right-axis) show that both algorithms A1 (right)
and A2 (left) have the same difculties to reproduce the exact
source in the absence of any regularizing tool. The reconstructed
source does not correspond to its original distribution and domain
U
0
ewhere a localized effect was introduced ecan not be obtained.
For the new algorithm A1, the number of spectral modes used for
the computations is equal to the number of pixels of the image
(21 pixels along each direction). If one looks at the behavior of the
source identied by both algorithms and averaged over the whole
domain U (diminished by one raw of pixels along the contour in
case of A1 for the above mentioned reasons), it is interesting to note
that the averaged reconstructed source, although weakly noisy,
Fig. 3. Comparison between both reconstruction algorithms in Case 1. Temperature
proles across or y direction at t
0
t
0
nal
400s (A2-Left, A1-Right).
Curves 1,2: unnoisy input data and reconstruction without regularization.
Curves 3,4: noisy input data and reconstruction with appropriate regularization.
Curves 5,6 (Right axis reading): noisy input data and reconstruction without regularization.
Fig. 4. Evolution of the sources averaged on U
0
from the unnoisy simulated temper-
ature elds-Case 1.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1400
corresponds exactly to the true one (Fig. 5). This property was
the basis of the regularizing term introduced in algorithm A2. The
discrepancy between the true averaged source and the recon-
structed ones has been shown ([1]) to originate from the impossi-
bility to reproduce the source discontinuity between domains U
and U
0
within a one pixel tolerance.
4.4. Regularization procedure
Two techniques can be used simultaneously to introduce some
regularization in the algorithm:
- a truncation of the number of modes (n
t
) required to formulate
a quasi solution of the problem. It will then be more stable
towards the noise by suppressing the modes involving the
most important spatial frequencies. This will avoid the solution
to capture thin details which in fact are caused by the
measurement errors.
- The use of a certain number (n
tf
) of Future Times Steps (FTS) as
was explained when constructing the algorithm, which will
result in a smoother solution.
A criterion is necessary in order to choose the appropriate or
optimal number of modes and future time steps. Concerning this
latter, numerous studies involving the rst ones of Beck in [23]
shows that a small number of future times, say from 1 to 10 to x
ideas, are enough to stabilize the solution without introducing
signicative bias. It depends actually on the size of the time steps
used for the calculations. Concerning the number of modes, some
tools exist that can be used. As was done for algorithm A2, the
L-curve procedure [26] has been used to select the optimal number
of modes n
opt
t
. Energetic criterions could also be putted forward
as was done with the spectral branch modes approach in [15].
This problemcan give rise to very detailed studies that are out of the
scope of the present paper. Here, because rstly, we control the exact
solution, and secondly, a second algorithm is available that will
furnish a benchmark solution of our inverse problem, it has been
checked that the number of modes found with the L-curve is
the optimal one. Knowing the exact solution allows also to compare
the results obtained for different number of modes and make
clear the inuence of this parameter on the regularization level and
the corollary bias introduced in the solution.
Going back to Fig. 3 allows now to compare the results (still at
the nal time of the lm) obtained for unnoisy data-unregularized
solution (Curves 1,2 above) and noisy data-regularized solution
(dashed dotted curves 3,4 above). From now on, results presented
in the gures for the method of algorithm A1 are those obtained on
a subdomain of U corresponding to U diminished by a one pixel
raw all around the contour of the image. The reconstruction has
been performed considering n
t
11 modes and a number of future
time steps n
tf
15. This is not much as the time step used for the
computations is 0.2s for an overall, recorded experiment lasting
400s. 15 future times represent 0.75% of this duration. The quality of
the reconstruction with a regularized version of A1 compares
favorably with the results reached using a regularized version of A2
and is even better. No distinction can be made for A1 between both
cases. If one looks into the temporal behavior (Fig. 6), one can see
also that the two methods are equally performant (with optimal
regularization). They give results that are very close to the theo-
retical source with a discrepancy less than 3%. Once again, results
presented in this gure are obtained when averaging the source
over the identied domain

U
0
. The inset of Fig. 7 allows to appre-
ciate the smoothing effect of the regularization in A1 (circle dots)
with respect to the noisy reconstructed source yield by the second
method A2 (square dots). The counterpart is the introduction of
a small bias (sliding of the curve backwards in time). We will see
later in more details that this is a drawback of the FTS method.
4.4.1. Inuence of the modal truncation
In the next gure (Fig. 7) are represented the identied source
proles for different truncation limits: n
t
7, n
t
11 et n
t
15 (Case
1). They are compared with the theoretical source (Solid line).
The modal truncation has a drastic effect on the solution. Too much
modes (like is the case for n
t
15) make it difcult the identication
of the local area where a contrast in the source has been introduced.
The optimal number of modes n
t
has been found in all the simula-
tions equal to Int(N/2) 1 where N is the maximum number of
modes that can be used and which corresponds to the number of
pixels taken in each direction. Here, for n
t
11 (square dots),
the appropriate regularizing effect is obtained that gives the best
solution compared to the true one but also corresponding to the
appropriate regularization obtained using the L-curve method: this
optimal mode corresponds to the one which minimizes both the
residuals on the reconstructed temperatures and on the norm used
for regularization (see (A2) for details). On the contrary, truncating
Fig. 5. volution of the sources averaged on U (without regularization) from noisy
simulated temperature elds (s 0.03

C)-Case 1.
Fig. 6. Evolutions of the theoretical and reconstructed sources A1, A2 averaged on the
identied domain

U
0
.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1401
too much as is the case for n
t
7 degrade the solution. A too small
number of modes logically prevent us from a good reconstruction
especially when discontinuities are considered. The corollary effect
is the production of large spatial undulations (camel shape of
the prole instead of a plateau) resulting from an approximation of
the temperature functionona small amount of sine functions having
inversely an important weighting effect. If one looks now at the
inuence of the truncation on the temporal behavior of the rebuil-
ded source, it is clear in the inset of Fig. 8 obtained for n
tf
1 that it is
negligible and even null. This conrms indeed the conservative
property of our algorithms towards the heat transfer and due to the
minimization criterion. The theoretical source averaged on a given
spatial domain is always perfectly identied. Here we have shown
the theoretical source averaged on the localized zone U
0
and have
compared it to the temporal evolutions obtained for a number of
modes n
t
19, 15, 11 and 7. All the results seemequivalent as a result
of the minimizationprocess at each time step. But we have seen that
in terms of the spatial rendering of the heat source, they produce
very distinct results.
4.4.2. Test case 1: inuence of the number of FTS
The regularizing effect of the number of FTS kept back for the
inversion is strong on the temporal evolution, as was seen earlier.
It has no effective impact on the solution itself, especially regarding
the spatial rendering of the solution. But it produces a smooth
reconstructed signal. Fig. 9 shows the evolution of the source when
averaged on the localized zone for the following number of FTS:
n
tf
1, 10, 15 et 30. The use of a single future time in the algorithmis
equivalent to perform a non-regularized inversion (in other words,
at least one future time step is needed to estimate the unknown in
a discrete temporal scheme involving two time steps). The intro-
duction of at least 2 FTS immediately have a smoothing effect
on the solution. The inset of the gure allows to see that the
consequence of adding FTS in an excessive amount is to introduce
a bias in the solution. It delays the inverse solution compared to the
expected one.
Apparently, the results presented above prove that the number
of FTS has a quasi-null inuence on the sought solution. It seems
useful in the sense that it furnishes a ltered solution of the
problem. This is of course important in view of the application,
which consists, in a second step, to use this signal as an entry for
a parameter estimation problem: identifying the parameters of
a rheological behaviors law that takes properly into account
thermomechanical couplings. However this is not so clear. We have
veried that the number of FTS and number of truncated modes are
slightly correlated. Introducing a few FTS enables the production
of a smooth solution but at the same time permits to increase of
a few units the number of spatial modes that can be considered
(as compared to the case of a single FTS). This is not negligible as it
allows to enhance the quality of the spatial rendering.
4.5. Results for test-case 2
We have collected in this section the results get for test-case 2.
They conrm the trends mentioned previously for the inverse
method proposed here. But they also illustrate its performances in
other conditions. Only three major results will be given. Let us recall
that test case 2 deals with a domain of ground source equals to zero
in which two zones having positive heat sources are localized. In
these two zones, different temporal behavior are imposed (step and
step ramp). The rst Fig. 10 shows the good localization reached
with algorithm A1 with a regularization n
t
11, n
tf
2.
In order to measure the difculty of this test case, one must
recall the basic features of this test:the whole observation zone U is
Fig. 7. Truncation effect on the localization U
0
of the central source-Case 1.
Fig. 8. Inuence of the truncation on the source averaged on U
0
-Case 1.
Fig. 9. Inuence of the number of FTS on the temporal evolution of the source aver-
aged on U
0
-Case 1.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1402
21 21 px and the areas U
0
1
and U
0
2
where different sources have
been localized are made up of 7 11 and 4 4 pixels respectively.
The zones that must be identied are then of very small size.
Moreover, as can be seen on Fig. 2(b), they share in common two
boundaries over 4 with the boundaries of the whole region.
Remembering that the method brings an unavoidable loss of
information for all the pixels located on the contour of the image
and considering furthermore that the discontinuities between
the domains are made over two pixels width, the reconstruction
proposed here is very difcult. One can nevertheless observe on the
gure that the activities area are well identied. Optimal regulari-
zation has been achieved for n
t
11 modes that is, as for case 1,
a number of modes n
t
n
max
/2 1. The time step being large in this
simulation (5s), a regularization with two FTS (the minimum
possible) corresponds to 3% of the total duration of the simulated
experiment. This is pretty much than for case 1 and therefore, as
was seen earlier, produces a slight delay in the temporal evolutions
of the reconstructed sources. These are shown on Fig. 11. In this very
hard case, they depend strongly on the spatial identication. The
temporal reconstruction is correct for the domain U
1
(cf. Fig. 11(a))
which size is large enough to produce an average value sufciently
precise (without too much bias). This is not so for domain U
2
(Fig. 11
(b)). This zone counts 16 pixels but considering (i) that this zone has
two boundaries in common with the outer contour vU where the
reconstruction can not be considered valid (blocked at 0 level) and
(ii), that it is also difcult to localize the interface between domain
U and U
0
2
within a 1 pixel tolerance, the source is localized on
only 4 pixels over 16. Therefore it appears strongly biased when
calculating the average value over the sixteen discrete values of the
true source. Once again, this example has been selected to test the
algorithm in very hard conditions.
5. Concluding remarks and perspectives
We have presented a new method for solving the inverse
problem of spatial and temporal heat source identication. The
mathematical tool that has beenused, althoughtotally different than
a previous method published in [1] gives identical performances.
This is reassuring in view of the application to real experiments and
such a comparative study is not so often in the literature. Whatever
the method used, we have shown that regularizing the problem is
mandatory. The choice of the regularizing parameters is as crucial
as the noise on the experimental signal will be important. Both
algorithms have been applied to real infrared images, sequentially
recorded during a mechanical test applied on a polymer specimen.
The practical conditions for a good identication have already
conrmed the simulated results presented here and in the previous
paper. We can conclude this article with a discussion and summary
of their main differences.
1. The rst difference is of prime importance in an inverse problem
nally devoted to image analysis. It lays in the computation
times. The new algorithm A1 is clearly the fastest one especially
thanks to the sequential formulation. This is obviously the clas-
sical consequence of a more analytical treatment of the mathe-
matical problem at hands, rather than a pure numerical one.
The ratio between the CPU times obtained on a same computer
for both algorithms and for all tested cases is of the order of 25;
2. A second difference lays in the regularization procedure used.
For algorithm A2, a straightforward technique (Tikhonov reg-
ularization) has been used and coupled to a L-curve criterion
in order to nd the optimal regularization parameter. This
aspect has been thoroughly discussed in our last paper [1].
The inversion process has been found very robust. Concerning
the new algorithm A1, the L-curve criterion has also been
used to check the optimal number of modes to retain for the
approximate solution. It works well and in all case, it has been
shown that the best number of modes is equal to one half the
total number of pixels plus one. But the criterion is also slightly
sensitive to the number of future time steps used in the
Fig. 10. Identied Source (algorithm A1, regularization: n
t
11, n
tf
2) from simulated
temperature elds (s 0.6

C) eCase 2, t
0
t
0
nal
300s.
Fig. 11. Heat source averaged on the two localized zones - Case 2.
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1403
algorithm and the criterion has not been checked in details
regarding this aspect. We have tried to draw the attention of
the reader to the fact that actually, the two regularizing levers
plays differently in the method: one basically acts on the spatial
restoration of local discontinuities of the source, and the other
one acts on the temporal restitution of the source. Neverthe-
less, despite this somewhat less straightforward way of
choosing the regularization parameters for this second method,
the criteria learned from the application to simulated data and
the comparison with the results given by the rst method have
been proved to be efcient when applied in a real case.
3. Finally, the third difference is a disadvantage of the present
method. Due to the decomposition basis adopted here, it is
impossible to obtain correct values of the source on the contour
of the images. Of course, one way to avoid this is to select
a most powerful basis like in the branch modes method [15].
This possibility will be investigated in the future. Anyway, this
problem is not so annoying. It is always possible to circumvent
this problem by selecting a larger observation window. Nowa-
days, IR cameras use sensitive arrays with a large number of
detectors that allow to size the window of interest in an appro-
priate manner towards the identication problem.
Appendices
Appendix A. Basis of functions used for the Fourier decomposition
Considering function f dened on support [0, L] and supposed
continuous, differentiable.
Let us consider now function g also dened on [0, L] and such
that:
gx f x f 0cos
_
px
2 L
_
f Lsin
_
px
2 L
_
(A.1)
The continuation p of g on is nowdened such as for x [0, L],
we have
on [0, L], p(x) g(x)
on [L, 0], p(x) g(x)
on [L, 2L], p(2L x) g(x)
on [2L, L], p(x 2L) g(x)
p is odd with p(0) 0 and p(L) 0. p has been made 2L-periodic
with respect to the initial function g.
On the [0, L] interval, we have:
f x px f 0cos
_
px
2 L
_
f Lsin
_
px
2 L
_
(A.2)
with p being decomposable on the basis of the pure sine functions
hhsinnpx=Lii.
Therefore f can be decomposed on the basis of functions
hhsinnpx=Lii to which we add functions cospx=2L and
sinpx=2L.
The scalar product that is associated to this basis is
hf jgi
1
2 L
_
2L
2L
f xgxdx (A.3)
Appendix B. Expression of Fourier coefcients
Fourier coefcients associated to the 1D temperature prole
along the contour of the image. Example for the line x [0, L
x
],
y 0
~
T
1n
hT
1
xjs
nx
i
1
2 L
x
_
2Lx
2Lx
T
1
xs
nx
dx

1
2 L
x
_
2Lx
2Lx
Q
41
c
x
Q
12
s
x
a
1
xs
nx
dx

1
2 L
x
_
2Lx
2Lx
a
1
xs
nx
dx
2
2 L
x
_
Lx
Lx
a
1
xs
nx
dx
product of two 2L periodic functions

2
L
x
_
Lx
0
a
1
xs
nx
dxintegral of an even function B:1
Fourier coefcients associated to the 2D interior temperature
~
~
T
nm
hhTx; yjs
nx
ijs
my
i
1
4L
x
L
y
_
2Lx
2Lx
_
2Ly
2Ly
Tx; ys
nx
s
my
dxdy

1
4 L
x
L
y
_
2Lx
2Lx
_
2Ly
2Ly
Tx; ys
nx
s
my
dxdy

1
L
x
L
y
_
Lx
Lx
_
Ly
Ly
Tx; ys
nx
s
my
dxdy

4
L
x
L
y
_
Lx
0
_
Ly
0
Tx; ys
nx
s
my
dxdy
One can notice that the calculation of these coefcients nally
resort to integrals over the original support. The continuation is
useful only for dening the scalar product that makes B an inde-
pendent basis. All Fourier coefcients of T can now be decomposed
in basis B.
Appendix C. Sequential formulation of the algorithm
Referring to equation (20) as starting point, a time discretization
of time step Dt yields
~
~
T
k
nm

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
_
iDt
i1Dt
exp K
nm
kDt t
0
dt
0

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
_
1
K
nm
exp K
nm
kDt t
0

_
iDt
i1Dt

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
1
K
nm
_
E
ki
nm
E
ki1
nm
_

~
~
T
0
nm
E
k
nm

k
i 1
~
~
q
i
nm
1 E
nm
K
nm
E
ki
nm
C:1
with E
nm
being used as a notation for exp( K
nm
Dt) and
t k Dt.
If one expands the above equation into its components ranging
from the rst to the M 1 rst time steps and the r consecutive
future time steps, we obtain the following matricial form
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1404
Let us consider that the sources have been already evaluated until
time M 1. The procedure consists in calculating the evolution of
the temperature eld (Fourier coefcients) under the hypothesis,
noted H
M
, that, starting from time M, all sources from now on
and subsequent r future time steps are equal to zero, that is:
H
M
0
~
~ q
M
nm

~
~ q
M1
nm
/
~
~ q
Mr1
nm
0. Symbol f

T
nm
g=H
M
will
be used to designate the vector of r estimated temperatures
assuming hypothesis H
M
.
For the initial time step M1, we have simply
_
_
_
_
_

T
1
nm

T
r
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
1

~
~
T
0
nm
_
_
_
_
E
nm

E
r
nm
_
_
_
_
(C.3)
For the subsequent time steps, M ! 2, we will have under H
M
:
A sequential algorithmis absolutely necessary in our application
in order to avoid a numerical treatment of the whole thermographic
lm. It can be obtained as follows. Let us write the above generic
equation for the next time step M1 under hypothesis H
M1
:
Expanding now the right-hand side term makes it possible to
bring equation (C.4) into the above relation in order to get the
following relationship involving times M and M1 only:
At time M 1, the Fourier coefcients of the temperatures can
then be expressed for the r future time steps.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~
T
M
nm

~
~
T
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
M
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

T
M
nm

T
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
M

1E
nm
K
nm
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 /0
11
10
E
r1
nm
//1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~
q
M
nm

~
~
q
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
C:6
The regularization brought by the method is obtained
assuming that
~
~ q
M
nm
/
~
~ q
Mr1
nm
in C.6. One gets the following r
relations
~
~
T
M
nm=M


T
M
nm=HM

1 E
nm
K
nm
_

0
i 0
E
i
nm
_
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.7a)
~
~
T
M1
nm=M


T
M1
nm=HM

1 E
nm
K
nm
_

1
i 0
E
i
nm
_
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.7b)
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~
T
1
nm
~
~
T
2
nm

~
~
T
M1
nm
~
~
T
M
nm

~
~
T
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

~
~
T
0
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
E
nm
E
2
nm

E
M1
nm
E
M
nm

E
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

1 E
nm
K
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 / / / / / 0
E
nm
1 1
1 1 1
E
M2
nm
E
nm
1 1
E
M1
nm
1 E
nm
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
E
Mr2
nm
/ / E
r
nm
E
r1
nm
/ E
nm
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~
q
1
nm
~
~
q
2
nm

~
~
q
M1
nm
~
~
q
M
nm

~
~
q
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(C.2)
_
_
_
_
_

T
M
nm

T
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
M

~
~
T
0
nm
_
_
_
_
E
M
nm

E
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_

1 E
nm
K
nm
_
_
_
_
E
M1
nm
/ / / / / E
nm
1 1
1 1
E
Mr2
nm
/ / / / / E
r
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~
q
1
nm

~
~ q
M1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
(C.4)
_
_
_
_
_

T
M1
nm

T
Mr
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
M1

~
~
T
0
nm
_
_
_
_
E
M1
nm

E
Mr
nm
_
_
_
_

1 E
nm
K
nm
_
_
_
_
E
M
nm
/ / / / / E
nm
1 1
1 1
E
Mr1
nm
/ / / / / E
r
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
~
~ q
1
nm

~
~
q
M
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

T
M1
nm

T
Mr
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
M1
E
nm
_
_
_
_
_

T
M
nm

T
Mr1
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
H
M

1 E
nm
K
nm
_
_
_
_
E
nm

E
r
nm
_
_
_
_
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.5)
N. Renault et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 1394e1406 1405

~
~
T
Mr1
nm=M


T
Mr1
nm=HM

1 E
nm
K
nm
_

r1
i 0
E
i
nm
_
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.7c)
These equations can be further simplied noticing that
1 E
nm
K
nm
_

j1
i 0
E
i
nm
_

1 E
nm
K
nm
1 E
j
nm
1 E
nm

1 E
j
nm
K
nm
(C.8)
An evaluation of the Fourier coefcients
~
~
T
nm=M
for the r future
time steps can now be produced that involves the only one Fourier
coefcient associated to the source at the single time M.
~
~
T
M
nm=M


T
M
nm=HM

1 E
nm
K
nm
~
~ q
M
nm
(C.9a)
~
~
T
M1
nm=M


T
M1
nm=HM

1 E
2
nm
K
nm
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.9b)

~
~
T
Mr1
nm=M


T
Mr1
nm=HM

1 E
r
nm
K
nm
~
~
q
M
nm
(C.9c)
The experimental transformed temperature data will be noted
~
~
Y
k
nm
. They can now be compared to the coefcients dened above
theoretically. Thanks to the spectral approach of the direct model,
a cost function evaluation can be made and optimize so as to bring
the source term.
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