Climate Change in California: Choosing Our Future

SUMMAR Y

P R EP AR ED

BY

The Union of Concerned Scientists

Executive Summary
n the coming decades, Californias environment and economy will likely be affected by climate change resulting from global emissions of heat-trapping gases. The latest climate projections for the state suggest that temperatures will increase considerably during this century, and the rate of increase depends on the amount and timing of heat-trapping emissions. Building on previous studies, these projections use two state-of-the-art climate models and two contrasting scenarios of future heattrapping emissions. By the end of the century, statewide average annual temperatures are projected to increase about four to six degrees Fahrenheit under the lower-emissions scenario and a striking 7 to 10.5F under the higher-emissions scenario. SumThe climate that mer temperatures are projected our children and to increase more dramatically grandchildren will than previously expected, and heat experience depends waves and extreme temperatures are expected to become more on the emissions common and severe in major cities. choices we make Projections of winter precipitation range from a decrease of about today. 30 percent to a slight increase, which contrasts with some previous projections of large increases. Because Earths climate changes over the course of decades, heat-trapping emissions during the early decades of this century may irreversibly set the conditions for warming later in the century. The consequences of climate change are projected to be substantial in a number of Californias temperature-sensitive sectors under both emissions scenarios, with the most severe occurring under the higher-emissions scenario. For example, more persistent summer heat could greatly increase the risk of heat-related deaths in both inland and coastal cities unless preventive measures are taken. Warmer winter and spring temperatures will likely reduce snowpack in the Sierra Nevada, with serious implications for winter recreation and summer water supplies. Higher temperatures could also affect Californias leading agricultural products, reducing dairy production and diminishing the quality of wine grapes in all but the coolest grapegrowing regions. A warmer and longer growing season and changes in moisture will likely alter the distribution of Californias natural vegetation, including a severe reduction in the extent of alpine and subalpine vegetation and the widespread displacement of woodlands and shrublands by grasslands. While the effects of rising temperatures are not uniformly negative, these projections suggest that climate change will have serious consequences for Californians in the coming decades. While Californians cannot stabilize Earths climate by themselves, they can take individual and collective steps to slow climate change and reduce its impact. The most important is lowering emissions of heat-trapping gases (which

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

Whats at Risk in a Changing Climate

From snow-capped peaks to temperate coastal regions and dry inland deserts, Californias environment is highly varied. These diverse climate zones, influenced by the proximity of the Pacific Ocean and extensive mountain ranges that traverse the state, create highly distinctive terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In the north, giant redwoods thrive under more than 100 inches of rainfall per year. In contrast, the unique vegetation of the southeastern deserts survives on less than five inches of rainfall each year. Wine grapes flourish in inland valleys cooled by coastal fog, and valuable agricultural products including fruit, vegetables, and nuts are cultivated in the heavily irrigated Central Valley. With large urban centers such as Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco, California is home to 34.5 million people more than 200 per square mile. The state is the nations largest consumer of residential, commercial, and transportation energy, and is second only to Texas in industrial energy use. Not only does California have the largest and most diverse economy of any statewith the highest gross state product in the United Statesit can also claim the fifth largest economy in the world. And though it is perhaps best known for its technology and entertainment industries, California is also home to a $30 billion agricultural economy (again the nations largest).

Californias large population and economy generate in substantial amounts). Efforts by Californians to reduce emissions could not only produce globally significant results, but also set new precedents for others to follow. The impact of climate change can also be reduced by minimizing other pressures that would exacerbate its effects. For example, the risk of heat-related deaths can be reduced by ensuring that people whose health conditions make them more vulnerable to extreme heat have access to quality health care. And finally, Californians should prepare for those consequences of climate change that cannot be avoided, through careful planning and investments in adaptation measures. Water managers, for instance, can prepare for less reliable summer water supplies by implementing effective conservation strategies.

Cover map: Ray Sterner/Applied Physics Laboratory/Johns Hopkins University. Licensed by North Star Science and Technology, LLC. Cover photos, top to bottom: (mountain snowpack) 1999 Anthony Dunn; (rafters) Bureau of Land Management (BLM); (vineyard) AP Photo/Eric Risberg; (girls in fountain) AP Photo/Nick Ut; (Santa Monica) Q.T. Luong/Terragalleria.com

Climate Projections
he most recent climate projections for California show that the state will likely become considerably warmer during this century, and the amount of warming will depend on the rate at which we release heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere. These projections improve upon earlier research by using two of the latest-generation global climate models and lower- and higher-emissions scenarios instead of a single mid-range scenario. The higher-emissions scenario assumes continued, intensive reliance on fossil fuels, causing heat-trapping emissions to grow rapidly throughout the century. The lower-emissions scenario envisions a transition to clean energy technologies, causing emissions to peak by mid-century and then decline below current levels by 2100. The lower-emissions scenario is not the lowest possible pathway; actual emissions could be lower if early and aggressive steps are taken to limit the release of heat-trapping gases. By the end of the Acting soon is important is century, a summer because most heat-trapping day in San Francisco gases remain in the atmosphere for a long time and climate could feel like a changes occur over the course summer day in of decades. In other words, Tijuana today. the climate our children and grandchildren experience later in this century depends strongly on our emissions during the next few decades. The projections described here provide the best available estimate of the direction and relative magnitude of climate changes that are likely to occur. Because climate models differ somewhat in their projections, two state-of-the-art climate models were used to provide a range of plausible outcomes for a particular scenario. In general, the temperature projections described here are considered more robust than the precipitation projections. Temperature. Temperatures are projected to increase substantially under both the lower- and higher-emissions scenarios, with differences between the scenarios emerging by mid-century. Before the century ends, temperature increases associated with the higher-emissions scenario are nearly double those of the lower-emissions scenario. Increases in summer temperatures are greater than previously projected using earlier models and emissions scenarios. By mid-century, average summer temperatures are projected to rise about two to four degrees Fahrenheit under the loweremissions scenario and 2.5 to 5.5F under the higher-emissions scenario depending on the climate model used. Toward the end of the century, average summer temperatures are projected to rise about 4 to 8.5F under the lower-emissions scenario and 7.5 to 15F under the higher-emissions scenario. Average winter temperatures are projected to rise about 2 to 2.5F by mid-century under both emissions scenarios. By the end of the century, average winter temperatures are projected to rise about 4F under the lower-emissions scenario and 5.5 to 7F under the higher-emissions scenario. These values are statewide averages for the 30-year periods

FIGURE 1 Increase in Annual Temperatures

2030s 2050s 2090s

13F 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Both Emissions Scenarios Higher Emissions Lower Emissions

13F 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Lower Emissions Higher Emissions

13F 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

3 2 1 0

California is expected to experience dramatic warming during this century, and the amount of warming depends on our emissions of heat-trapping gases. This figure shows projected increases in statewide average annual temperatures for three 10-year periods. Ranges for each emissions scenario represent results from two climate models.

used for most of the impact analyses (20202049 and 2070 2099). Temperatures toward the end of these periods are expected to be somewhat higher. For example, summer temperature increases projected for the 10-year period (20902099) used in the extreme-heat and heat-related mortality analyses described below range from about 3.5 to 9F under the loweremissions scenario and 8.5 to 18F under the higher-emissions scenario. The rate of increase also varies across the state, with inland areas generally experiencing greater warming than the statewide average and coastal areas experiencing less warming. Precipitation. Winter precipitation, which accounts for most of Californias annual total, decreases 15 to 30 percent before the end of the century in three out of four model runs. However, in one model run, winter precipitation increases approximately five percent. These results differ from some projections developed using earlier models, which suggested that precipitation could double or even triple by the end of the century. The precipitation projections described here do not differ between emissions scenarios.

Rising Sea Levels

ea levels along the California coast will likely continue rising over the next century. Depending on the climate model used, sea levels could rise at a rate similar to the historical rate of about seven inches per century or almost four times faster. The rate is consistently higher under the higher-emissions scenario. San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, which can increase the risk of storm damage, erosion, and flooding of leveed islands, valuable real estate, and rich wetland eco-

Rising sea levels increase the risk of flooding in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, where rich farmland, small communities, highways, and utilities are protected by several thousand miles of levees.

systems. These consequences could be especially severe during El Nio years, when sea levels and coastal waves along the California coast are already unusually high and winter storms can bring torrential rains. Higher sea levels could also allow saltwater intrusion into aquifers and the rich ecosystems found at the mouths of rivers.

higher-emissions scenario. By comparison, extreme heat waves accounted for less than 15 percent of all heat waves in these locations during the 1990s. The heat wave season will likely grow considerably longer, particularly in coastal and more southern locations. In Los Angeles, for example, the heat wave season is projected to increase from about 14 weeks during the 1990s to about 19 to 25 weeks by the 2090s under the lower-emissions scenario and 31 to 37 weeksa total of nearly eight to nine monthsunder the higher-emissions scenario. Much of the increase is due to heat waves occurring earlier in the year, when people are more vulnerable to extreme-heat events. High-temperature extremes3 will likely rise and occur more often. Under the higher-emissions scenario, for example, high temperatures that occurred on the 18 hottest days of the year during the 1990s are projected to occur on as many as 90 to 130 days each year during the 2090s. Under the loweremissions scenario, such temperatures are projected to occur on about 40 to 65 days each year. Projected high-temperature extremes increase most rapidly in Riverside/San Bernardino and Sacramento, rising about 2.5 to 6F by the 2050s and about 5.5 to 13.5F by the 2090s.

Robert A. Eplett, CA Governors Office of Emergency Services

Extreme Heat

Climate Change and Human Health

s average temperatures rise, extreme-heat conditions such as heat waves and very high temperatures are projected to become more common and severe. Differences between emissions scenarios emerge by the 2050s and become more pronounced during the second half of the century, with the most persistent and severe high-temperature conditions projected for inland locations that are already hot. However, the impact on human health could be greatest in cooler coastal cities where extreme-heat conditions have historically been relatively rare. Projections for five major metropolitan areas (Los Angeles, Riverside/San Bernardino, San Francisco, Sacramento, and Fresno) show that: Heat waves1 will likely occur more frequently and last longer. For example, heat waves that could be expected to occur about three times per year historically are projected to roughly double in frequency by the 2050s and become two to five times more common by the 2090s. The average heat wave could increase in length from about two to five days during the 1990s to about 5 to 12 days by the 2050s and 6 to 19 days by the 2090s. Heat waves will likely become more intense, with higher temperatures sustained over a longer period of time. In Fresno and Riverside, extreme heat waves 2 could account for about 25 to 50 percent of all heat waves by the end of the century under the lower-emissions scenario and about 60 to 80 percent of heat waves under the

As temperatures rise, a summer day in Sacramento in the 2090s could feel like a summer day in Las Vegas today.

limate change is likely to affect human health in numerous ways, including increased heat stress and related deaths, changes in the incidence of infectious disease, and a higher risk of respiratory and other problems caused by deteriorating air quality. This study focuses on mortality associated with increased heat, which can cause death through dehydration, heat stroke/exhaustion, heart attack, stroke, and respiratory distress. The most vulnerable members of the population include people who are already ill, children, the elderly, and the poor. While warmer winter temperatures are expected to reduce cold-related deaths in some regions, the increasing health risks associated with summer heat are expected to far outweigh any positive effects of warmer winters in California. Estimates of future heatrelated mortality for the five metropolitan areas studied show that: The risk of heat-related mortality increases rapidly with continued warming. The annual number of heat-related deaths is projected to increase an average of about 60 to 180 percent by the 2050s and 130 to more than 500 percent by the end of the century in four of the five cities analyzed. In the fifth city (Fresno), the number of heat-related deaths changes only slightly, despite more frequent dangerous-heat conditions. This may be because Fresno already has effective means of coping with heat. The risk grows with increasing emissions of heat-trapping gases. On
AP Photo/Charles Rex Arbogast

average, mortality estimates for the higher-emissions scenario are on the order of 10 to 100 percent higher than estimates for the lower-emissions scenario during the 2050s and about 100 to 150 percent higher during the 2090s. These findings suggest that, for the five cities combined, we could prevent somewhere between 500 and 5,000 heat-related deaths during the 2050s and more than 8,000 deaths during the 2090s by following a lower-emissions pathway. Of the five cities, San Francisco appears most susceptible to increasing heat, as the populationaccustomed to relatively cool conditionshas limited ability to adjust to heat. Fresno, which already experiences frequent extreme heat, appears to be the least susceptible to increasing heat.

AP Photo/Franck Prevel

Water Resources in California

lready scarce throughout the western United States, water is essential to maintaining Californias agricultural economy, expanding population, and unique ecosystems. Meeting the states growing water demand is particularly challenging because its geography and climate keep water supply and demand out of balance. Most of the states precipitation falls in the north during the winter, while much of the demand for water occurs in the south during the spring and summer. As a result, a vast network of reservoirs and aqueducts is needed to capture, store, and distribute water from the Colorado River and Northern California waterways. Climate change will likely further reduce water supplies during the spring and summer, requiring costly

People living in urban areas, especially children, the elderly, and the poor, are most vulnerable to rising heat.

new infrastructure and changes in the institutions that govern Californias water resources.

Reduced Snowpack and Stream Flow ising temperatures, possibly exacerbated by reduced winter precipitation, will severely reduce snowpack in the Sierra Nevada. This, in turn, will affect stream flow, water supplies, and winter recreation. The Sierra Nevada snowpackroughly equal to half the storage capacity in Californias human-made reservoirsis a critical source

Decreasing Sierra Nevada Snowpack

20202049 Lower Emissions Higher Emissions 20702099 Higher Emissions

60% remaining California California California California

11% remaining

Remaining Snowpack (%) 100 80 60 40 20 0

By the end of the century, Sierra Nevada snowpack could be reduced to less than a third of current levels, even under a lower-emissions scenario. This figure shows projections of spring snowpack in the Sacramento-San Joaquin watershed, which provides water to about 28 million agricultural and urban users in California. (Based on climate projections from the HadCM3 climate model.)

Rain from warmer winter storms and earlier snowmelt in the mountains could prematurely fill reservoirs, forcing managers to release and thus lose water that would otherwise be available for summer use.

of water during the late spring and summer. Spring snowpack is expected to decline as warmer winter storms more frequently bring rain to the mountains instead of snow, and warmer temperatures cause the snowpack to melt prematurely. By mid-century, spring snowpack in the Sierra Nevada is projected to decline about 25 to 40 percent. Toward the end of the century, losses could reach 30 to 70 percent (or 3.5 to 9 million acre-feet of storage) under the loweremissions scenario or a stunning 70 to 90 percent (or 9 to 11 million acre-feet) under the higher-emissions scenario. A combination of delayed snow accumulation and earlier snowmelt could shorten the Sierra Nevada ski season by three to six weeks by 2050. Toward the end of the century, climate change could delay the start of the ski season three to six weeks under the lower-emissions scenario, possibly affecting holiday profits, and shorten the ski season by 7 to 15 weeks. Under the higher-emissions scenario, the minimum snow conditions required for current ski resort operations might never occur. In most cases, total annual stream flow into major Sierra Nevada reservoirs4 is projected to drop about 10 to 20 percent before mid-century and 25 to 30 percent before the end of the century, with the greatest decrease occurring under the higher-emissions scenario. In one model run, however, a modest increase in winter precipitation leads to a slight increase in stream flow. As the timing of runoff shifts earlier, spring and summer stream flow is projected to decline about 10 to 20 percent before mid-century under the lower-emissions scenario and 20 to 25 percent under the higher-emissions scenario. Before the end of the century, spring and summer stream flow could be reduced as much as 40 percent under the lower-emissions scenario and 45 to 55 percent under the higher-emissions scenario.

requirements. Since the demand for water is greatest when and where it is in short supply, meeting Californias growing demand in the face of less reliable supplies will likely require changes in how the states reservoirs and water distribution systems are managed. Such decisions are complicated by a cumbersome water rights system that generally gives precedence to the earliest diverters of water and farmers adjacent to existing streams and rivers on a first in time, first in right basis. As a greater proportion of annual runoff occurs during the winter and droughts become more common, managers will have an increasingly difficult time balancing the need to capture runoff for future use and the need to maintain space for winter flood protection. Additional aboveground storage could be built, but economic and environmental costs make such projects problematic. Surface water could be transferred to groundwater aquifers for storage, but such projects are both costly and vulnerable to unauthorized extraction and water quality problems. Water shortages will likely become more common as summer stream flow becomes less reliable. Toward the end of the century, the number of years with dry or critically low stream flow conditions is projected to increase from 32 percent during the years 19061999 to between 50 and 65 percent unless precipitation increases. As stream flow becomes less reliable, the value of rights to mid- and late-season natural stream flow is likely to decline, disrupting the current water rights system. Coping with the worst consequences of climate change could require major changes in the way water is allocated in California. Agricultural users sometimes sell their water rights to municipal water districts, suggesting that such adjustments can be made. However, the process is likely to be slow and expensive.

Michael Nevins (US Army Corps of Engineers)

Rising Temperatures and California Agriculture

limate change could affect California agriculture by increasing water demand in the face of less reliable supplies, altering the abundance and distribution of pests and pathogens, and causing variations in crop quality and yield. In addition, rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also affect agriculture directly, by stimulating production and increasing the efficiency with which crop plants use water. This report focuses on the direct effects of high temperatures on dairy products and wine grapes (Californias leading agricultural products) and does not consider changes in water availability or the effects of rising carbon dioxide levels.

Managing Water Resources in a Changing Climate hanges in snowpack and stream flow have important implications for water managers, who must balance the needs of water users against flood protection and habitat

Wine Grapes alifornia is known throughout the world for its wines. Along with the famous Napa and Sonoma Valleys, wine grapes are grown throughout the Central Valley and along the northern and central coasts, adding up to a $3.2 billion industry. High-quality grapes are key to producing highquality wine, and grape quality is sensitive to heat and

moisture stress during ripening. Rising temperatures during the growing season could cause grapes to ripen prematurely, and reduce grape quality. Temperature projections for the top grape-producing counties suggest growing conditions will likely deteriorate over the coming decades, except in the coolest locations. Warmer temperatures throughout the growing season are projected to cause wine grapes to ripen as much as one to two months earlier before the end of the century, and higher temperatures during the final month of ripening would likely reduce grape quality. During the early decades of the century, grape-growing conditions are projected to change little in many regions, including Napa, Sonoma, and Mendocino Counties, but deteriorate in the warmer Central Valley. However, toward the end of the century, warmer temperatures are projected to degrade grapegrowing conditions in all but the coolest coastal locations (Mendocino and Monterey Counties).

which has serious implications for ecosystem health and species diversity. Alpine and subalpine vegetation will likely be displaced as mixed evergreen conifer forest extends its range upward in elevation. With limited opportunity for migration, losses of alpine and subalpine vegetation cover could reach 40 to 50 percent before 2050 and 60 to 80 percent by 2100, with consistently greater losses under the higher-emissions scenario. Throughout much of the northern portion of the state, warmer temperatures are projected to cause a change in forest composition from evergreen conifer forest (dominated by Douglas fir and white fir) to mixed evergreen forest (dominated by tan oak, madrone, and live oak). Warmer temperatures and drier conditions in most inland areas are expected to increase fire frequency, leading to the likely displacement of shrublands and woodlands by grasses (which regrow quickly after fires). In contrast, projected increases in humidity along the southern coast would discourage fire, allowing coastal forests to expand their range. The prominent role fire plays in these projections suggests that further work should be done to assess changes in fire risk and the associated impact on property, air quality, and ecosystems. In the southern Central Valley, the hotter and drier conditions projected in most model runs would reduce the growth of grasses as well as trees and shrubs, leading to an expansion of desert. In one model run, however, less warming and slightly wetter conditions are projected to increase fire frequency, allowing grasslands to displace shrublands as in other parts of the state.

Dairy eat stress in dairy cows can lead to poor feedRising temperatures will likely reduce ing, weight loss, and reduced grape quality in all but the coolest wine-growing regions in California. milk production, which begins to decline at temperatures as low as 77F, and can drop substantially as temperatures climb above 90F. Californias $3 billion dairy industry is currently concentrated in the southern Central Valley, where temperatures are projected to rise rapidly during the coming decades. Toward the end of the century, high temperatures could reduce milk production by as much as 5 to 10 percent under the lower-emissions scenario and 10 to 20 percent under the higher-emissions scenario. Measures for relieving heat stress, such as providing shade and sprinklers, can be effective under some conditions but become less so with increasing temperature and humidity.

Changes in Vegetation Distribution

AP Photo/Eric Risberg

Meeting the Challenges of Climate Change in California

alifornias population of 34 millionalready the largest in the nationis expected to grow to 59 million by the year 2040 and could reach 92 million by 2100. Growing demand for vital resources and the expansion

Photos: Stephen Sharnoff

alifornias size, varied terrain, and diverse climate zones combine to create a wide range of natural ecosystems that support thousands of plant and animal species, including many that are found only in the state. Projected increases in temperature and fire frequency will likely cause rapid changes in vegetation distribution,

With no place to move in the face of rising temperatures, many of Californias subalpine and alpine forests and meadows will likely be lost.

Lowering emissions of heat-trapping gases is the most important step to slow climate change and reduce its impact. Because California is a substantial contributor to global emissions, its efforts to reduce emissions from cars and power plants could produce globally significant results and set new precedents for others to follow.

of urban centers will compound the effects of climate change on water resources, human health, and natural ecosystems. The projected impact of climate change is greater under the higher-emissions scenario, suggesting we can minimize risks and adaptation costs by taking steps now to lower emissions of heat-trapping gases. California residents, resource managers and users, and policy makers can help reduce the potential impact of climate change through three complementary strategies: Reducing emissions of heat-trapping gases is the most important step to curbing the rate and extent of climate change. California can accomplish this and build on its legacy of environmental leadership by continuing to increase industrial and building efficiency, switching to renewable energy sources such as wind and bioenergy, and introducing cleaner vehicles. These strategies not only reduce emissions of heattrapping gases but also typically yield significant economic savings and other environmental benefits. Minimizing pressures on the environment that can exacerbate the impact of climate change. For example, limiting human encroachment on sensitive ecosystems can help reduce the risk of habitat fragmentation.

Preparing for those consequences of climate change that cannot be avoided, through careful planning and imavoided plementation of adaptation strategies. The health risks of rising heat in major urban centers can be lessened, for example, by implementing heat warning systems and community intervention programs that provide assistance to the most vulnerable members of the population during dangerousheat conditions.

ENDNOTES 1 Heat waves are defined as three or more consecutive days with temperatures exceeding locally defined thresholds. The temperature thresholds for the five cities studied are: Los Angeles, 90F; Sacramento, 99F; Fresno, 102F; Riverside/San Bernardino, 102F; and San Francisco, 79F. 2 Extreme heat waves are defined based on threshold temperature conditions that occurred during the one or two most severe heat waves of each decade during the 19611990 reference period. 3 High-temperature extremes are defined based on the average maximum temperatures for the hottest five percent (or roughly 18 hottest days) of the year during the 19901999 reference period. 4 Results are for inflows to seven major dams and reservoirs in the Sacramento/San Joaquin water system, including three in the Northern Sierra (Shasta, Oroville, and Folsom) and four in the Southern Sierra (New Melones, New Don Pedro, Lake McClure, and Pine Flat).

2397 Shattuck Ave., Suite 203 Berkeley, CA 94704-1567 (510) 843-1872 Two Brattle Square Cambridge, MA 02238-9105 (617) 547-5552 ucs@ucsusa.org www.ucsusa.org

This summary was prepared by the Union of Concerned Scientists based on the findings of Emissions Pathways, Climate Change, and Impacts on California, published in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (101:34, 2004), a report by K. Hayhoe, ATMOS Research and Consulting; D. Cayan, Scripps Institution of Oceanography; C.B. Field, Carnegie Institution of Washington; P.C. Frumhoff, Union of Concerned Scientists; E.P. Maurer, Santa Clara University; N.L. Miller, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; S.C. Moser, National Center for Atmospheric Research; S.H. Schneider, Stanford University; K.N. Cahill, Stanford University; E.E. Cleland, Stanford University; L.L. Dale, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; R. Drapek, USDA Forest Service; W.M. Hanemann, University of California, Berkeley; L.S. Kalkstein, University of Delaware; J. Lenihan, USDA Forest Service; C.K. Lunch, Stanford University; R.P. Neilson, USDA Forest Service; S.C. Sheridan, Kent State University; and J.H. Verville, Union of Concerned Scientists. The PNAS and related analyses are described in detail at www.climatechoices.org. Support was provided in part by The Energy Foundation, The www.climatechoices.org Fred Gellert Family Foundation, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Oak Foundation, V. Kann Rasmussen Foundation, Wallace Global Fund, an anonymous foundation, and the Gunther family. For more information, please contact: Katharine Hayhoe (ATMOS Research and Consulting, 574-288-1507) or Amy Luers (Union of Concerned Scientists, 510-843-1872).
More information is available at www.climatechoices.org.