CUTTING TOO CLOSE

Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt

Arielle Mottes 6203779 Amottes789@gmail.com Health and Development Universiteit van Amsterdam Fordham University: Third Year

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction to Female Genital Mutilation Why is Female Genital Mutilation a common practice in Egypt? 2. What is Female Genital Mutilation? 3. How is Female Genital Mutilation perceived in Egypt and around the world? 4. What role does Female Genital Mutilation play in female, male and family relations? 5. What is being done to end Female Genital Mutilation?

1. INTRODUCTION: Gaining an understanding of Genital Mutilation as a common practice in Egypt

Egypt, a North African Arab country is a large player in the modern world; a country that is caught between traditional practice and the progress they have made as members in modern society. Egypt has a surprisingly high female circumcision rate and in this final paper, I have made the attempt to gain an understanding of why Female Genital Mutilation, also know as FGM, is such a staple in Egyptian culture. I have shared my topic with family and friends outside of
my Health and Development class and most are incredibly shocked to hear the high statistics of women around the world, and especially (97%) in Egypt. I believe that in general, communities are not aware of how severe Female Genital Mutilation is in 2010. As I sat in class and listened to the lecture on Female Genital Mutilation I myself was taken back by how awful the procedures are and how young the girls who have to go through the trauma of female circumcision are. After covering the history of Female Genital Mutilation, its perception in Egypt and around the world,

gender relations in regards to the practice, and how Female Genital Mutilation is a human rights issue, the question of whether or not Female Genital Mutilation should be regarded as a violation of humanity emerges. There is a fine line between having respect for a peoples culture and taking action to prevent innocent people from suffering. This question can only be answered after taking an in depth look at the tradition of Female Genital Mutilation in the country where it is most prevalent, Egypt.

2. Female Genital Mutilation

The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies Female Genital Mutilation into four major categories. Clitoridectomy is the partial or total removal of the clitoris and in rare cases can be only the removal of the prepuce of the clitoris. Excision is the partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora and can be done with or without the excision of the labia majora. Infibulationis the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal, which is formed by cutting and repositioning the inner or outer labia and is done with or without the removal of the clitoris. The fourth category of Female Genital Mutilationincludes all other harmful procedures done to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, such as pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and burning the genital area.1

WHO reports that between 100 to 140 million girls and women face life dealing with the consequences of Female Genital Mutilation.According to a survey
published by the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) program in 2000, Egypt has

WHO Media Centre. Female Genital Mutilation. Web.< ht t p: // www. wh o. i n t / m edi a cen tr e/ fa ct sh eet s/ fs241/ en / >

anFemale Genital Mutilationprevalence of 97% using the clitoridectomy, excision, and infibulations techniques.2Clitoridectomy and Excision is the most common form of Female Genital Mutilationpracticed on women and girls in Egypt. Infibulation, which requires stitching and is a more elaborate and painful procedure than the first two, is practiced on less than 5% of women in a very small area in the south of the Nile Valley close to the Sudan.3 In Egypt, girls are usually circumcised between the seven and twelve years of age, sometimes younger; circumcision is often viewed as a girls right of passage to her womanhood. In the 1996 Demographic and Health Survey, 55% of daughters were circumcised by a medical professional, where only 18% of their mothers were circumcised this way. In the past, it was more common for a female to be circumcised by dayas, also known as female traditional birth attendants, or by barbers, who are male traditional health workers. Female circumcision is still a brutally painful process but when done by a medical professional it is much safer. The history of Female Genital Mutilationis not precisely known but can be dated back at least 2000 years.4 Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian from the 5th century BC, discusses the ritual being practiced by the Phoenicians, Hittites, Ethiopians, and the Egyptians. The Romans and Russians also utilized Female Genital Mutilationas a technique to control women and ensure virginity. Some believe that in Egypt Female Genital Mutilationwas practiced to distinguish aristocracy and there have even been reports that infibulation can be seen on Egyptian mummies.5 In such ancient times, the importance of a womans virginity

Sharief, E.H. Toubia N.F. Female Genital Mutilation: have we made progress? International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. London, UK. April 2003. 3 Turshen, Meredeth. African Women's Health, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc, 2000. Pg 148

Remondino, Peter Charles. History of Circumcision from Earliest Times to the Present. Bibliobazaar, 2008. Original Copyright: 1891 Momoh, Comfort. Female Genital Mutilation. Abington, UK: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, 2005. Pg 4

and honor was of extreme value; still today in many cultures, a woman must hold her virginity in order for her to be a worthy member of society. In his book Female Genital Mutilation, Comfort Momoh reports that the Greek physicians who visited Egypt explained that the purpose of Female Genital Mutilationwas to reduce the sexual desires of women that was thought to be caused by the friction of their clitoris rubbing on their clothing.

3. Perceptions ofFemale Genital Mutilation in Egypt and around the World

In a progressively interdependent world, it is important to explore the rationale of those who practice Female Genital Mutilation, a tradition that is frequently viewed as barbaric and inhumane. Most reason Female Genital Mutilationas being part of a tradition in Egypt. While this is true, there are also social pressures,psychosexual, religious, and sociological, hygienic and aesthetic rationales that can be used to explain this practice.6The rationale used to explain Female Genital Mutilationin Egypt varies; 58.3% report that is a good tradition; 36.1% give cleanliness as the reason; 30.8% believe it is required by religion; 9.1% believe it will preserve virginity; 8.9% believe it will bring better marriage prospects; 5.6% believe it will prevent adultery; 3.8% say it is better for the husband; and 5.9% give other reasons.7 Tradition places first among reasons that women give for their practice of Female Genital Mutilation, making reference to their ancestors and the importance to follow their example. In a community like Egypt, where it is reported that 97% of the women are circumcised, the circumcision of women becomes a key element in conforming to

Momoh, Comfort. Female Genital Mutilation. Abington, UK: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, 2005. Pg 10

El Zanati. The Changing Customs of the Riverain Sudan. Sudan Notes and Records 45: 12-27. New Haven: Yale University Press.

society and women having the acceptance of their community. People fear being judged by their family, neighbors, and friends and want their daughters to fit in with other girls in the community and grow into women who are fit for marriage; Female Genital Mutilationbeing a prerequisite for this.8The ceremony of Female Genital Mutilation, marking a females transition from girl to woman, is used to teach girls their duties as a mother and wife. Older women in Egypt, as well as other Female Genital Mutilationcommunities, view the circumcision of young girls as a way of upholding their societies by continuing tradition; it is a representation of who they are, where they come from, and the principles they hold of upmost importance. Many explanations for the reason Female Genital Mutilationis practiced can be attributed to myth or medical discredit. In Egypt, as well as the Sudan, it is believed that having intercourse with women who are circumcised increases male sexual pleasure. The clitoris is viewed as a threat to the male penis and is believed to cause a woman to have an over-sexed nature that would tempt her and cause her to lose her virginity and virtue. In some societies, the clitoris is considered ugly, and with this negative connotation a womans natural beauty and sexuality is lost.9 Religion plays a role in the practice of Female Genital Mutilationin Egypt; it is believed that Islam adopted the clitoridectomy procedure at the conquest of Egypt in 742 AD. It is of importance to note that in almost all known civilizations histories, Female Genital Mutilationhas been practiced in various forms. The reason for the existence of Female Genital Mutilationtoday cannot be fully attributed to one particular culture or religion. Female Genital Mutilationis not

ibid Pg 6 Momoh, Comfort. Female Genital Mutilation. Abington, UK: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, 2005. Pg 10

practiced in most Islamic countries and is not connected to the Koran.10Medical Doctor ObiomoNnaemeka, who attended an English primary school in Menouf, Egypt, explains in her book Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge, African Women in Imperialist Discourses that all of her schoolmates were circumcised: Christians, Jews, and Muslims. She goes on to say that in African an Asian countries women of various faiths undergo Female Genital Mutilation.11 There is a debate within the Muslim community about whether or not Female Genital Mutilationis an order from Allah. Although we have confirmed that Female Genital Mutilationis not solely attached to religion, its practice often shares a connection with Islam. Fatwa is a religious opinion of an Islamic scholar based on Islamic Law. Depending on which sect of Islam, fatwa may be binding or non-binding. Egypt, where almost the entire population of Muslims are Sunni, considers fatwa non-binding. Hamrush, Chairman of the Fatwa Committee in AlAzhar, Egypt, expresses his disbelief of female circumcisions as a prevention of diseases and an up keeping of girls health, because unlike boys, they have no foreskin that would harbor dirtiness. (pg 156 denniston). He also states that Female Genital Mutilationdoes not protect a womens honor because if it were so it would be stated as an obligation. There is a hadith, which are the narrations from the words and deeds of Islamic prophet Muhammad, which says Circumcision is sunnah for men, and mukrumah for women.12Sunnah means something that conforms to the tradition of Muhammad himself, and makrumah is translated into a meritorious action or
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11

ibid Pg 10 Nnaemeka, Obioma. Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge, African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc, 2005. Pg 22

12

Denniston George C.,Hodges Frederick Mansfield,Milos Marilyn Fayre. Male and female circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in Pediatric Practice, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. Pg 147

noble deed, meaning that circumcision is a good to do but not obligatory. This definition of Sunnah and makrumah provided can be interpreted differently, as most religious texts and narrations can. This mention of Female Genital Mutilationin the hadith may be interpreted as a suggestion rather than an obligation; however,this is not the opinion of all. There are those who see Female Genital Mutilationas an Islamic duty even though it is not explicitly stated.13 Female Genital Mutilationis not limited to one particular world region; it exists in the International and National arena. Surprisingly, as recent as the 1950s, physicians in the United Kingdom and the United States performed Female Genital Mutilationto treat hysteria, lesbianism, masturbation and other so-called female deviations.14 The practice has also been performed in countries in Asia and the Middle East, such as India, Sri Lanka, Yemen and Oman. In Europe, Canada, Australia, and the United States there are many women immigrant communities who undergo Female Genital Mutilation. Female Genital Mutilationis disgraced by the western world, yet there are people living amongst those who experience this procedure. For instance, in France, 4500 girls are estimated to be at risk to Female Genital Mutilationand there is an estimate of 13000 to 30000 women with Female Genital Mutilation. In Germany, there are approximately 21000 women with Female Genital Mutilationand 5500 that may be at risk. In the United Kingdom, 86000 first generation immigrant refugee women and girls have undergone Female Genital Mutilation; most of these women come from Egypt, as well as Kenya and Somalia. The interest in Female Genital Mutilationat the European Union policy level has increased, however, there has

Denniston George C.,Hodges Frederick Mansfield,Milos Marilyn Fayre. Male and female circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in Pediatric Practice, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. Pg 147 14 Rahman Anika, Toubia Nahid,Center for Reproductive Law & Policy,RAINBO. Female Genital Mutilation: a guide to laws and policies worldwide. New York: Zed Books Ltd, 2000. Pg 7

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yet to be any enforcement applicable to all EU members.15 It appears that there is not enough action being taken by the western world concerning the issue of Female Genital Mutilation.

4. The Role ofFemale Genital Mutilation in female, male and family relations

Women who are circumcised face both physical and psychological distress and pain. Female Genital Mutilationcan cause severe pain and bleeding right away. Women may have infection, trauma from the extreme pain, inflammation and other complications. Depending on which type of Female Genital Mutilationprocedure a woman has undergone, the severity and longevity of these complications vary.16 Women who undergo excision or infibulation usually suffer from the worst complications. The aftermath of these types of Female Genital Mutilationcan cause severe urinary tract infection; chronic pelvic infections; stones in the urethra or bladder; excessive growth of scar tissue or cysts at the site of the cutting; and fistulae (holes or tunnels) between the bladder and the vagina or between the rectum and vagina.17 Girls have complained of their eating habits, sleep, mood, and cognition being disrupted after having the procedure. Many girls often repress extreme feelings of anger, betrayal, and resentment, holding negative influence on their self-esteem and identity. When such an unnatural procedure is done on the genitals, other parts of the female body, for example the breasts, gain the role of feeling most sexual stimulation. The complications that Female Genital Mutilationbrings might contradict a womans fertility and ability to easily bear children; an asset
15

Momoh, Comfort. Female Genital Mutilation. Abington, UK: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, 2005. Pg 73-74

16

Rahman Anika, Toubia Nahid,Center for Reproductive Law & Policy,RAINBO. Female Genital Mutilation: a guide to laws and policies worldwide. New York: Zed Books Ltd, 2000. Pg 9
17

ibid pg 8

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considered by many countries that practice Female Genital Mutilation, such as Egypt, as the most important capability of a woman. However, it is believed by some that the presence of the clitoris could threaten the life of the baby during delivery. A tightly infibulated woman has to be defibulated, or cut open in order for her to deliver her children. If defibulation is not done, both the mother and the childs lives are put at risk.18 In her book African Womens Health, MeredethTurshen writes that in indepth interviews with women who experienced Female Genital Mutilation, very few denied how painful the procedure was. Unfortunately, 82% of the women questioned in the 1996 Egyptian Demographic and Health Survey said that they would submit their daughters to the same painful procedure; not because they want their daughters to feel pain, but because they love and care for them.19 Egypt is a patriarchal society; the men are more likely to be influential in setting trends and changing the tradition of Female Genital Mutilationif they are made aware and convinced that the issue is a pressing problem. Men, as heads of the family, are capable of overseeing all family decisions including whether or not their daughters undergo Female Genital Mutilation. Even if women recognize that they are in control of their bodies andunderstand the negative effects of Female Genital Mutilation, their lack of authority limits their ability to make advancements on the issue. Despitewomens subordinate role in Egyptian society, their support in the extinction of Female Genital Mutilationis of value and whatever small progress made will continue to help the cause. Therefore, the involvement and cooperation of men and women together is necessary for any change to occur.

18 19

ibid Pg 9 Turshen, Meredeth. African Women's Health, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc, 2000.

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There is a link between female circumcision and what is known as the hashish plague in Egypt. When the vagina is mutilated by Female Genital Mutilationprocedures, sexual relations are distorted and the female capacity to gain pleasure during sexual intercourse is damaged. Couples will often turn to the drug narcotic hashish as a way to increase arousal during sexual intercourse, even claiming that this is a cure for their mutilated genitals; however it is not.20 The power relations between man and woman is linked to their genitals and the practice of Female Genital Mutilationshatters this equality. There are often consequences for those who refuse to conform to societies standards and avoid Female Genital Mutilation. In parts of the Egyptian countryside, the person who practices female circumcision also delivers a certificate that indicates a females eligibility for marriage; the marriage of an uncircumcised Muslim may be regarded as invalid.21 Some consider circumcision a necessity in order to pray and fulfill pilgrimage.

5. Laying the Practice to Rest When analyzing the practice of Female Genital Mutilation, it is important to question it within the human rights framework. Will society condemn Female Genital Mutilationendorsing human rights before actual legislation is made? If
Denniston George C.,Hodges Frederick Mansfield,Milos Marilyn Fayre. Male and female circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in Pediatric Practice, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. Pg 154
20

21

Denniston George C.,Hodges Frederick Mansfield,Milos Marilyn Fayre. Male and female circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in Pediatric Practice, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. Pg 158

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laws that ban Female Genital Mutilationdo become established, will they abide to international treaties and be properly enforced? Do we as an international community have the right to deny cultures of their traditions? Does the attempt to end the practice of Female Genital Mutilationviolate the right of religious freedom? These troubling questions are what make the topic of Female Genital Mutilationa very upsetting human rights issue to be dealt with. It is difficult to answer these questions, but I believe that the Female Genital Mutilation that women experience worldwide is a huge human rights violation. Although the practice may be regarded as a tradition, I feel that the consequences of the procedure surpass our duty to allow different cultures the right to their own traditions. Being aware of the massive percentage of female citizens who undergo mutilation and not trying to end it is, in my opinion, a violation of humanity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights, are some of the many treaties that include regional treaties, which entail laws that protect the rights of women and girls. This is very important because the majority of countries in which Female Genital Mutilationis practiced are a part of these regional treaties and they have an obligation to follow them. Legal documents such as the Progamme of Action of the Cairo Conference and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action call for the elimination of Female Genital Mutilation. Although many of these documents do not explicitly mention Female Genital Mutilation, they do serve as a platform for legislating Female Genital Mutilationa practice that curtails the rights of women.22 Female Circumcision has been part of Egyptian history for more than 2000 years. In 1959 a committee was formed to investigate Female Genital
22

Rahman Anika, Toubia Nahid,Center for Reproductive Law & Policy,RAINBO. Female Genital Mutilation: a guide to laws and policies worldwide. New York: Zed Books Ltd, 2000. Pgs 18-22

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Mutilationin Egypt. Following this investigation, it was suggested that the consent of a physician be necessary and that partial clitoridectomy be the only form of Female Genital Mutilation. Twenty years later the issue of Female Genital Mutilation was addressed once again and it was concluded that a physician could only perform the procedure. However, there are very few reports made by doctors who have treated women who have come to them with Female Genital Mutilationcomplications that were done illegally.23 Actions taken to put an end to the practice of Female Genital Mutilationhas increased in the past twenty years. In 1996 Egypt issued religious orders to ban the practice of Female Genital Mutilationin health facilities and health workers. It has been determined that girls today are 10% less likely to be circumcised than their mothers. Egypt is amongst other countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and Burkina Faso, who have stronger and more influential womens groups thusbeginning to recognize Female Genital Mutilationas a violation of womens rights, condemning the practice.24 Attempts have been made to decrease the practice of Female Genital Mutilationby promoting the awareness of health risks that come along with female circumcision, the targeting of those who do the circumcisions, and the study and understanding of the practice as a rite of passage, in the effort to find a substitution for it in Egyptian culture. As we begin to understand the importance of theFemale Genital Mutilationpractice in Egyptian culture, along with the sanctity of women and their virginity, progression towards the elimination of the practice becomes more hopeful. Although the numbers show that little progress has been made, it is better than no progress at all. It is important to educate people of how severe the
23

Packer Corinne A. A. Using Human Rights to Change Tradition, Utrecht: Utrecht University Institute for Legal Studies, 2002.
24

Sharief, E.H. Toubia N.F. Female Genital Mutilation: have we made progress? International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. London, UK. April 2003.Pgs 253-255

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problem of Female Genital Mutilationis worldwide. If we continue to try and understand the practice of Female Genital Mutilation, and deal with the issue in a respectful and educated manner, then eventually, I believe, this practice will be significantly decreased.