Chapter 1: Introduction I. List three important reasons why we should study children A. _________________________________________________________________ _ B. _________________________________________________________________ _ C. _________________________________________________________________ _ II.

What Is Development? Development is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. III. Yesterday and Today A. Historical views of childhood 1. European philosophies a) The original sin view of child rearing dominated during the Middle Ages. In this view, children were perceived as born into the world as evil beings, and the goal of child rearing was to remove sin from the childs life. b) The tabuls rasa view, purported by John Locke, was dominant in the late 17th century. According to this view, children were born as blank tablets. c) In the 18th century, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus view of the child as possessing innate goodness was widely accepted. Viewing children as inherently good led to the child-rearing philosophy that endorsed permitting children to grow with little constraint. 2. What is the current Western idea? Childhood is a highly eventful and unique period of life that lays an important foundation for the adult years and is markedly different from them. B. The modern study of child development 1. The modern era began in the late 1800s, and evolved into a sophisticated science guided by theories/techniques and methods of study that organize our thinking. 2. A major shift from a strictly philosophical perspective to systematic observation and experimentation occurred in the late 19th century. 3. Methods for a new science a) Alfred Binet invented tasks to measure intelligence. b) G. Stanley Hall pioneered the use of questionnaires. c) In the late 1920s, child development research centers started the child study movement.

d) Arnold Gesell at Yale developed observational strategies using cameras and a photographic dome. 4. Theories for a new science a) Charles Darwin kept a baby journal for systematic observation of children and made scientific study of children a respectable science. b) Gesell put forth a theory rooted in the concept of development as having biological maturational blueprint. c) G. Stanley Hall proposed a natural evolutionary course. He theorized that child development unfolds in stages. C. Improving the lives of todays children 1. Health and well-being. What are some current concerns related to health and well being? How do lifestyles and psychological states play a role? 2. Families and parenting a) Understanding child development can improve parenting. b) When parenting practices and child-care strategies are passed from one generation to the next, both desirable and undesirable ones are perpetuated. 3. Education a) There is agreement that improvements in education are needed. b) Education is faced with many questions about how best to educate children and how best to serve the multiple needs of children in modern society. 4. Sociocultural contexts and diversity a) Context refers to settings for development such as home, school, peer group, church, economic, social situation, and cultural legacies. b) Settings are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. i. Culture includes behaviors and beliefs that are transmitted from generation to generation. ii. Ethnicity emerges from cultural heritage and includes nationality, race, religion, and language. iii. The tapestry of American culture reflects an increase in ethnic diversity. c) Socioeconomic status (SES) i. SES refers to grouping based on occupation, education, and economic characteristics. ii. A disproportionate number of individuals are at the bottom of the SES ladder. iii. Schools, social services, and health and mental health agencies need to provide services to minorities. iv. Poverty influences development. a. School completion and achievement are affected. b. Intervention may be needed into the elementary and

adolescent years. c. Effects of poverty are sometimes difficult to distinguish between factors associated with ethnicity. 5. Gender a) Gender refers to characteristics of people as males or females.. b) Societal attitudes about gender may be changing. D. Resilience, social policy, and childrens development 1. List three factors increasing resiliency a) Good intellectual functioning b) Close relationship to caring parent figure c) Bonds to caring adults outside the family 2. Social policy refer to a national government's course of action that is designed to influence the welfare of citizens. 3. Researchers are conducting studies that may help policy makers make wise decisions. 4. In the United States, governments at all levels influence children through their policies. IV. Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes A. What is development? _____________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _______ B. Developmental processes include biological, physical, cognitive, and socioemotional. 1. Biological processes involve changes in the body. 2. Cognitive processes include changes in thought, intelligence, and language. 3. Socioemtional processes involve changes in relationships, emotions, and personality. C. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact and influence development. D. Periods of development from conception through adolescence include: prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, and adolescence. E. True or False: Developmentalists believe that change continues after adolescence. F. Issues in Development 1. Nature and nurture a) Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. b) Maturation (nature) view: biological inheritance is most important. c) Experience (nurture) view: environmental is most important. 2. Continuity and discontinuity: Is development gradual and continuous or in stages?

a) Continuity view: Development is gradual and cumulative. b) Discontinuity view: Development involves distinct stages. 3. Early and late experience a) The relative importance of early versus later experience is a major theme in research. b) True or false: Historically, some believed that early experiences were highly influential in determining developmental outcomes. c) Those who focus on later experience argue that children are malleable throughout development. (earlier or later?) d) Some believe that too little attention is given to later experiences. (much or little?) e) Western cultures tend to believe that early experience is more important, but the majority of the people in the world do not share this view. f) A prominent Eastern belief is that childrens reasoning skills begin to develop in important ways during the middle childhood years. 4. Evaluating the developmental issues a) Extreme positions are unwise. VI. Science and the Study of Child Development A. The importance of research 1. Science is defined not by what it investigates but by how it investigates. B. The scientific research approach is objective, systematic, and testable. It includes these steps: 1. Conceptualize a problem. 2. Collect information (data). 3. Use statistical procedures to understand the data and to draw conclusions. 4. Draw conclusions and theory. V. Theories of Development: VI. True or False: Each theory contributes something to understanding development, but no single theory explains all of development. Psychoanalytic Theory 1. Freud was the pioneer of psychoanalytic theory. 2. Freud developed his theory by studying his patients. In Freuds theory, the three structures of the personality are what? Id, ego, superego. 3. Chewing, sucking, and biting are behaviors that reduce tension and arise first in the oral stage of psychosexual development.

4.

List Freud's stages of psychosexual development and the main feature of each stage: (For tests/quizzes, be able to match stage with age or features. Also, be able to give the order in which stages occur.) STAGE Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital AGE Birth 1.5 1.5 3 36 6 Puberty Puberty + FEATURES Pleasure centers on the mouth Pleasure centers on the anus Pleasure focuses on the genitals Represses sexual interest, develops social and intellectual skills Sexual reawakening; Source of pleasure becomes someone outside the family

ERIKSON'S THEORY 5. Erikson developed the psychosocial theory of lifespan development. 6. List Erikson's eight stages of PSYCHOSOCIAL development and the characteristic features of each. Trust vs. Mistrust; Birth 1 o Gain trust in caregivers Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt; 1 3 o Assert autonomy; if restrained/punished harshly, may develop sense of shame/doubt Initiative vs. Guilt; Early, 3 5 o Asked to assume responsibility and take initiative; if irresponsible, may feel guilt Industry vs. Inferiority; Middle, Late o Enthusiastic about learning; imaginative; may feel incompetent and unproductive Identity vs. Identity Confusion; Adolescence o Must explore roles in a healthy manner; if pushed into an identity, may become confused Intimacy vs. Isolation; Early Adult o Form healthy friendships and intimate relationships Generativity vs. Stagnation; Middle Adult o Helping younger generation develop or feeling as if done nothing Integrity vs. Despair; Late Adult o Reflects on path

7. According to Eriksons theory, the first year of life is devoted to the development of trust.

8. The realization of independence is a positive virtue that is an outcome of the development of autonomy. 9. If restrained too much or punished too harshly, toddlers develop a sense of shame and doubt. 10. As preschoolers learn to dress themselves and help take care of their own toys and pets, they are developing a sense of initiative. 11. During the elementary school years, children learn skills that enable them to live productively in society. According to Eriksons theory, they are developing industry. 12. According to Eriksons theory, adolescence is a time of resolving the issue of who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. 13. The crisis of intimacy vs. isolation occurs during the 20s and 30s and includes the forming of intimate relationships. 14. Generativity versus stagnation involves a need to help the younger generation. 15. When reflection on ones life reveals a life well spent integrity is the result.

JEAN PIAGET"S COGNITIVE THEORY 16. Jean Piagets theory focuses on cognitive development. 17. According to Piagets theory, children organize knowledge by gradually adapting what they already know in order to reach a higher level of understanding. 18. List Piaget's Stages, Ages, and the characteristics of each stage. For tests/quizzes, be able to match the stage name with the age and characteristics. Stage Sensorimotor Age Characteristics 0-2 coordinate sensory experiences with physical actions 2-7 7-11 represent world with words, images, drawings perform operations that involve objects; reason logically

Preoperational stage Concrete operational Formal operational

11-15+ abstract thinking; imagine ideal circumstances; systematic problem solvers

19. According to Piagets theory, the coordination of sensory experiences with motoric actions occurs during the sensorimotot period from birth to two years. 20. According to Piagets theory, during the preoperational stage from 2 to 7 years, children come to represent the world with symbols such as words, props, and images. 21. According to Piagets theory, during the concrete operational stage from 7 to 11 years, children can perform operations that involve logical reasoning, but they can only do this when it involves specific situations. VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 22. Lev Vygotsky created the sociocultural cognitive theory. 23. Vygotsky argued that development of memory, attention, and reasoning involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies. 24. Vygotsky said that knowledge is situated and collaborative. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY 25. The study of how information is stored and transformed is of interest in information processing theory. 26. In information processing theory, the mind is viewed to operate like a computers. 27. Information-processing theory emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information. 28. According to this theory, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge. 29. True or False: There are NO stages in information processing theory. BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY 30. Ivan Pavlov and Johnson Watson believed that we could study only what can be directly observed and measured. 31. Ivan Pavlov pioneered the theory of classical conditioning by studying salivating dogs. 32. After a neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) has been paired with another stimulus (e.g., food) that automatically causes a response (salivation), the response (salivation) will become elicited by the previously neutral stimulus. This is known as classical conditioning.

33. Operant refers to a form of learning in which the consequences (e.g., reward) of the behavior increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring. 34. B. F. Skinner was the pioneer developer of the learning theory known as operant conditioning. 35. In operant conditioning, the behavior that is followed by a reward is more likely to occur again. Social Cognitive Theory 36. Social cognitive theory is a type of behavioral theory that takes cognition into account. 37. What is meant by observational learning? Learning that occurs thgough observing what others do Ethological Theory 38. Ethology theory stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. 39. The pioneer of ethology theory was Konrad Lorenz 40. Imprinting and critical periods are principle components of the ethological theory of human development. 41. Imprinting refers to rapid, innate learning within a critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen. 42. A fixed time period early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge is a critical period. 43. What are the arguments for and against ethological theory? FOR: o Increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development o Use of careful observations in naturalistic settings o Emphasis on sensitive periods of development AGAINST: o Concepts of critical and sensitive periods perhaps too rigid o Too strong an emphasis on biological foundations Ecological Theory

44. Ecological theory is a sociocultural view which consists of five environmental systems that range from direct interaction to broad-based cultural influences. 45. Bronfenbrenner was the pioneer of ecological systems theory. 46. In ecological theory, the setting in which an individual lives (family, peers, school, neighborhood) is the microsystem. 47. In ecological theory, the relationships between microsystems or connections between contexts is the mesosystem. 48. In ecological theory, the exosystem is involved when experiences in a social setting in which an individual does not have an active role influences what the person experiences in an immediate context. 49. The culture in which individuals live is called the macrosystem in the ecological theory of human development. 50. The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the lifecourse and sociohistorial circumstances is called chronosystem in the ecological theory of human development. 51. Bronfenbrenner recently added biological influences to his theory and describes it as bioecological theory. 52. What are the pros and cons of ecological theory? PRO: Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems Attention to connections between environmental settings (mesosystem) Consideration of sociohistorical influences on development (chronosystem) CON: Too little attention to biological foundations of development, even with the added discussion of biological influences Inadequate attention to cognitive processes Eclectic Orientation 53. A theoretical orientation that does not follow any one theory, but selects whatever is best in all theories is an eclectic theoretical orientation approach. XIII. Research methods for collecting data A. Research Methods 1. Observation a) It is impossible for participants not to know that they are being studied.

Naturalistic observation involves observing in real-world settings. 2. Surveys and interviews employ a standard set of questions to learn about peoples attitudes or beliefs. 3. Standardizedq21 tests are carried out using uniform procedures for administration and coding. 4. Physiological measures reflect biological functioning. 5. Case studies provide in-depth looks at one person. B. Research designs 1. Descriptive research is used to observe and record behavior, but cannot help determine what causes behaviors. 2. Correlational research describes the strength of a relationship between two variables. a) The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from +1.00 to 1.00 with +1.00 representing a 1-to-1 relationship between two variables. b) Correlational research cannot be used to determine causation. 3. Experimental research is conducted by manipulating the variable that is thought to influence the behavior of interest. Experimental research can be used to infer cause-effect relationships. a) Types of experimental variables 1. An independent variable is the factor that is manipulated in order to observe the effect 2. A dependent variable is the factor that can change as a result of the independent variable. b) Types of groups 1. Experimental group is one whose experience is manipulated. 2. Control group members comprise a comparison group that is the baseline against which the manipulated condition can be compared. 3. Random assignment is used to decide which participants will be placed in the experimental or control group. This balances the chance that results could be due to preexisting group differences. C. Time span of research 1. The cross-sectional approach is one in which children of different ages are compared. 2. In longitudinal studies subjects are studied over a long period of time. XIV. Challenges in child development research A. Ethics guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association include: 1. Informed consent 2. Confidentiality
b)

B.

3. Debriefing 4. Deception Minimizing bias 1. Gender bias 2. Cultural and ethnic bias 3. Ethnic gloss refers to using a label that portrays homogeneity within an ethnic group.