Propane Dew

May 2008
Disclaimer This publication was prepared for the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, the Gas Processing Association Canada, the Alberta Department of Energy, the Alberta Energy Resources and Conservation Board, Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada and Natural Resources Canada by CETAC-West. While it is believed that the information contained herein is reliable under the conditions and subject to the limitations set out, CETAC-West and the funding organizations do not guarantee its accuracy. The use of this report or any information contained will be at the users sole risk, regardless of any fault or negligence of CETAC-West or the sponsors.
Acknowledgements This Fuel Gas Efficiency Best Management Practice Series was developed by CETAC WEST with contributions from: Accurata Inc. Clearstone Engineering Ltd. RCL Environmental REM Technology Inc. Sensor Environmental Services Ltd. Sirius Products Inc. Sulphur Experts Inc. Amine Experts Inc. Tartan Engineering
CETAC-WEST is a private sector, not-for-profit corporation with a mandate to encourage advancements in environmental and economic performance in Western Canada. The corporation has formed linkages between technology producers, industry experts, and industry associates to facilitate this process. Since 2000, CETAC-WEST has sponsored a highly successful ecoefficiency program aimed at reducing energy consumption in the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry. Head Office # 420, 715 - 5th Ave SW Calgary, Alberta Canada T2P2X6 Tel: (403) 777-9595 Fax: (403) 777-9599 cetac@cetacwest.com
Table of Contents 1. Applicability and Objectives .......................................... 1 2. Fundamentals of Refrigeration ...................................... 2

2.1 Refrigeration Circuit 2.2 Types of Refrigerant 2.3 Energy Consumption Targets
3. Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping................ 4 4. Efficiency Assessment and Adjustments..................... 7

4.1 Compression 4.2 Refrigerant Condenser 4.3 Economizer 4.4 Sub-Cooler 4.5 Chiller and Low Temperature Separator 4.6 Refrigerant Circuit Piping
5. Facility Engineering Input .............................................17

5.1 Water for Propane Condensing 5.2 Refrigeration Lean Oil Absorption 5.3 Cascaded Refrigeration
6. Appendices.....................................................................20
Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Propane P-H Diagram Taking Advantage of Climate ChillerLTS Coordination Refrigeration and Other Processes Variable Flow in Compressor Condenser Performance References
Figures
Figure 2.1 Simple Refrigeration Circuit Figure 2.2 Complex Refrigeration Circuit Figure 3.1 Flow Plan for Reducing Energy in a Refrigeration Unit Figure A.1 Simple Refrigeration Circuit Figure A.2 Pressure-Enthalpy (P-H) Diagram for Propane Figure A.3 Propane P-H Diagram Simple Refrigeration Circuit Figure A.4 Complex Refrigeration Circuit Figure A.5 Propane P-H Diagram Economizer Figure A.6 Propane P-H Diagram Subcooler Figure B.1 Compressor bhp as Function of Discharge Pressure Figure C.1 Refrigeration Unit Feed Phase Map Figure C.2 NGL Recovery by LTS Choke Valve Figure E.1 Performance Curves Centrifugal Compressor Figure E.2 Performance Curves Centrifugal Compressor Figure F.1 Propane Temperature-Pressure Equilibrium
Tables
Table 2.1 Efficiency of Generating Refrigeration Table 3.1 Check Sheet for Compressor Operation Table 3.2 Check Sheet for Condenser Operation Table 3.3 Check Sheet for Economizer Operation Table 3.4 Check Sheet for Subcooler Operation Table 3.5 Check Sheet for Chiller/LTS Operation Table 3.6 Check Sheet for Refrigeration Circuit Piping Table E.1 Compressor Comparison Chart
Background
The issue of fuel gas consumption is increasingly important to the oil and gas industry. The development of this Best Management Practice (BMP) Module is sponsored by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP), the Gas Processing Association Canada (GPAC), the Alberta Department of Energy, Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada (SEPAC) Natural Resources Canada (NRC) and the Energy Resources and Conservation Board (ERCB) to promote the efficient use of fuel gas in refrigeration units used in the upstream oil and gas sector. It is part of a series of 17 modules addressing fuel gas efficiency in a range of devices. This BMP Module: identifies the typical impediments to achieving high levels of operating efficiency with respect to fuel gas consumption; presents strategies for achieving cost effective improvements through inspection, maintenance, operating practices and the replacement of underperforming components; and identifies technical considerations and limitations.
The aim is to provide practical guidance to operators for achieving fuel gas efficient operation while recognizing the specific requirements of individual refrigeration units and their service requirements.
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1.
Applicability and Objectives
This module focuses on refrigeration units from the perspective of both the process and the refrigerant sides. They are intimately linked and need to be considered in tandem in order to achieve the best results. While the overwhelming majority of refrigeration units operated in the upstream oil and gas industry (UOG) use propane as the refrigerant, the concepts discussed within this document are applicable to all refrigerants to varying degrees. Nevertheless, the examples, unless specifically stated, refer to propane refrigeration. In this module the terms fuel use and energy use are used interchangeably. Refrigeration units employ engines, turbines and/or electric motors to drive the major equipment. For those plants where compression is motor-driven the impact upon unit fuel consumption is obviously much reduced, but the savings still exist, in the form of reduced electrical power consumption. The energy management concepts that are outlined in this document are applicable all cases. The objectives of this module are to: Describe the fundamental operation of a refrigeration unit in terms of the thermodynamics involved. This description is for the overall unit and for each piece of component equipment. The target audience are the operators of the facilities, although input from corporate and technical functions elsewhere within the company will be necessary and of vital importance. Investigate energy management opportunities for the overall process and for each major piece of equipment both on the refrigerant side and on the process gas side. Extend the study to other processes that are affected by the refrigeration unit and vice versa.
Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17
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2.
Fundamentals of Refrigeration
Refrigeration is a complex process, involving a long list of operations typically found in upstream oil and gas facilities compression, aerial cooling, heat exchange, instrumentation and controls. Overlaying those operations are the impacts of thermodynamic cycles and vapourliquid equilibria.
2.1
Refrigerant Circuit
The most basic refrigeration circuit consists of a compressor, condenser, expansion valve and a chiller/evaporator. Typically, in sour gas plants, ethylene glycol (EG) will be injected into the chiller and upstream process gas exchangers, such as the gas-gas exchanger, in order to prevent water freezing. The EG regeneration equipment is typically located in the refrigeration unit. Energy management of the EG loop is discussed in another module. Figure 2.1 is a schematic of a simple (single-stage) refrigeration circuit.
Simple Refrigeration Circuit
Condenser Compressor
Process Gas
Chiller
Receiver
Expansion Valve
Figure 2.1
More complex units will have an economizer or a propane sub-cooler, or both. The increase in equipment complexity results in a much more energy-efficient process. Figure 2.2 is a schematic of a complex (two-stage) refrigeration circuit.
Analysis of the thermodynamics of the refrigeration process using propane and how to determine equipment and process efficiency are discussed in Appendix A.
Complex Refrigeration Circuit
Process Gas
Chiller
Receiver
Economizer
Subcooler
Expansion Valve
Figure 2.2
Complex Refrigeration Circuit The design of refrigeration units is dictated by the need to compress and subsequently condense propane during the hottest days of summer. However, the thermodynamics are much more efficient in cold weather. The climate in Western Canada is therefore very conducive to the realization of energy savings through the effective operation of the refrigeration unit. Appendix B explores the climatic effect on compression power requirements. The refrigeration unit is a utility. However, it should not be considered independent of the main process. Significant benefits can be achieved by combining the thermodynamic properties of the process gas and the capabilities of the refrigeration unit chiller. These benefits can be in the form of either reduced energy consumption for a constant liquid yield, or increased liquid yield. Appendix C discusses this concept. Refrigeration units are sometimes operated in conjunction with lean oil absorbers for NGL recovery. Plants that have deep-cut fractionation of the sales gas, which require extremely cold condensing temperatures, combine two refrigeration systems: the first uses ethane or ethylene for the main process refrigeration and the second refrigeration loop uses propane to condense the first refrigerant. See Appendix D for more information.
2.2
Types of Refrigerant
The most common refrigerant used in the upstream oil and gas industry is propane. Other refrigerants are used occasionally, such as ethane, ethylene, propylene, ammonia and various derivatives of Freon. The ultimate choice of refrigerant is based, to a certain extent, upon availability, price, and compatibility with the rest of the process. However, the major factor when choosing a refrigerant is its thermodynamic properties what chilling temperature can be achieved and what compression power is required. It should be pointed out that each refrigerant has its own thermodynamic properties. While they are essentially identical in form, the shape/slope of each curve is somewhat different so that the impact of equipment, such as an economizer and a sub-cooler, is different.
2.3
Energy Consumption Targets
Power consumption in a refrigeration unit will be a function of the type of compressor, the operating mode (dew point control, NGL recovery) and the ambient conditions. The following Table 2.1 lists the brake power input to the compressor per ton of refrigeration in the chiller. 1 (A ton of refrigeration TR - is an old unit of measurement, based upon the amount of heat required to melt one ton of ice in a day. It is equivalent to 12,000 BTU/hr.) The values in the table are those for relatively small Mycom compressors as such, they are representative of many of the refrigeration compressors in Western Canada. The left column assumes a condensing temperature of 48.9C, which is equivalent to an ambient temperature of about 32-35C. The right column assumes a condensing temperature of 20C, which corresponds to an ambient temperature of 4-6C. This would be fairly representative of spring and autumn conditions and is typical of wintertime operation where pressure control is used to maintain a minimum operating pressure. The chiller has been set at -10C, for dew point control, and at -22.7C, for increased NGL recovery. The term TR at Full Load indicates the amount of refrigeration that can be produced when the compressor is at full load. That number multiplied by the number brake kW/TR will allow the calculation of the compressor power requirement. Power requirements are for brake power output (in kW). For the amount of input energy required, as well as means to reduce that energy consumption, are discussed in other module chapters.
Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17 Rev Date 27/05/2008 Page 4 of 52
Because of the large number of factors that dictate the amount of refrigeration that is required and the ability to generate that amount, a precise quantification of an energy benchmark is impossible in a simple table. Nevertheless, the table does give an indication of the approximate energy intensity that should be set as an initial target.
Table 2.1
Efficiency of Generating Refrigeration
Condensing Temperature, C Reciprocating Compressor Single Stage Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR Screw Compressor No Economizer Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR Screw Compressor With Economizer Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR Chiller Temperature, C TR at Full Load Brake kW/TR -10.0 121.7 1.58 -22.7 63.2 2.22 Mycom P200 VS-M -10.0 117.6 1.72 -22.7 69.9 2.63 Mycom P200 VS-M -10.0 146.0 1.62 -22.7 95.1 2.27 -10.0 177.2 0.82 -22.7 116.8 1.12 -10.0 163.6 0.84 -22.7 101.5 1.17 48.9 Mycom F12WB -10.0 186.6 0.75 -22.7 108.4 1.13 20.0
Note from Table 2.1 how the ability to generate refrigeration, both in terms of quantity and efficiency of generation, decreases as the condensing temperature rises and/or the chiller temperature is reduced. Note also how the use of an economizer will improve the quantity of refrigeration and generally increase the efficiency of that generation. The same screw compressor model was used in both the no economizer/economizer cases.
3.
Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping
Operators should have a record keeping program to support the companys refrigeration testing and improvement program. Proper record keeping should assist in ensuring that operations are maintained at peak efficiency more discussion on efficient operations can be found in section 4. Record and retain the following efficiency related information:
Table 3.1
Check Sheet for Compressor Operation
Frequency Pressure and Temperature Suction (Readings) Pressure and Temperature Discharge (Readings) Brake Power (Reading or Calculation) Unit Performance (HC Dew Point and/or NGL Recovery) Chiller Pressure (Reading) and delta P to Compressor Receiver Pressure (Reading) and delta P from Compressor Is there Pressure Control Activated on Receiver (Y / N) Is there Heating of the Refrigerant in the Suction Scrubber (Y/N) Is this Heating Required (Y / N) Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Weekly Weekly
Table 3.2
Check Sheet for Condenser Operation
Frequency Temperature Approach (Value) Propane Purity (% C2, %C4s) Pressure Control Setting on Receiver (Reading) Fan Pitch (Setting) Condenser Bundle Condition Extent of Fouling (Qualitative Assessment) Extend of Fin Damage (Qualitative Assessment) Top Louvre Position (% Open) Side Louvre Positions (Open / Shut) Recirculation Air (Y / N) Augmented Cooling (Y / N) Fan Blade Damage (Y / N) Fan Belts (Loose? / Damaged?) Hot Air Draw-in From Other Plant Equipment (Y / N) Monthly Seasonal Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Monthly Weekly Monthly Seasonally Monthly Seasonally
Table 3.3
Check Sheet for Economizer Operation
Frequency Economizer Pressure Setting (Reading) Pressure Drop between Economizer and Compressor (Value) Monthly Monthly
Table 3.4
Check Sheet for Sub-Cooler Operation
Frequency Accuracy of Temperature Readings Temperature Approach (Value) Monthly Monthly
Table 3.5
Check Sheet for Chiller/LTS
Frequency Temperature and Pressure in Chiller Opening in LCV into Chiller Is Chiller LCV Modulating (Y / N) Level in Chiller Level in Compressor Suction Scrubber Temperature and Pressure in LTS Hydrocarbon Dew Point of Sales Gas NGL Production Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily
Table 3.6
Check Sheet for Refrigeration Circuit Piping
Frequency Control Valve Openings Eliminate Unnecessary Pressure Restrictions Check Compressor Oil Addition Rates Evaluate Condenser Performance Daily Weekly Weekly Monthly
The information collected in record keeping will assist in establishing the required checking frequency and demonstrate improvements in fuel gas efficiency.
4.
Efficiency Assessment and Adjustments
Whether the plant has a simple or complex configuration, energy use optimization is performed in a similar manner. Figure 3.1 is a flow plan for evaluating a refrigeration unit.
Confirm Measurement Accuracy
Repair, Replace, Install
Set Study Goals
Data Collection
Investigate Opportunities
Compressor (Section 3.1) Condenser (Section 3.2)
Poor/Missing Data?
Evaluate Opportunities
Economizer (Section 3.3) Subcooler (Section 3.4)
N N Discard Data Analysis/ Reconciliation Y
Opportunities Feasible?
Chiller/LTS (Section 3.5) Piping (Section 3.6)
Identify Opportunities/ Calculate Benchmark
Implement Opportunities
Form Refrig'n Unit Energy Mgmt Team
Determine/Confirm Operating Targets
Figure 4.1
Flow Plan for Reducing Energy in a Refrigeration Unit When conducting an energy management study of the refrigeration unit the main parameters to track are the absolute amount of energy consumed. Absolute amount of energy consumed should be represented in terms of brake power on the compressor and refrigeration obtained, for example, tons of refrigeration per brake compressor power. In thermodynamics, this is often referred to as the coefficient of performance. The energy consumed can also be expressed and tracked as a function of the plant processing conditions the amount of power compared with the product quality. For a unit that is designed for dew point control, the function would be power versus sales gas dew point. For a plant that wants NGL recovery, it would be power versus the NGL production. Ambient conditions need to be accounted for, in view of the tremendous impact that condensing temperature has upon the entire refrigeration process.
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4.1
Compressors
Compression is the largest energy input into a refrigeration unit. As such, it is imperative that attention be directed at reducing energy consumption on the compressor(s). Much of the reduction will be the direct result of actions taken elsewhere in the unit and even in other operating units. The reader is referred to those parts of this module for guidance. This sub-section looks at the compressor(s) specifically. The three types of compressors found in refrigeration units are screw, reciprocating and centrifugal. They operate on different principles and these dictate, to varying extents, the type and amount of fuel savings that can be achieved. The comparison between the different compressors is shown in Table E.1 Appendix E. The fundamental problem with refrigeration compressors is that they are all designed to work best at one point. The unit design point is the maximum operating temperature that will be experienced at the plant. The climate in Western Canada dictates that the compressor(s) could be working at a point considerably away from that design, with the consequent loss of energy efficiency. Every effort should be made to take advantage of the optimum operating point which is attained by minimizing the refrigeration flow and maximizing the suction pressure. The following pros and cons of the main compressor types assume that the machines are operating at design efficiency. Opportunities for fuel savings through maintenance repair are discussed in other sections. Refrigerant Flow Control The actions taken to make the refrigeration unit more efficient generally result in a reduction in the circulation of refrigerant. Operators should therefore direct attention towards greater refrigerant flow control. Where there is automatic flow control, such as through engine speed modulations, there is no real activity required by operators except to ensure that the desired control is achieved. Where flow control is manually adjusted, this will generally be done using variable pockets and/or unloaders. Since there will be fluctuations in the plant process and the weather, there will be a constantly changing process demand. To attempt to attain very tight control would require an inordinate amount of operation attention. It is preferable to adjust the pockets (and unloaders) at a setting that will ensure all fluctuations can be handled but still result in reduced energy consumption. While the savings are less, so is the required attention.
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If adopting this strategy, the situation should be reviewed periodically (for example, seasonally) and further adjustments made. The important point is to make as frequent adjustments as can be conveniently handled by the staff and equipment on site. This action ideally requires that the operators are able to determine the flow of propane through the compressor and the amount flashing across the LCV into the chiller. The best way would be to have a meter on the propane, combined with a chart to show the percentage that flashes. Metering is often not included in the design of the unit. Typically, though, the alternative is a qualitative determination where the operators monitor the compressor performance relative to the results achieved the hydrocarbon dew point or the NGL production. Appendix E contains examples of the effects of controlling variable flow in the three types of compressors. Compressor Suction Pressure It is desirable to keep the compressor suction pressure as high as possible while still attaining process requirements. Generally speaking, the suction pressure will be roughly 7-14 kPa (1-2 psi) below the chiller pressure. The impact of chiller operation upon refrigeration is discussed in Section 4.5 of this module. Operators should ensure that there are no pressure restrictions leading to untoward pressure drops in the piping between the chiller and the compressor suction scrubber. The same check should be done to ensure the piping from the scrubber to the compressor is similarly free of restrictions, such as plugged witchs hats. Any avoidable restrictions should be eliminated since even small pressure drops will result in disproportional increases in the compression ratio, and thus the power required. Reduction of suction pressure is sometimes used as a method of flow control. Compressors handle actual volumes of gas and by reducing the pressure the density of the incoming gas, and hence the mass of gas, is reduced. However, the compression ratio is increased and this counterbalances the reduction in power requirements. Depending upon the particular operating conditions and the compressor design, a reduction in suction pressure could lead to rod load and/or rod reversal problems.
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Some compressors heat their refrigerant in the suction scrubber in order to prevent liquids build-up in the scrubber and possible carryover into the compressor. While this prevents damage to the compressor, it does result in increased fuel use since it superheats the compressor feed and adversely impacts the isentropic compression of the refrigerant. It is recommended that the use of heating coils in the compressor suction scrubber be minimized wherever possible, consistent with safe operation of the compressor.
4.2
Refrigerant Condenser
The propane condenser determines the discharge pressure on the compressor and thus the power requirements. Nearly all propane condensers in Western Canada use aerial cooling. A few have water cooling and there can be benefits to using a combination of both air and water as cooling media (See Appendix D). It is critical that the condenser be operated as efficiently as possible. Fouling of the condenser or impurities in the circulating refrigerant are two areas where condenser performance can be seriously impacted. They are discussed in more detail in Appendix F. The condenser directly influences the discharge pressure of the compressor. As such, the condenser should be monitored constantly. The following energy management action items are recommended. Monitor the temperature approach. Compare the outlet temperature versus the ambient air temperature when the condenser has just been cleaned. Using this as the basis of comparison, measure the temperature approach regularly. A widening temperature gap is an indication that the cooling efficiency is declining. Note that precipitation will improve the temperature approach. Ensure that the fan pitch is appropriate. If the fan motor is controlled by a VFD, set the fan blades at the optimum pitch and allow the VFD to adjust the speed and hence the air flow. Normally, it is desirable to maximize the air flow until the minimum system operating pressure is reached. Ensure adequate air flow. Check the gap between the fan blade tip and the fan housing if more than about one inch, backflow of air will occur, which reduces cooling. Check the fan blades for damage. Ensure that the fan belts are not worn or damaged. Clean the condenser bundle. It is recommended that aerial coolers be cleaned after significant fouling events (such as poplar fluff) but prior to hot weather so that there is maximum cooling capability over the summer.
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Avoid practices that lead to fin damage. Use of high pressure water spray can lead to fin damage, which reduces the effective area of the condenser. Avoid the use of water spray to augment cooling. If absolutely necessary, consider spraying underneath the bundle and have the water drawn up through the bundle. Consult the cooler manufacturer prior to using water spray. Check to make sure that hot air from another part of the plant process is not being drawn into the condenser fan. This phenomenon can be demonstrated using smoke bombs or even sensed by positioning oneself around the perimeter of the cooler underneath the bundle. If there is air being drawn in, determine the source of the hot air and investigate ways to resolve the problem. In some plants, the outlet plenum of the offending cooler is extended approximately 6-8 feet. Check the refrigerant purity on a regular basis and when there is any suspicion that purity has changed. Indications of a change can be quickly checked by plotting the temperature and pressure for the condenser, economizer and chiller versus the expected curve (for pure propane that would be Figure F.1 or the curve for the actual and for industrial-grade refrigeration). Preferably, analyse the refrigerant. If possible, ask the supplier for the composition. Check the pressure control setting on the receiver (also called the accumulator). In order to keep sufficient pressure in the refrigerant circuit for maintaining circulation, a small stream of hot refrigerant vapour is bypassed around the condenser to the receiver and flow-controlled by the pressure in the receiver. Ensure that the pressure setting is not higher than needed. (This presupposes that the minimum discharge pressure required/allowed by the circuit is known.)
4.3
Economizer
An economizer can significantly reduce energy needs in a refrigeration unit. It removes vapour from the refrigeration circuit at an intermediate pressure, thereby reducing the amount that would have to be compressed up from the suction scrubber pressure. Not all units will have an economizer. As discussed in Section 4.1, some compressors are not configured to allow the installation of an economizer. Others have not been so equipped due to capital expenditure consideration during the original plant construction. The following energy management opportunities are suggested concerning the operation of the economizer.
Operate the economizer at the optimum pressure. Typically, the optimum pressure is the geometric average of the compressor discharge and the compressor suction pressures. That can be determined by multiplying the discharge and suction pressures expressed in absolute terms (kPaa or psia) and then taking the square root of that number. For example, if the suction pressure is 70 kPag and the discharge is 1380 kPag, the approximate optimum pressure would be SQ RT [(70 + 90) x (1380 + 90)] = 485 kPa abs = 395 kPag The optimum pressure could then be more precisely found by making small iterative adjustments until the minimum compression power is achieved, while maintaining the process requirements.
Check the pressure drop between the economizer and the compressor. Unnecessary pressure restrictions should be eliminated in order to reduce compressor horsepower.
From the method of obtaining the optimum economizer pressure two fundamental conditions are obvious. The plant must have a method of precisely measuring compression power. Otherwise, the approximate optimum must be used as a target. The optimum economizer pressure will vary, if the compressor discharge pressure varies with ambient temperature.
4.4
Sub-Cooler
The purpose of the sub-cooler is to cool the liquid refrigerant stream leaving the receiver or the economizer. This increases the percentage of liquid that is entering the chiller. By getting more refrigeration for the same refrigerant flow, the efficiency of the circuit is improved and energy savings can be realized. Not all refrigeration units are equipped with sub-coolers. There has to be a cool stream available. The exchanger is typically installed downstream of the economizer (if the unit has one). Otherwise, it is installed downstream of the receiver. Being a heat exchanger, there are limited actions that operators can/need to do in order to ensure energy savings. Primarily, they need to ensure that the exchanger does not become fouled. Fouling reduces the heat transfer and increases pressure drop through the exchanger. If that occurs on the refrigerant side, it could reduce the fraction of liquid entering the chiller. Checking for deterioration in performance is best done by observing the temperature approach (the outlet of the sub cooler on the refrigerant side versus the inlet side on the cooling medium). This assumes counter-current cooling,
which is the configuration in the overwhelming number of cases. A widening difference is a sign of fouling. It is highly recommended that the plant check the accuracy of the temperature dials on the sub cooler (and throughout the unit in general). Thermometers often tend to be quite inaccurate, making analysis of the performance very difficult.
4.5
Chiller and Low Temperature Separator
The chiller is core of the refrigeration process. The condenser determines the observable power requirements within the unit, and the economizer/sub cooler arrangement improves the overall efficiency of the circuit. But, poor chiller operation will seriously alter the overall economics and thus the energy consumption. Unfortunately, many of the adverse effects are not obvious and therefore may be inadvertently overlooked. The LCV on the chiller drops the pressure to achieve the desired chiller temperature. Some plants set the valve opening at a fixed level (typically 50%), instead of letting it modulate (typically between 30-70%). When the LCV modulates, the chiller pressure tends to stay relatively constant, regardless of the compressor discharge pressure. However, when the LCV is set at a fixed value, the chiller pressure drops when the compressor discharge pressure drops, although obviously not to the same degree. Nevertheless, the chiller is already at a very low pressure so any drop in pressure causes a significant rise in the compression ratio, which dictates the compression power required. It is a rule of thumb that the chiller should be operated at the highest temperature (and consequently) pressure that is consistent with the plants production goals. In other words, do not over-chill the process gas. The chiller temperature will be dictated by whether the goal is to meet sales gas hydrocarbon dew point or to maximize NGL yield. Assuming that the chiller temperature that meets the plants production goal has been identified: Operate the chiller level control valve in order to achieve the desired target conditions in the chiller. Confirm that there is no refrigerant carryover into the compressor suction scrubber. Excessive carryover usually results in lost refrigerant since it is often flared. Carryover is an indication that the refrigerant circulation is too high relative to the process demand or that the LCV is letting too much liquid too fast into the chiller.
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Depending upon the thermodynamic properties of the process gas and the sales gas compression, significant energy savings could be realized if the chiller were considered in conjunction with the low temperature separator (LTS). The optimum energy use would be achieved when those two vessels were operated as one, by taking advantage of the Joule-Thompson effect and the process gas was chilled at stream pressure and then flashed down to the optimum pressure in the LTS. The reader is referred to Appendix C for a discussion of this opportunity. Before the optimum chiller/LTS conditions could be implemented, the following energy management studies would have to be done. These action items are generally outside the scope of operators. They usually involve computer simulations, or similar complex calculations. Obviously, if product values change significantly, it would be necessary to repeat the above steps using the new data. Determine the optimum process temperature, Determine the optimum LTS pressure, and Determine the chiller temperature that gives the optimum temperature in the LTS at the optimum LTS pressure.
The reader is referred to Section 4 for more detail regarding these studies. Assuming that the operators are provided with the target temperature and pressure: Operate the chiller level control valve in order to achieve the desired target conditions in the LTS.
4.6
Refrigerant Circuit Piping
The piping in the refrigeration circuit is sized to handle the original design flow rates. Subsequent to plant start-up, conditions could have changed considerably and the existing piping may be causing a loss of energy efficiency. Restricted piping causes unwanted pressure drops. These, in turn, cause generation of vapour according to the refrigerant vapour-liquid equilibrium curve. Vapour reduces the amount of liquid refrigerant to the chiller, which reduces the amount of possible chilling. Ultimately, it could limit the circulation of refrigerant at low circuit pressure by causing the chiller LCV to go wide open, thereby losing control capability. It is necessary to determine the minimum compressor discharge pressure that the refrigeration unit can handle, since the unit works more efficiently at lower discharge pressures (for the same suction pressure). There are a number of
limiting conditions, the first-encountered of which dictates the minimum operating pressure. The chiller control valve goes wide open, thereby losing the ability to control. The pressure drop through the piping (and control valve) circuit is greater than the desired discharge pressure. The only way to balance the delivered pressure and required pressure drop would be to reduce the flow rate of refrigerant. The reduced pressure causes refrigerant vapour breakout upstream of the chiller thereby reducing the amount of refrigeration capable in the chiller. The lower pressure causes excessive gas velocity through the oilrefrigerant separator on the compressor discharge such that the oil is not entirely separated.
The first three limits are readily observable in normal operation. The last, however, shows no immediate signs of a problem. However, there will be a loss of oil inventory which is the first indication of trouble. In the long-term, the lost oil will coat the internal side of the tubes of the condenser and potentially even the external side of the tubes of the chiller. The oil coating will reduce heat transfer and seriously impact performance compressor discharge pressures will rise and the refrigeration effect will drop. The following action is recommended in order to determine the operating boundary: Determine the minimum discharge pressure on the refrigerant compressor. This is best done by consulting with the designer of the unit (to first determine conditions which absolutely must be avoided) and experimenting to see how far the pressure can go without adversely affecting performance. While Facility Engineering should take the lead role in this exercise, operator input is extremely important and useful.
Once the minimum operating pressure has been determined, the following actions, by the operating, are recommended: Ensure there are no unwanted pressure restrictions in the refrigerant circuit. Some restrictions such as level control valve pressure drops into the economizer and the chiller are desired. On the other hand, control valves should not be wide open. Inadvertent pressure drops caused by partially-closed valves or material in the piping should be eliminated wherever possible.
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Frequently note the inventory of oil in the compressor. Be aware of increased need for additional oil. The loss of oil is an indication of carryover to the condenser, which leads to the following action. Ensure that the condenser tube internals are clean. This is necessary if there are indications of loss of condenser performance that cannot be explained by conditions on the condenser external surface (fouling, fin damage, etc.) or fan performance (See Section 4.2). It may be necessary to extend the cleaning to downstream exchangers such as the sub cooler and the chiller. Operator involvement in this step is vital in order to ensure that the deteriorating condition is identified as quickly as possible.
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5.
Facility Engineering Input
The foregoing review of energy management in refrigeration units has illustrated that there is a wide range of opportunities for savings and/or improved product value. The ability for a plant to take advantage of them falls into three categories: immediate, low/no capital investment, minor capital investment, major capital investment.
Experience has shown that roughly half of the savings identified in energy audits are in the first category. A well-run unit will accrue significant savings. This requires mostly operator attention and this module has been prepared with that goal in mind. On the other hand, capital investment coupled with good operating practices will greatly improve the energy efficiency of the unit. While facility engineering should take the lead role, operators can provide valuable input in view of their experiences and observations from running the specific, or a similar, unit. This section discusses the role that facility engineering can play in ensuring that the refrigeration unit is operated as efficiently as possible.
5.1
Strategic Goals and Operating Parameters
The conventional refrigeration unit consists of a simple circuit no economizer and no sub-cooler. While that configuration involves the least capital investment, it forgoes substantial savings in operating costs and/or liquid recovery. Retrofits will bring about those savings, but at a much higher installation cost than if the same configuration had been incorporated into the original design. When considering a new refrigeration unit, or modification of an existing unit, it is important to establish the strategic goals and the consequent operating parameters required to meet those goals. Clearly establish the goal(s) of the unit. Is the unit to be operated for hydrocarbon dew point control or liquid recovery? Clearly determine the operating parameters. Dependent upon the unit goals, what range of operating conditions are desired? Generally, with a wide the range of conditions, there will be deterioration of efficiency at
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some point within that range. It is also important to know how those conditions will change over time. Design with maximum unit complexity consistent with unit goals. If increases in complexity such as installation of an economizer are forecasted, try to avoid costly retrofits by increased capital investment at the time of original design. Ensure that staff are well trained in energy management concepts with respect to the process and to the equipment.
5.2
Retrofits and New Units
The following actions should be considered, primarily by facility engineers, when designing a new refrigeration unit or modifying an existing one. They have been listed by equipment. Where appropriate, facility engineering should seek operator input into the specific design. Compressor Determine the minimum discharge pressure on the refrigerant compressor. This is best done by consulting with the designer of the unit (to first determine conditions which absolutely must be avoided) and experimenting to see how far the pressure can go without adversely affecting performance. Economizer Consider the feasibility of installing one, especially if the compressor(s) can accept an intermediate feed. Space, especially in small units, is also an important factor, due to the normally-congested nature of the refrigeration skid. Sub-Cooler If the plant is considering the installation of a sub-cooler, and there are multiple choices for the cooling medium, consider the options from the point of view both the refrigerant circuit and the rest of the plant. In other words, where is the best place within the entire facility for taking the cooling stream(s)? Chiller/LTS Determine the optimum process temperature. Usually, that is dictated by whether the plant is cooling the process gas in order to achieve hydrocarbon dew point control or whether the goal is NGL recovery. In the first case, the temperature is generally around -17C to -10C (0F14F). In the second case, the will often be run at -30C or colder.
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Determine the optimum LTS pressure. That is typically done using a phase envelope and an overall holistic study wherein compression efficiencies (on the refrigeration unit and on the process side), relative product values for sales gas and NGL/NGL individual components are considered. If there is an incentive to choke the process gas into the LTS, it will be necessary to determine the chiller temperature that gives the optimum temperature in the LTS at the optimum LTS pressure. Piping Ensure there are no unwanted pressure restrictions in the refrigerant circuit. Some restrictions such as level control valve pressure drops into the economizer and the chiller are desired. Inadvertent pressure drops caused by partially-closed valves or material in the piping should be eliminated wherever possible. When modifying the unit, ensure adequately-sized piping and the piping runs. Obviously, there will be pressure drops in any piping as long as there is a flow. But where there is some flexibility in the design and project economics, consider larger-diameter piping. The piping configuration such as rises in elevation - is important also. Once vapour has broken out of the mix, such as due to a rise in piping elevation, it does not turn back into liquid on a subsequent drop in elevation unless there is a change in the energy of the fluid (i.e., from cooling or compression).
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Appendix A
Propane P-H Diagram This appendix illustrates how the thermodynamics of a refrigeration circuit, in this case propane, can be used to analyze the operation of the propane side of the unit. In doing so, the concepts discussed in the text of the module are illustrated graphically. For more information regarding refrigeration units, the reader is referred to the GPSA Engineering Data Book, 11th Edition, Chapter 14. While this investigation can be done using a simulation package and will produce more precise results, the use of the P-H diagram is favoured in this case for two reasons: The graphical method illustrates the concepts more clearly, The method has much more availability for operating staff.
A.1
Simple Refrigeration Cycle
The simplest refrigeration cycle consists of a compressor, condenser, expansion valve (commonly called a JT valve) and the chiller. Figure A.1 outlines this cycle.
Process Gas
Chiller
Receiver
Expansion Valve
Figure A.1
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The calculation basis of the refrigeration cycle is the P-H diagram which outlines the thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant. (The x-axis is the enthalpy - the symbol for which is H and the y-axis is pressure.) Figure A.2 shows this information for propane2.
Figure A.2
Pressure-Enthalpy (P-H) Diagram for Propane
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In Figure A.3 a simple, or single-stage, propane refrigeration loop has been overlaid onto the P-H diagram.
Figure A.3
Propane P-H Diagram Simple Refrigeration Circuit
For this loop, the following conditions apply: the ambient temperature is 80F, the circulating rate of propane is 40,000 lbs/hour, and the chiller operates at 20 psia (-32F).
The (reciprocating) compressor discharge conditions are 200 psia and 163F. The compressor has two stages. Assume that the starting point is the chiller, which is operating at 20 psi absolute, (-32F). The outlet of the chiller is 100% vapour. The enthalpy of the propane is 413 BTU/lb. There is a 1.5 psi drop between the chiller and the compressor suction. Since no work is done, the total enthalpy of the propane remains at 413 BTU/lb but there is a drop in temperature of roughly 3 degrees Fahrenheit, i.e., to -35F. Normally, compression in screw and reciprocating machines is isentropic. Therefore, the theoretical discharge temperature would be 125F. However, since the compressor does not operate at constant entropy (the sloping lines labelled s show lines of constant entropy), the discharge temperature is higher. In this case, the discharge temperature is 163F. This information can be used to determine the compressor horsepower and the overall efficiency of the compressor. The enthalpy of the propane into the compressor is 413 BTU/lb. The theoretical enthalpy of the discharge is 462 BTU/lb (200 psia and 125F) and the actual enthalpy is 480 BTU/lb (200 psia and 163F). The compression ratio of the compressor is 200 / 20 = 10. This means that the compression ratio for each of the two stages is 3.16. This is a relatively high value and potential for rod loading/rod reversal issues should be investigated. The brake power to the compressor is 480-413 = 67 BTU/lb. For the circulating load, the total power is 40,000*67 = 2,680,000 BTU/hour, which is equivalent to 1,053 horsepower. The theoretical power input is 462-413 = 49 BTU/hour. The overall efficiency of compression is therefore 49 / 67 = 73.1%. Note, strictly speaking, the enthalpy of the circulating oil (if applicable) must be taken into consideration. The net result of the circulating oil is to reduce the discharge temperature. This is especially the case with screw compressors where the amount of heat absorbed by the oil can be very significant. Typically, there is roughly a 10 psi pressure drop between the compressor discharge and the condenser, which is therefore operating at 190 psia. The duty of the condenser is based on the assumption that the outlet of the condenser is
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100% liquid. Therefore, the outlet has an enthalpy of 312 BTU/lb, for an overall duty of 480 312 = 168 BTU/lb, or 6,720,000 BTU/hour. The temperature approach of the condenser is the difference between the condenser outlet temperature and the ambient temperature. Since the outlet pressure is 190 psia, this is equivalent to an equilibrium temperature of 99F. The temperature approach is therefore 99 80 = 19 degrees Fahrenheit, which is typical of design values, although in many units much better performance is achieved. The chiller conditions are achieved by dropping the pressure through the expansion valve, which is the level control valve on the chiller. Again, because there is no work done, there is no loss of enthalpy in the propane as it goes through the LCV. Graphically, this is shown by the vertical line dropping from the condenser outlet (P=190 psia, H=312 BTU/lb) to the chiller inlet (P=20 psia, H=312 BTU/lb. At the chiller conditions, the enthalpy of the propane when liquid is 234 BTU/lb and the enthalpy of propane vapour is 413 BTU/lb. The difference 179 BTU/lb is the latent heat of vaporization of propane at 20 psia. The weighted enthalpy of the vapour-liquid mixture entering the chiller is 312 BTU/lb. The proportion that is liquid can be calculated by the following formula (Hvapour Hmixture) / (Hvapour Hliquid) or (413 312) / (413 234) = 56.42% Nearly half of the propane entering the chiller does so in the form of vapour. While the low temperature of the vapour will contribute to the chilling of the process gas, the amount is negligible compared to the chilling achieved by vaporizing the liquid propane entering the chiller. In other words, the amount of chilling, or refrigeration effect, is related to the amount of liquid propane entering the chiller. The refrigeration effect is therefore 40,000 lb/hr * 0.5642 * (413 234) = 4,040,000 BTU/hour or 40,000 * (413 312) = 4,040,000 BTU/hour Two terms are frequently used with reference to refrigeration units: Tons of Refrigeration. This is defined as the amount of heat required to melt 1 ton of ice in 24 hours. It is, by definition, equal to 12,000 BTU/hour. In our example, the tons of refrigeration total 4,040,000 / 12,000 = 336. 7 TR.
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Coefficient of Performance. The coefficient of performance (COP) equals the amount of chilling divided by the amount of work added in the compressor. In our example, the COP is 4,040,000 / 2,680,000 = 1.507.
It can be seen from Figure A.3 that any steps that reduce the compression ratio will increase the proportion of liquid entering the chiller. Fuel requirements will decrease due to the lower compression ratio and the need to circulate less propane in order to achieve the same amount of chilling.
A.2
Economizer and Sub-Cooler
The compression power requirements can be reduced by adding either an economizer, or a sub-cooler, or both. Figure A.4 shows the revised configuration in this case, two-stage refrigeration - and Figure A.5 illustrates the impact of the new economizer on the P-H diagram.
Process Gas
Chiller
Receiver
Economizer
Subcooler
Expansion Valve
Figure A.4
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Economizer. In this example, the compressor consists of two stages and can thus handle an economizer. The economizer pressure has been set at 70 psia. The enthalpy of the saturated vapour and the saturated liquid are 432 BTU/lb and 270 BTU/lb, respectively. The enthalpy of the liquid out of the condenser/receiver is 312 BTU/lb (see previous sub-section). Therefore, the fraction of liquid in the propane entering the economizer is (432-312) / (432-270) = 74.07%. The vapour removed in the economizer is returned to stage 2 of the compressor. Power/fuel savings are achieved because the economizer vapour does not have to be compressed from chiller pressure. From the viewpoint of the compressor, the optimum discharge pressure on stage 1 would be roughly 63.3 psia. Note that the economizer pressure is 6.7 psi higher, that difference being taken up by the back pressure control valve on the gas off the economizer. This observation will be discussed later.
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Figure A.5
Propane P-H Diagram - Economizer The theoretical discharge temperature, assuming constant entropy would be 104F and the theoretical change in enthalpy would be 450 BTU/lb (at 200 psia, 104F) minus 432 BTU/lb (at 63.3 psia and vapour into stage 2, which equals 18 BTU/lb. The efficiency of the compressor, from before, was 73.1%, meaning that the actual input was 18 / 0.731 = 24.6 BTU/lb of propane going to stage 2.
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Since the chiller and compressor suction conditions are identical to the simple refrigeration cycle scenario discussed in the previous subsection, the change in enthalpy of the propane vapour into stage 1 is 67 BTU/lb. However, the fraction of propane entering the chiller has changed dramatically. The vapour that would have been generated from dropping the pressure from 190 psia (in the receiver) to 70 psia (in the economizer) has been removed. The enthalpy of the propane liquid entering the expansion valve is the same as that of the liquid in the economizer, 270 BTU/lb. Therefore, the fraction of liquid entering the chiller is (413-270) / (413-234) = 79.89%. Prior to the use of the economizer, the refrigeration effect was estimated to be 4,040,000 BTU/hour. Since the latent heat of evaporation in the chiller is 413 234 = 179 BTU/lb, the required amount of liquid propane in the chiller is 22,570 lb/hour. In view of the fraction of liquid entering the chiller, the required amount of propane circulation is: 22,570 / 0.7989 = 28,251 lb/hour via the chiller plus 28,251 / 0.7407 28,251 = 9,890 lb/hour removed in the economizer. The total propane flow is 38,141 lb/hour, whereas the original propane circulation rate was 40,000 lb/hour. The total power required in the compressor is 28,251 lb/h*67 BTU/lb+9,890 lb/h*24.6 BTU/lb = 2,136,111 BTU/hr = 840 bhp. The installation of the economizer reduced the overall propane flow by 4.4%, but reduced the power required by 20.3% (from 1,053 bhp to 840 bhp). As indicated earlier, stage 2 of the compressor would have an inlet pressure of about 63.3 psia, but the economizer was being operated at 70 psia. Assume that the economizer pressure could be reduced to 65 psia by opening the back pressure control valve. Repeating the calculation, the new power required would be 834 bhp a reduction of 6 bhp, worth $3,120/year in fuel at $6.00/GJ. Interestingly, there is a small increase in the total amount of propane being circulated. However, the increase is in the economizer off gas and there is a decrease in the chiller off gas. The savings in stage 1 power (due to reduced flow) makes up for the small increase in stage 2 power (caused by higher compression ratio). The savings in a real situation would depend upon the economizer pressure level relative to the compressor interstage pressure. For instance, an economizer pressure set at design summertime levels would be at considerable variance from the interstage pressure when running in the winter.
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As an example, a 2-stage compressor operating at a suction pressure of 20 psia and a discharge of 250 psia would have an economizer pressure in the range of 70-71 psia. In the winter, when the discharge could be as low as 120 psia (this value would depend upon a variety of factors but could be determined experimentally by the plant), the economizer would be at roughly 50 psia. Sub-Cooler. A sub-cooler increases the proportion of liquid entering the chiller by shifting the equilibrium line into the sub-cooled propane region (to the left of the saturated liquid line). In the experience of this documents author, a typical sub-cooler will deliver 10-20 degrees Fahrenheit cooling. For this exercise, 15 degrees is assumed. It is further assumed that the sub-cooler is installed in conjunction with, and after, the economizer. Graphically, the sub-cooler is shown in Figure A.6. The economizer pressure is 65 psia. Therefore, the equilibrium temperature is 28F. With the installation of a sub-cooler the propane going to the expansion valve would be at 13F. This means the enthalpy of the propane into the expansion valve is 259 BTU/lb and the fraction of liquid entering the chiller is 86.03%. As a result of installing a sub-cooler, the compressor power required is 786 bhp, a reduction of 5.8% from the economizer case.
A.3
Economics
In summary, the installation of an economizer and sub-cooler has the following results: The compressor power requirements dropped 267 bhp, from 1,053 bhp to 786 bhp, or 25.4%. The total propane flow dropped by 10% from 40,000 lbs/hr to 36,016 lbs/hr. The propane condenser duty is correspondingly reduced by 10%. In terms of power requirements, this represents a reduction in condenser fan power of approximately 100 100 * (.9004 3) = 27.0%. Based on a typical condenser design, the original installed condenser power requirement was about 160 bhp. Power requirements on the condenser would be reduced by 0.27*160=43 bhp (32 kW) on the fan motor output.
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Figure A.6
Propane P-H Diagram - Subcooler
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At an engine firing efficiency of 33.5% (i.e., 7,600 BTU fired/bhp) and a fuel value of $6.00/GJ, the savings in engine firing would be: 267 bhp * 7,600 BTU LHV/bhp-hr * 8,760 hr/yr * 1.1 HHV/LHV * 1,055 J/BTU / 1,000,000,000 J/GJ * 6 $/GJ HHV = $123,770/year Other economic factors to consider are the following: The fuel saved would be equivalent to approximately 1,082 tonnes of CO2/year. At a value of $15.00/tonne, the value of the emissions is $16,230. The electrical savings on the condenser are 43 bhp, which is equivalent to about 47 input hp. At a cost of $0.10/kWh, the cost of electric power would be $30,700 annually. A reduction of 267 bhp in engine use will result in a reduction in engine maintenance. At a rate of $60/year/bhp, the savings in maintenance/spare parts would be $16,020 annually.
If considering a retrofit installation of an economizer/sub-cooler, the savings in fuel, emissions, electrical costs and engine maintenance total $186,720. If considering a new refrigeration unit, the above-mentioned costs would apply. In addition, there would be a reduced cost of roughly $1,000/hp for the equipment and $1,000/hp for the installation cost. The total savings in capital expenditure are thus $534,000 plus the $186,720 in annual operating expenses.
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Appendix B
Taking Advantage of Climate The propane P-H diagram can be used to estimate, with reasonable accuracy, the impact of climate upon the refrigeration unit. As the ambient temperature falls, the back pressure on the compressor will decrease since the vapour pressure of the propane falls. However, many plants operate at compressor discharge pressures that are consistent with summertime conditions because of no or insufficient adjustment of the back pressure valve on the condenser. Wherever possible, plants should determine the minimum discharge pressure that the compressor can deliver and still result in good operation of the refrigeration unit. Assume that the simple refrigeration loop described in Appendix A is designed to operate at 250 psia. This corresponds to a design condenser temperature of 120F, which is typical for many plants. The chiller runs at 20 psia. The overall efficiency of isentropic compression is 73.1%. The refrigeration effect is the same 4,040,000 BTU/hour. The enthalpy of the liquid leaving the condenser is 327 BTU/lb. This means that the proportion of the propane entering the chiller as liquid is (413 327) / (413 234) = 48.04%. The amount of propane that must be vaporized in the chiller is 4,040,000 / 179 = 22,570 lb/hour. Therefore, the amount of propane that must be circulated is 22,570 / 0.4804 = 46,981 lbs/hour. For an isentropic efficiency of 73.1% and a discharge pressure of 250 psia, the change in enthalpy is 486 413 = 73 BTU/lb. This equates to a power input of 73 * 46,981 / 2,544 = 1,348 bhp. Repeating this calculation procedure for various discharge pressures yields the following graph, Figure B.1. The large triangle corresponds to the design point for the unit. It has been assumed that there is a 10 psi drop between the compressor discharge and the condenser outlet. Note that the range of pressures shown on the graph is in no way meant to imply that a refrigeration unit can operate across that entire range. The maximum operating pressure will be determined by two factors: The point at which compressor power requirements will exceed the capacity of the compressor/engine in terms of volume handling, power output capability and/or mechanical stresses on the compressor or other equipment. The point at which the circulating volume of propane is so great that there is a bottleneck elsewhere within the refrigeration loop. Two common
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pinch points would be the condenser capability and the opening on the expansion valve into the chiller. The rationale behind a minimum operating pressure has been discussed in Section 10. Based on the authors experience, the minimum operating pressure is typically found by monitoring the unit operation while small downward adjustments in discharge pressure are made.
Compressor bhp as Function of Discharge Pressure
3000
2500
Compressor hp
2000
1500
1000
500
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Compressor Discharge, psia
Figure B.1
Compressor bhp as Function of Discharge Pressure Regardless of the actual operating range for the plants refrigeration unit, it is clear that significant savings in compression power the largest energy consumer within the refrigeration unit can be achieved by taking advantage of the cool weather throughout much of the year and by maintaining as low a compressor discharge pressure as possible.
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Appendix C
ChillerLTS Coordination Considerable energy savings can be achieved by setting operating conditions in the chiller and the low temperature separator (LTS) at the optimal values. This appendix outlines a conceptual approach experience has shown that each plant and/or gas is unique and no definitive and all-inclusive quantitative recommendations can be made. The conventional approach is to cool the process gas in the chiller and flash it in the LTS, which would be at a pressure not much different from the process side of the chiller. The proposed approach is to partially chill the gas and then choke it prior to flashing it in the LTS. In other words, there will be a significant difference in pressure between the chiller and LTS. Due to the complexity of vapour-liquid equilibrium calculations, this exercise is best done by a computer simulation package. The starting point for this analysis is the phase map of the process gas. Figure C.1 shows the phase map for three hypothetical gas feeds, the major variation being the amount of methane in the stream, the rest of the components being adjusted accordingly.
Refrigeration Unit Feed - Phase Map
1800 1600
85% C1 Dew Point 80% C1 75% C1
1400
All Liquid
1200
Pressure, psia
Bubble Point
1000 800 600 400 200

All Vapour
0 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Temperature, F
Figure C.1
Refrigeration Unit Feed Phase Map
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On the left hand side of the graph is the bubble point curve. At temperatures to the left of the curve the fluid is all liquid. On the right of the graph is the dew point curve, and at temperatures to the right of the curve, the fluid is all vapour. Note that the bubble point curves (where the fluid starts to vaporize) are essentially identical but the dew point curves (where condensing starts) are quite distinct. As expected, the richer the gas the higher the temperature at which liquid starts to condense. At temperatures that lie between the bubble and dew point curves, there is a mixture of vapour and liquid. As with the case of the P-H diagram for propane (see Appendix A), when in a two-phase region, the closer the point is to the dew point curve the smaller the fraction of liquid in the mix. It should be pointed out that the fraction in this case is the molar fraction, whereas in the P-H diagram, which is shown in Appendix A, the fraction can be either molar or mass (since it is for pure propane). Figure C.2 illustrates the effect of choking the process gas as it exits the chiller.
NGL Recovery by LTS Choke Valve
1200
20 mol% Liquid 30 mol% Liquid 40 mol% Liquid
1000
Bubble Point
800
Pressure, psia
600
Flashing Through Choke Valve
400
200
Dew Point
0 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Temperature, F
Figure C.2
NGL Recovery by LTS Choke Valve
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Two sets of lines have been added to the phase envelope (which in this graph is for the 85 mol % methane gas stream shown in Figure C.1). The solid pink lines show lines of constant liquid content. For example, at 800 psia and 43.8F, the liquid content is 20 mol %; at 200 psia and 6.4F, the liquid content is also 20 mol %. The dashed lines show the decrease in temperature as the pressure in the gas leaving the chiller is choked down to the LTS pressure. Two cases have been shown. In the first the process gas in the chiller was at 40F and 1,000 psia line pressure prior to choking and, in the second case, at 40F and 800 psia. Those conditions were chosen since the outlet temperature of the gas-gas exchanger is generally around that value and the line pressure is often in the 800-1,000 psia range.
As the process gas is choked, there is an increase in the liquid recovery. When dropping from 1,000 psia, the maximum recovery is about 34% at 400-450 psia in the LTS. When the initial pressure is 800 psia, the maximum is 28% at 350400 psia. (Experience has shown that the maximum liquid recovery is often in the range of 350-450 psig.) The greatest improvement in recovery is gained through the temperature drop from the Joule-Thomson effect on the process gas, instead of through lower temperatures/pressures on the propane side of the chiller. In other words, the propane side of the chiller can be run at a higher pressure/temperature. Choking the chiller process gas outlet pressure allows the plant either to achieve a greater recovery for the same input to the propane compressor or to maintain the same recovery for less compressor power consumption. Working on the basis that the goal is to maintain the same liquid recovery, the higher pressure in the propane side of the chiller allows the savings on the propane circuit to accrue from three sources: The actual volume of propane entering the compressor suction is less. Therefore, the physical size of the machine can be less a savings in capital investment. The compression ratio on the propane compressor is considerably less. From the P-H diagram it can be seen that the proportion of liquid propane entering the chiller is greater, meaning that the propane circulation rate can be decreased.
Choking the pressure into the LTS will result in improved operation of the refrigeration unit. Besides the reduced refrigerant compression, there will be a
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smaller condenser duty, as well as changes in the reboiler duty on the deethanizer and any subsequent fractionation towers. On the other hand, it will be necessary to recompress the gas coming off the LTS back up to the line pressure that is upstream of the LTS choke valve. In determining the optimum LTS pressure, it is necessary to factor in the cost of recompressing the sales gas back to the stream pressure, the savings in refrigeration compression and the net change in value of sales gas versus NGL (or propane, butane, etc.) It is recommended that any study of choked LTS operation include an estimate of the hydrocarbon dew point of the sales gas expected at the new LTS conditions, in order to ensure that the sales gas specification is still met. If necessary, repeat the calculations.
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Appendix D
Refrigeration and Other Processes The refrigeration unit is a major component of a gas processing facility. Its energy consumption is significant and the impact upon overall product value is paramount as it is in the refrigeration unit where the essential split between sales gas and liquid product(s) is achieved. Considerable energy savings will be realized by optimizing the operation of the refrigeration unit within the context of the overall facility. Energy management studied have repeatedly pointed out the great benefits from integrating energy flows between process units. The most obvious opportunities for energy flow integration are to bring in hot streams for use as reboiler heat in the de-ethanizer, cold streams for a condensing medium in the de-ethanizer and a cool/cold stream for sub-cooling the propane. Where multiple choices exist for such duties, evaluate the candidate streams in terms of the intensity of the heat/cold, quantity of the energy, availability and whether those streams could be used more profitably elsewhere within the facility. In this section, three potential energy integration opportunities are briefly discussed: use of water for propane condensing, use of refrigeration in conjunction with lean oil absorption, use of cascaded refrigeration to achieve deep-cut separation in the sales gas.
D.1
Water for Propane Condensing
The overwhelming majority of refrigeration units in Western Canada use aerial cooling in order to condense the propane following compression. This places a considerable load on the compressor in the summer when maximum ambient temperatures are experienced. Water to the facility in the summer will generally be much cooler than ambient air. Thus the potential exists to condense the propane at a lower temperature (and pressure), thereby reducing the compressor power. Also, as outlined in Appendix A, the fraction of propane ultimately entering the chiller as liquid will increase. This means that less propane has to be circulated, again reducing power consumption. The third source of energy savings is due to the fact that a
water condenser uses an exchanger whereas an aerial cooler requires an energy-consuming fan (and associated maintenance costs). It has been estimated that water cooling reduces compression requirements by 20% compared with aerial cooling, all other conditions being equal.3 There is even the possibility of twinning water cooling (for summertime) with aerial cooling (for wintertime). The water could be a cooling water stream but that requires a cooling tower, i.e., energy input. As an alternative, water ultimately going to boiler feedwater makeup, could be used. The heat taken out in the condenser would now be retained in the overall plant energy envelope rather than rejected into the atmosphere.
D.2. Refrigeration Lean Oil Absorption

Lean oil absorption is sometimes used for recovery of NGL components. A detailed description of the process is outside the scope of this present document. Suffice it to say that the effectiveness of the lean oil absorber can be improved by reducing the temperature of the absorber. Low temperatures reduce the vapour/liquid equilibrium values, making the removal of heavier components from the gas easier. This means that lower lean oil rates are needed. When a refrigeration unit is operated in conjunction with a lean oil absorber, the refrigeration unit chiller can be used to cool the lean oil and at the same time to prepare the NGL for absorption by partially dropping out NGL this also reduces the amount of lean oil circulation. On the other hand, lower lean oil temperatures mean that there has to be increased firing on the lean oil regeneration tower. Optimization of an integrated refrigeration/lean oil absorption unit entails a tradeoff between increased power requirements for propane compression due to lower chiller pressures and decreased fuel firing on the lean oil regenerator.
D.3 Cascaded Refrigeration

Deep-cut fractionation of the sales gas, in order to remove ethane from the gas, is often done using a turbo-expander. An alternative is to use cascaded refrigeration, which involves two refrigerants. The first, such as ethane, is used to achieve the extremely low temperatures required for ethane recovery from the gas. The second, such as propane, is required in order to achieve cooling temperatures low enough to condense the first refrigerant. Both refrigeration loops operate as conventional units, except that the ethane loop condenser is the propane loop chiller. For more details on this process, the reader is referred to the GPSA Engineering Data Book, Chapter 14.
Rev Date 27/05/2008 Page 42 of 52
Appendix E
Variable Flow in Compressors The following examples illustrate the effects of varying flow in refrigeration compressors upon the potential for energy savings.
E.1
Screw Compressor
A Mycom P160 VS-M single-stage screw compressor circulates 1,596 kg/hr of propane with a suction pressure of 174.5 kPaa and a discharge pressure of 1489.7 kPaa. Power requirements are 83.4 bkW. Cutting back the circulation rate to 80% (1,277 kg/hr) by reducing the speed reduces the power requirements to 73.8 bkW, or 88.6% of the base case. Cutting back the circulation rate to 80% by reducing the suction pressure to 142.1 kPaa reduces the power requirements to 80.9 bkW, or 97.0% of the base case. The small reduction in power is due to the increased heat to the circulating oil.4
E.2
Reciprocating Compressor
The following example summarizes three methods of flow control on a propane reciprocating compressor: A small 2-stage 1800-rpm reciprocating compressor handles 14.007 e3m3/day of propane. Pressure into the first stage is 172.8 kPaa and the discharge of the second stage is 1481.4 kPaa. Stage 2 is limiting so its pocket is closed but that on Stage 1 is 29.7% open. At the overall compression efficiency of 75%, total brake power is 54.7 bkW. Refrigeration demand is reduced to 80%, or 11.205 e3m3/day. The plant has three choices for reducing compression power: Reduce the compressor speed to 1,440 rpm (0.80*1,800). Open the pockets on both stages and leave the suction and discharge pressures as is. Leave the pockets at their current positions and let the suction pressures drop until the compressor capacity is reached.
In the first choice, the power required is 43.6 bkW, or 80.0% of the original. In the second the power is 44.4 bkW, or 81.4% of the original conditions. In
Rev Date 27/05/2008 Page 43 of 52
the third choice, the stage 1 suction pressure drops to 148.8 kPaa. Power requirements are 48.1 bkW, or 88.2% of the original.5
E.3 Centrifugal Compressor

Like virtually all centrifugal machines, as the flow increases the power requirements also increase6. At the same time, the delivered head declines. Therefore, in order to meet the extreme summertime demands, where maximum head and maximum refrigerant circulation rate are needed, the machine is consequently oversized for the rest of the year. Figure E.1 shows the performance curves for the first stage of a centrifugal compressor handling propane. The major points of flow control are illustrated in the graph. Flow control on centrifugal machines is best done by slowing the machine. In the example below, the speeds are 1 and 2. Assume that the flow rate of the machine is 2,400 ACFM. The compressor will line out where the pressure developed by the machine equals the system curve, which is the process pressure that the compressor must overcome. In this case, the system curve is the vapour pressure of the propane at the condenser outlet temperature. At 2,400 ACFM the head developed is roughly 18,420 feet and the efficiency of compression is 77.4%. The required brake horsepower is 486.0 hp. Reducing the speed (from Speed 1 to Speed 2) causes the compressor flow to re-equilibrate at 2,070 ACFM and a head of 18,420 feet. The efficiency curve shifts as a consequence of the speed change. There is a loss of efficiency but less than the loss if the flow reduction had been achieved by choking in the discharge valve at the original compressor speed. An efficiency of 76.3% is assumed. This results in a power requirement of 426.2 bhp, which is 87.7% of the base case whereas the new propane circulation is 86.2% of the old. Note, when making the speed reduction, be very careful of avoiding compressor surge. Figure E.2 investigates the power savings if the ACFM flow is kept constant but the suction pressure is reduced in order to reduce the mass of propane. If the suction pressure is reduced, the required polytropic head will want to rise to reach the discharge pressure. Being a centrifugal machine, the compressor will cut back flow and could pass the surge line a situation which must be avoided at all costs. In order to prevent surge, the operators should keep the flow 10-15% higher than the surge point and drop the pressure in very small steps. In this case, a change
in suction pressure of only 4.75 kPa (0.69 psi) brought about the desired reduction in propane flow. The required power dropped to 440.1 bhp.
Performance Curves - Centrifugal Compressor
20000 78
19500
77
Polytropic Head, feet
Surge Line
18500
75
18000
74
17500
Efficiency Head - Speed 1
73
17000
72
16500
System Curve Head - Speed 2
71
16000 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
70
Flow, ACFM x 100
Figure E.1
Performance Curves Centrifugal Compressor
Performance Curves - Centrifugal Compressor

20000 78
19500
77
Polytropic Head, feet
Surge Line
18500
75
18000
74
17500
Efficiency Head - Speed 1
73
17000
72
16500
System Curve
71
16000 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
70
Flow, ACFM x 100
Figure E.2
Performance Curves Centrifugal Compressor
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Polytropic Efficiency, %
19000
76
Polytropic Efficiency, %
19000
76
It should be noted that this compressor had a second section and any changes in suction pressure would have to take into consideration the entire machine. However, this example was only to illustrate the concept that would be supplied. In summary, reduction in suction pressure is not as effective in saving energy as reducing the compressor speed. Of course, if there is no ability to change the speed, suction pressure reduction should be considered. In any event, operators must be fully cognizant of compressor surge and take action in carefullymonitored steps.
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Table E.1
Compressor Comparison Chart Compressor Type Screw Advantages Disadvantages
- Most often used in small - Must circulate high volumes refrigeration units of oil which must be prevented from entering the condenser - Can run at very low suction - Designed for a specific pressure and can deliver very compression ratio there is a high compression ratios loss of efficiency when operated above or below design - Capable of having an economizer installed - Most often used in medium - Must have multiple stages sized refrigeration units (two or three) to handle summer operation - Versatile, commonly used - Not always capable of having and well understood an economizer installed - Can be efficient over a wide - Tight flow control is not range of operating conditions always possible when refrigerant demand is reduced - Most often used in medium - Operating principle runs and large sized refrigeration counter to a refrigeration units circuit. If refrigerant discharge drops, due to lower condensing temperature, the compressor tries to supply more flow, whereas less refrigerant is required. - Can circulate large volumes - Flow control can be achieved of refrigerant by reducing the speed of the compressor but the driver will lose efficiency. This is most significant with turbines. Can handle flows from Efficiency can decrease economizers substantially as the circulation rate varies from design - Critical to circulate at a rate above the surge point and below the maximum or choke flow
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
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Appendix F
Condenser Performance
F.1
Fan and Bundle
The condenser is designed to condense propane during the hottest days of the year. For much of Western Canada, the design air temperature is 32.2C (90F) although some sites in the northern section use 26.7C (80F). When assessing the performance of an aerial cooler the most important parameter is the temperature approach the difference between the condenser outlet temperature and the ambient air temperature. Typically, the design temperature approach is 10-15 degrees Celsius (18-27 degrees Fahrenheit). In other words, if the ambient temperature is 32.2C, the condenser outlet temperature will be 42.2-47.2C. For a propane condenser, those outlet temperatures would translate to pressures of 208.3-233.3 psia. Even a 2 degree Celsius decline in approach temperature (i.e., to 12-17 degrees Celsius) due to fouling, etc., would add 10-12 psia to the discharge pressure. Condensers can lose effectiveness for a wide variety of reasons: Fouling. Poplar fluff, chaff, dust, animal matter can lead to considerable fouling. Water on the tubes will also leave scale and cause corrosion where there are different metals for the fins and tubes. Damage. Care should be taken so that the fins on the tube bundles are not damaged. Fin Delamination. This can occur when cold water is sprayed onto a hot bundle. The use of water spray is a common practice in an effort to improve cooling. The result is short-term and can lead to later problems. The water causes the fin to pop off the tube, leaving a small gap which reduces heat transfer from the tube into the air stream via the fins.7 Unfortunately, once it occurs, delamination cannot be reversed. The damage occurs when cold water is sprayed on the hot tubes. Some plants attempt to get around this by spraying the water underneath the fan and being drawn up through the bundle. In this case, the cold water contacts colder tubes minimizing delamination. It is recommended that the aerial cooler manufacturer be contacted when considering the use of water spray. Reduced Air Flow. This can occur if the fan pitch has not been properly set. Very often, the pitch is adjusted before winter in order to minimize air flow during very cold weather and readjusted for summertime air flow. Inefficient Air Flow. This occurs when there is a large gap between the fan blades and the fan housing. The result is an actual downflow of air
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through the fan. reversal.
Damage to the fan blades can also cause this flow
Proximity to Other Coolers. Studies by cooler manufacturers and some plants have shown that air exiting an adjacent cooler (or a heat source) can be drawn into the inlet of an aerial cooler.
F.2
Refrigerant Purity
It is important to know the purity of the circulating refrigerant. The purity affects the temperature-pressure relationship in the refrigerant receiver or accumulator; in the economizer (if there is one); and in the chiller or evaporator. Figure F.1 illustrates this concept, using propane as the refrigerant. The operation of the condenser is dictated by the bubble point curve. The operation of the chiller is dictated by the dew point curve. For pure propane, these two curves are identical. In Figure F.1 the temperature-pressure curve for pure propane is shown in bold font. The dashed line to the right of the pure propane line is the bubble point curve for typical industrial-grade propane as would be used in a plant. (The dew point curve lies, coincidently, virtually on top of the pure propane line.) The dashed line to the left of the pure propane line is the dew point for propane contaminated by butanes. (In this case, the bubble point curve is virtually identical to the pure propane curve.)
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Propane Temperature-Pressure Equilibrium

120 Pure Propane 100
Bubble Point - Industrial Propane
80
Temperature, F
60
Dew Point - Propane with C4's
40
20
0 0 -20 Assumes Patm = 13.5 psia -40 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Pressure, psig
Figure F.1
Propane Temperature-Pressure Equilibrium In summary, if the contaminants are lighter than propane (methane and/or ethane) the curve shifts to the right, meaning that for a given outlet temperature from the condenser, the compressor discharge pressure will be higher. Some reciprocating compressors cannot handle significant quantities of impurities during warm weather because they are limited in the compression ratio that they can deliver.8 On the other hand, if the contaminants are heavier (butanes and/or pentanes) the pressure in the chiller will be much lower for the same chiller temperature. This in turn, significantly affects the compression ratio and thus the power required. It should be pointed out that, if the contaminants include both butane (and heavier) and ethane (and lighter), the butanes will probably be drained from the circuit, most likely from the suction scrubber. This could result in an increase in ethane concentration and a rise in power requirements. Contaminants will also affect the amount of refrigerant entering the chiller as liquid, which, in turn, affects the amount of refrigeration that can be achieved. However, this impact is usually very small and can be ignored in most day-to-day operation unless the amount of contamination is very large or if the contaminant is very light (such as methane).
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If contaminants are found, they can be removed by either: venting the light ends from the receiver. draining the heavy contaminants from a de-oiler (also known as an oil reclaimer). This can consist of a boot in the chiller or as a small separator upstream of the chiller9.
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Appendix G
References The following documents were referenced while preparing this Best Management Practice. http://www.patchingassociates.com/lan/newsletter_10.htm, Patching Associates Newsletter #10, March 1999 Improving Operational Efficiency [name withheld] Gas Plant Pilot Audit; prepared for [name withheld]; prepared by CETAC-West; Calgary, AB; February 24, 2003 GPSA Engineering Data Book, 11th Edition, Chapters 14 and 24; Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa, OK; 1998 Schaums Theory and Problems Thermodynamics for Engineers; by M.C. Potter and C.W. Somerton; McGraw-Hill Inc., 1995, page 71 Mycom 3.22ep; Screw Performance 3-22; Recip Performance 3.2; Mayekawa Mfg. Co. Ltd; 1998-11-04.
Endnotes
Power consumption and refrigeration effect values found using the Mycom 3.22ep software. P-H diagram from GPSA Engineering Data Book, 11th Edition, Figure 24-27, with refrigeration loop overlaid on it in Figures A.3, A.5, A.6.. 3 http://www.patchingassociates.com/lan/newsletters/newsletter_10.htm, March 1999 4 Mycom 3.22ep; Screw Performance 3-22; Recip Performance 3-2; Mayekawa Mfg. Co. Ltd.; 1998-11-04 5 Based upon GPSA calculation techniques outlined in the Engineering Data Book, 8th, 9th and 10th Editions. 6 The word virtually is used because very large centrifugal pumps sometimes have sections of their pump curves, towards the end of their capacity, where the required power levels off and may even decrease. 7 http://www.patchingassociates.com/lan/newsletters/newsletter_010.htm 8 Mycom 3.22 ep 9 GPSA Engineering Data Book, 11th Edition, Figure 14-26.
2
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May 2008

Table of Contents 1. Applicability and Objectives .......................................... 1 2. Fundamentals of Refrigeration ...................................... 2

3. Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping................ 4 4. Efficiency Assessment and Adjustments..................... 7

5. Facility Engineering Input .............................................17

1. Ga 2. ther Pu ing Sy 3. mpj s Pn ac ks tem eu s 4. m at Fl ic ar ing Ins 5.

MODULE 13 of 17: Refrigeration

ire d H En ea n Pu m gin ter ps 8. s Co es m p 9. Gl ress io yc 10 ol n .D De es icc hyd 11 an r .F t D ato ue rs eh lG y 7.

Applicability and Objectives

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Energy Consumption Targets

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficiency Assessment and Adjustments

Confirm Measurement Accuracy

Repair, Replace, Install

Set Study Goals

Compressor (Section 3.1) Condenser (Section 3.2)

Economizer (Section 3.3) Subcooler (Section 3.4)

N N Discard Data Analysis/ Reconciliation Y

Chiller/LTS (Section 3.5) Piping (Section 3.6)

Identify Opportunities/ Calculate Benchmark

Form Refrig'n Unit Energy Mgmt Team

Determine/Confirm Operating Targets

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Chiller and Low Temperature Separator

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Refrigerant Circuit Piping

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Facility Engineering Input

Strategic Goals and Operating Parameters

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Retrofits and New Units

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Refrigeration Units Module 13 of 17

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Simple Refrigeration Cycle