REPORT ON MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPT

To,
B.M. RAZZAK Faculty of Business Northern University of Bangladesh

By,
Harun or Rashid ( L ) Id.BBA05021382 Md.Asaduzzaman Id.BBA050201392 Golam Mostofa Id.BBA050201398 Ismail Hossain Id. BBA050201364 Amzad Hossain Id. BBA050201380 Sohorab Hossain Id. BBA050201354

Section: D

Date of Submission: 26/05/07

Letter of Transmittal
Feb, 26. 2007. To BM. RAZZAK Course Teacher Organizational Behavior Department of Business Administration Northern University, Bangladesh. Subject: Submission of Repot on Motivational Concept of Organizational Behavior. Dear Sir, We, the student of Organizational Behavior course are here by presenting you Motivational Concept. It is a great pleasure for us to present you the Motivational concept as a requirement of the course. To prepare this Motivational Concept we have tried to maintain your guidelines from several discussions. The whole experience of this Motivational Concept enables us to bridge the gap between classroom and real life situation to a great content. Here, we want to declare that, the Motivational Concept is uniquely prepared by us and we would be happy to provide further clarification regarding this Motivational Concept whenever necessary. We have tried our level best to submit this paper within the short time frame. Hope our effort on writing this Motivational Concept could serve you as a factual source of information. Thanking you for providing us with such opportunity. Thank you. Sincerely Md.Asaduzzaman Id.BBA050201392 Golam Mostofa Id.BBA050201398 Harun or Rashid Id.BBA05021382 Ismail Hossain Id. BBA050201364 Amzad Hossain Id.BBA050201380 Sohorab Hossain Id. BBA050201354

Acknowledgement
We the students of Northern University Bangladesh completing 6th semester. We are working for several days to prepare the Motivational Concept as a course requirement. All students of our section D and most of the employers of the several organizations have done a real service and helped a lot to our Motivational Concept with their time and effort. With the help of those efforts we able to prepare this Motivational Concept there is no doubt that our report would become a batter on with their help. We would like to thank the entire student who helped a lot in preparing this report. Last but not least over riding debt goes to Lecturer, BM. RAZZAK Sir for giving us this grateful opportunity to work on such an important subject. This would definitely help us to build and develop ourselves as a team player in the future. Besides this he has also guided us through the total Motivational Concept. So we are very grateful to him.

Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CHAPTER-1: Introduction 1.1 Statement of the research problem 1.2 Scope and Objectives of the Study 1.3 Methodology CHAPTER-2: Discussion 2.1 Overview of the problem: 2.1.1 Mission and Vision 2.2 Motivation: Defined 2.3 Motivation Theories 2.4 The motivation process 2.5 Types of theories 2.6 Maslow's Need Hierarchy 2.7 McGregor's theory X and theory Y 2.8 Herberg's two-factor theory 2.9 Alderfer's ERG theory 2.10 McClellands Need Theory
2.11 OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS

2.11.1 Goal Setting Theory 2.11.2 Vroom's Expectancy Model CHAPTER-3 Findings and Analysis 3.1 Results and Discussion 3.2 Reinforcement Contingencies CHAPTER-4 Recommendation and Conclusion 4.1 Recommendations 4.2 Conclusion

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator.

CHAPTER-1: Introduction

1.1 Statement of the research problem

The purpose of this study was to describe the importance of certain factors in motivating employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center. Specifically, the study sought to describe the ranked importance of the following ten motivating factors: (a) Job security, (b) Sympathetic help with personal problems, (c) Personal loyalty to employees, (d) Interesting work, (e) Good working conditions, (f) Tactful discipline, (g) Good wages, (h) Promotions and growth in the organization, (i) Feeling of being in on things, and (j) Full appreciation of work done. A secondary purpose of the study was to compare

1.2

Scope and Objectives of the study

The scope and objectives of the Motivations are portrayed below: Gather knowledge and information how an organization perform their task and what are the efficient and effective procedures for motivating market environment. To determine the facts that would be considered and opportunities of market, culture, business system, global marketing, products and services, marketing channels, International transportation and communication, pricing policy of the company. To mitigate or balance the subject knowledge and practical experiences that enable for doing business in international market.

1.3 Methodology

The subject of Organizational Behavior plays a good role for the students of Bachelor of Business Administration, for the well fare of practical knowledge about business. We the students of BBA need to have a vast experience about the business concern continuing around us and to make a good communication in between text knowledge and practical experience. For that reason we were imposed by our course teacher BM.RAZZAK.For any research methodology is very important. Without adopting proper methods it is difficult to conduct a successful research. The optimum outcome of the research depends largely upon the adopting of the proper methods suitable to the research topic in the field of investigation. There are two types of method are followsI) Primary Method ii) Secondary Method i) Primary Method: Prepares this report the information has been collected by directly interviewing employees of a company. ii) Secondary Method: For prepare this report the information also has been collected by # Searching Internet. # Search out the company Web-Site through Internet. # Personal Interview of the officers of the company

1.4 Limitation of the study

We have more limitations for complete this report these are follows: 1. Poor conception of the interview lack of knowledge of the despondence was the major problem that created much Confusion regarding verification of information. 2. Lack of time 3. Maintain confidentiality 4. Scope of this study. 5. Lack of Lab facilities.

CHAPTER-2: Discussion

2.1 Overview of the problem:

Motivation is how can get action toward personal or organizational goals. However, sometimes it becomes difficult to understand. This is because of individuals have different motives, motives change over time and motives conflict with one another. There are several approaches to motivation, which play a crucial role in the organization. These are Maslows Hierarchy, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory, and Goal Setting. Among these theories, the most important is expectancy theory. Hence, motivation in an organization helps in determining the success or failure of the organization.

2.1.1 VISION AND MISSION

The vision and the mission of an organization emerge from important social, economic, spiritual and political values. They are meant to inspire and promote organizational loyalty. Vision and mission are those parts of an organization that appeal to the heart; that is, they represent the organizations emotional appeal. They motivate people and draw upon staff and stakeholders hopes and aspirations. In this sense, the vision and mission of an organization provide inspirational motivation. Clarifying the vision and mission are important in both private and public sector organizations. Private sector organizations often identify the importance of serving their customers, and have created visions and missions to support this theme. In the public sphere, schools, hospitals and even line ministries have begun to see their roles in terms of service to the public, and have developed vision and mission statements that support such ideas. At issue for many organizations is not only to write but to then live the statements. When vision and mission statements are not lived up to, the result is not to enhance motivation but to foster cynicism. Assessing an organizations motivation primarily involves looking at its mission, since this is more closely linked to what the organization wants to do. However, in examining the mission, the link to the larger vision, as well as more operational components, must also be assessed.

2.2 Motivation: Defined

Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can be defined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work, according to Schermerhorn, ET al.this is an excellent working definition for use in business. Now that we understand what motivation is, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and then a look at some of the theories on motivation. Motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior induced by the expectation of satisfying individual needs. Motivation is the set of processes that moves a person toward a goal. Thus, motivated behaviors are voluntary choices controlled by the individual employee. The supervisor (motivator) wants to influence the factors that motivate employees to higher levels of productivity. Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). For this paper, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals.

2.3 Motivation Theories

Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra, 1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two- factor theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory. According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943): physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction. Vroom's theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). Rewards may be either positive or negative. The more positive the reward the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be motivated.

Adams' theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs is equal to other employee outcomes over inputs (Adams, 1965). Skinner's theory simply states those employees' behaviors that lead to positive outcomes will be repeated and behaviors that lead to negative outcomes will not be repeated (Skinner, 1953). Managers should positively reinforce employee behaviors that lead to positive outcomes. Managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads to negative outcomes.

2.4 The motivation process

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of tension => new unsatisfied needs

2.5 Types of theories

(1) Need-based theories

Maslow's need hierarchy McGregor's Theory X and Theory Herzberg's two-factor theory Alderfer's ERG theory McClelland's need theory

(2). Process-based theory

Equity theory Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory Reinforcement theory: Attribution theory

(3) Individual-organizational goal-congruence theories

Exchange

Accommodation Socialization Identification

2.6 Maslow's Need Hierarchy

(1) A hierarchy of five basic needs

Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm Social needs: affection, belongingness, love, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem needs: internal esteem (self-respect, autonomy, achievement), and external esteem (status, recognition, attention, power, and face) Needs for self-actualization: the drive to best realize one's potential, including potential in personal growth, achievements, and self-fulfillment.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as a hierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated need last. People move up the hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose their strength and the next level of needs is activated. As basic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higherlevel needs become operative. A satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is the one that has not been satisfied. Abraham Maslow first presented the five-tier hierarchy in 1942 to a psychoanalytic society and published it in 1954 in Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row). Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water, and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees' physiological needs by a paycheck. Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm. The organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by benefits. Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and belonging. The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs through sports teams, parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showing direct care and concern for employees. Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from others. The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteem needs by matching the skills and abilities of the employee to the job. The supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by showing workers that their work is appreciated.

Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and the realization of the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs by assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds while drawing on their aptitude and training.

Low-order needs: physiological and safety needs, they are satisfied externally (payment, unions) High-order needs: social, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they are satisfied internally. (2). Basic assumptions:

A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates It is the lowest level of ungratified need in the hierarchy that motivates behavior As a lower level of need is met, a person moves up to the next level of needs as a source of motivation

(3).The socio-cultural construction of need hierarchy

2.7 McGregor's theory X and theory Y

Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and much be coerced to perform. Theory Y: the assumptions that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibilities, and can excise self-direction. Theory X: assumes that lower-order needs motivate individual behavior. Theory Y: assumes that higher-order needs motivate individual behavior.

2.8 Herberg's two-factor theory

(1). Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction Traditional view: Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view: Satisfaction No satisfaction No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction (2). Two factors Motivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are mostly extrinsic factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, work condition, and salary. Management implications: job enlargement & enrichment, empowerment, and participative management Criticism:

Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high motivation Attribute theory as an explanation

2.9 Alderfer's ERG theory

(1). Three groups of core needs

Existence needs: physiological and safety needs Relatedness needs: the desire foe maintaining important interpersonal relationships: social needs, and the external components of the esteem needs Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsic component of esteem, and self-actualization

(2). Basic assumptions:

Satisfied low-order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order needs. Multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time. Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower need.

Alderfer developed the ERG theory of motivation in response to criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy. ERG stands for existence, relatedness, and growth needs ERG theory. Existence needs are satisfied by food and water pay fringe benefits and working conditions. Relatedness needs are satisfied by relationships with co workers, superiors family and friends. Growth needs cover the need to advance and develop. As with Maslow's theory, assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy, but it has two important differences: ERG theory suggests that more than one level of needs can cause motivation at the same time; ERG theory has a frustration-regression element that suggests that if needs remain unsatisfied at some high level; the individual will become frustrated, regress to a lower level, and begin to pursue lower-level needs again.

2.10 McClellands Need Theory

McClelland's Learned Needs divides motivation into needs for power, affiliation, and achievement. Achievement motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. They like to be able to control the situations in which they are involved. They take moderate risks. They like to get immediate feedback on how they have done. They tend to be preoccupied with a task-orientation towards the job to be done.

Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to set a higher goal, to seek higher responsibility, and to strive to succeed Seek personal responsibility Seek feedback on their performance Seek moderate risks and goals

Power motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to seize control or dominate others. They love to influence others. They like to change situations whether or not it is needed. They are willing to assert themselves when a decision needs to be made. Need for power: the desire to have impact on, to influence and control the behavior of others.
o o

Socialized power: used for social benefits Personalized power: used for personal gain

Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others. This may distract them from their performance requirements. They will usually respond to an appeal for cooperation. Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others.

2.11 OTHER APPROACHES ORGANISATIONS.

TO

MOTIVATION

IN

2.11.1 Goal Setting Theory

This approach suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for the individual on a regular basis and that rewards should be tied to the accomplishment of goals. Research support for goal-setting theory is more consistently favorable than any other single approach to employee motivation.

2.11.2 Vroom's Expectancy Model

Suggests that people choose among alternative behaviors because they anticipate that particular behaviors will lead to one or more desired outcomes and that other behaviors will lead to undesirable outcomes. Expectancy theory Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is based on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom. This framework states basically that motivation plus effort leads to performance, which then leads to outcomes. According to this theory, three conditions must be met for individuals to exhibit motivated behavior: Effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero; Performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than zero; and The sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater than zero. Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception of the probability that effort will lead to high performance. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a strong belief that effort will lead to high performance. Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-tooutcome expectancy would be 1 or close to it.

Equity theory It is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair or equitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similar outcomes. Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their efforts. If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are likely to withhold some of their contributions, either consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance.

CHAPTER-3 Findings and Analysis

3.1 Results and Discussion
The ranked order of motivating factors were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c) full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f) promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personal problems. A comparison of these results to Maslow's need-hierarchy theory provides some interesting insight into employee motivation. The number one ranked motivator, interesting work, is a self-actualizing factor. The number two ranked motivator, good wages, is a physiological factor. The number three ranked motivator, full appreciation of work done, is an esteem factor. The number four ranked motivator, job security, is a safety factor. Therefore, according to Maslow (1943), if managers wish to address the most important motivational factor of Centers' employees, interesting work, physiological, safety, social, and esteem factors must first be satisfied. If managers wished to address the second most important motivational factor of centers' employees, good pay, increased pay would suffice. Contrary to what Maslow's theory suggests, the range of motivational factors are mixed in this study. Maslow's conclusions that lower level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not confirmed by this study. The following example compares the highest ranked motivational factor (interesting work) to Vroom's expectancy theory. Assume that a Centers employee just attended a staff meeting where he/she learned a major emphasis would be placed on seeking additional external program funds. Additionally, employees who are successful in securing funds will be given more opportunities to explore their own research and extension interests (interesting work). Employees who do not secure additional funds will be required to work on research and extension programs identified by the director. The employee realizes that the more research he/she does regarding funding sources and the more proposals he/she writes, the greater the likelihood he/she will receive external funding. Because the state legislature has not increased appropriations to the centers for the next two years (funds for independent research and extension projects will be scaled back), the employee sees a direct relationship between performance (obtaining external funds) and rewards (independent research and Extension projects). Further, the employee went to work for the centers, in part, because of the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. The employee will be motivated if he/she is successful in obtaining external funds and given the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. On the other hand, motivation will be diminished if the employee is

successful in obtaining external funds and the director denies the request to conduct independent research and Extension projects. The following example compares the third highest ranked motivational factor (full appreciation of work done) to Adams's equity theory. If an employee at the centers feels that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, as being too low relative to another employee, an inequity may exist and the employee will be dis-motivated. Further, if all the employees at the centers feel that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, inequity may exist. Adams (1965) stated employees will attempt to restore equity through various means, some of which may be counter- productive to organizational goals and objectives. For instance, employees who feel their work is not being appreciated may work less or undervalue the work of other employees. This final example compares the two highest motivational factors to Herzberg's twofactor theory. The highest ranked motivator, interesting work, is a motivator factor. The second ranked motivator, good wages is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman (1959) stated that to the degree that motivators are present in a job, motivation will occur. The absence of motivators does not lead to dissatisfaction. Further, they stated that to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job, dissatisfaction will occur. When present, hygienes prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. In our example, the lack of interesting work (motivator) for the centers' employees would not lead to dissatisfaction. Paying centers' employees lower wages (hygiene) than what they believe to be fair may lead to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, employees will be motivated when they are doing interesting work and but will not necessarily be motivated by higher pay. The discussion above, about the ranked importance of motivational factors as related to motivational theory, is only part of the picture. The other part is how these rankings compare with related research. A study of industrial employees, conducted by Kovach (1987), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) full appreciation of work done, and (c) feeling of being in on things. Another study of employees, conducted by Harpaz (1990), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, and (c) job security. In this study and the two cited above, interesting work ranked as the most important motivational factor. Pay was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Kovach (1987), but was ranked second in this research and by Harpaz (1990). Full appreciation of work done was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Harpaz (1990), but was ranked second in this research and by Kovach (1987). The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates employees differs given the context in which the employee works. What is clear, however, is that employees rank interesting work as the most important motivational factor.

3.2 Reinforcement Contingencies.

Reinforcement contingencies are the possible outcomes that an individual may experience as a result of his or her choice of behavior. There are four of these: positive reinforcement, avoidance, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement is a reward or a positive outcome after a desired behavior is performed; it serves to strengthen behavior. Avoidance occurs when the individual chooses a behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences; it can strengthen desired behavior. Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken undesired behavior. Extinction is ending undesired behavior by ignoring and not reinforcing it.

Providing Reinforcement There are four approaches to providing reinforcement.

o o o o

A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement at fixed intervals of time, regardless of behavior. A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement at varying time intervals. A fixed-ration schedule gives reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of the time that has elapsed between behaviors. A variable-ration schedule varies the number of behaviors needed for each reinforcement and is the most powerful schedule for maintaining desired behaviors.

CHAPTER-4 Recommendation and Conclusion

4.1 Recommendations
As we developed our approach to analyzing organizations, it became apparent to us that organizations, like people, have different personalities and work in different rhythms. We were often surprised at how well some organizations seem to work under incredibly difficult circumstances, while others are continually failing to perform under much more favorable conditions. Why? And why do people in some organizations seem to throw themselves at their work with tremendous zeal, while in others, they come to work and do as little as possible? Why is it that some organizations have a vision that puts them in the forefront of innovation, while others are always lagging behind, not knowing where they are going? The ideas associated with organizational motivation help provide insight into why organizations and the people inside them behave the way they do. For almost a century now, organizational analysts have pondered the issue of why some individuals are more motivated than others (Maslow, 1997). A great deal can be learned from this literature about the types of working conditions that support or hinder how individuals in organizations perform. Only over the past 20 years has interest shifted from simply understanding the individuals role in organizational motivation, to some of the underlying personality aspects of the organization itself (Bloor and Dawson, 1994). Although organizational motivation is manifested in a variety of ways, four primary concepts provide insight into the underlying personality of most organizations: history, mission, culture and incentives.

4.2 Conclusion
Motivation management is a modern, practical approach that will be useful to management trainers and trainees. Also, it will be a good guide in solving motivation problems within an organization.In reality, it does not add significantly to the theories of Pavlov, Maslow, McClelland, Herzberg, and Vroom. It seems to borrow a little from each of their works on motivation. Motivation is a continuous challenge among managers today. The problems and solutions to motivation problems can be complex to say the least. Tools and ideas are available to managers and leaders to help with motivation. Studying the timeless theories of Herzberg, McClelland, Vroom, Pavlov, and Maslow can provide ideas and solutions to motivation problems. Motivation management and the individual motivation profile are also useful tools in discovering how to motivate certain individuals. Improving motivation starts with employee selection and high organizational expectations. Managers that utilize these tools and ideas can be successful motivators

Bibliography:
Organizational Behavior, 10th ED By Stephen P. Robbins http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.html. Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org.

Appendices:

Methods of Motivation: Yesterday and Today By Brian C. Young Introduction Motivation: Defined Methods for Managers to Gauge Motivation Probability A Brief Look at Motivation Theories of the Early and Mid Nineteenth Century A Look at a More Recent Theory Comparison Between the Two Generations Conclusions Reference Introduction What is motivation?What factors influence motivation and, therefore need to be addressed?How does a supervisor or manager motivate employees to do their best?Can it be done using the older, mid-twentieth century theories of Maslow, McClelland, Herzberg, Vroom and Pavlov in todays business world?Or, should theories based on more modern research, which is more up to date, be used?The challenge of an organizations leaders and mangers to motivate is extremely complex.They must find out what works for them in their situation in their respective organizations.We will look at the traditional theories from the early to mid twentieth century.We will see how they can still be applied in business today.We will also analyze a more modern theory, which may be more applicable today.We will compare the two generations of theories.There is probably no absolute to this study, because both generations of theories have many parallels to each other.We will attempt to answer all of the preceding questions in the pages to follow. Top Of Page Motivation:Defined Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can be

defined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work, according to Schermerhorn, et al.This is an excellent working definition for use in business.Now that we understand what motivation is, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and then a look at some of the theories on motivation. Motivation in Organization

1. Definition: motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior

induced by the expectation of satisfying individual needs

2. The motivation process

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of tension => New unsatisfied needs

3. Types of theories
(1) Need-based theories

Maslow's need hierarchy McGregor's Theory X and Theory Herzberg's two-factor theory Alderfer's ERG theory McClelland's need theory

(2). Process-based theory

Equity theory Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory Reinforcement theory: Attribution theory

(3) Individual-organizational goal-congruence theories

Exchange Accommodation Socialization Identification

4. Maslow's Need Hierarchy

(1) A hierarchy of five basic needs

Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm Social needs: affection, belongingness, love, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem needs: internal esteem (self-respect, autonomy, achievement), and external esteem (status, recognition, attention, power, and face) Needs for self-actualization: the drive to best realize one's potential, including potential in personal growth, achievements, and self-fulfillment.

Low-order needs: physiological and safety needs, they are satisfied externally (payment, unions) High-order needs: social, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they are satisfied internally. (2). Basic assumptions:

A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates It is the lowest level of ungratified need in the hierarchy that motivates behavior As a lower level of need is met, a person moves up to the next level of needs as a source of motivation

(3). The socio-cultural construction of need hierarchy

5. Alderfer's ERG theory

(1). Three groups of core needs

Existence needs: physiological and safety needs Relatedness needs: the desire foe maintaining important interpersonal relationships: social needs, and the external components of the esteem needs Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsic component of esteem, and self-actualization

(2). Basic assumptions:

Satisfied low-order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order needs. Multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time. Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower need.

6. McGregor's theory X and theory Y

Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and much be coerceded to perform. Theory Y: the assumptions that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibilities, and can excise self-direction.

Theory X: assumes that lower-order needs motivate individual behavior. Theory Y: assumes that higher-order needs motivate individual behavior.

Management implications?

7. Herberg's two-factor theory

(1). Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Traditional view: Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view: Satisfaction No satisfaction No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

(2). Two factors

Motivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are mostly extrinsic factors such as compony policy and administration, supervision, work condition, and salary. Management implications: job enlargement & enrichment, empowerment, and participative management

Criticism:

Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high motivation Attribute theory as an explanation

8. McClelland's Need Theory

Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to set a higher goal, to seek higher responsibility, and to strive to succeed.

The characteristics of a higher achiever:

Seek personal responsibility Seek feedback on their performance Seek moderate risks and goals Need for power: the desire to have impact on, to influence and control the behavior of others. o Socialized power: used for social benefits o Personalized power: used for personal gain Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others.

Discussion: the role of money in motivation: argument and counter-argument.

Expectancy Theory. Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is based on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom. This framework states basically that motivation plus effort leads to performance, which then leads to outcomes. According to this theory, three conditions must be met for individuals to exhibit motivated behavior:
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effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero; performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than zero; and the sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater than zero. Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception of the probability that effort will lead to high performance. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a strong belief that effort will lead to high performance. Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-to-outcome expectancy would be 1 or close to it. Outcomes are consequences of behavior. An individual may experience a variety of outcomes in an organizational setting. Each outcome has an associated valance, which is an index of how much an individual desires a particular outcome. An outcome that an individual wants has a positive valance. An outcome that the individual does not want has a negative valance. When the individual is indifferent to the outcome, the valance is zero. Porter and Lawler extended the basic expectancy model by suggesting that high performance may cause high satisfaction. When performance results in various extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, the individual evaluates the equity of these various rewards relative to the effort expended and the level of performance attained. The individual is satisfied if the rewards relative to the effort expended and the level of performance attained. The individual is satisfied if the rewards are felt to be fair.

Implications for managers: Nadler and Lawler suggest how managers can apply the basic ideas of expectancy theory. Managers should first determine the outcomes each employee is likely to want. Then they should decide what kinds and levels of performance are needed to meet organizational goals, making sure that the desired levels of performance are attainable. Managers then need to ensure that desired outcomes and desired performance are linked. Finally, the rewards need to be large enough, and the total system needs to be equitable.

Equity Theory. Equity theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, suggests that once an individual has chosen an action that is expected to satisfy his or her needs, the individual assesses the equity or fairness of the outcome. Equity is an individual's beliefs that he or she is being treated fairly relative to the treatment of others.

Three attitudes are possible: an individual may feel equitably rewarded, underrewarded, or overrewarded. When individuals feel underrewarded or overrewarded, they will do something to reduce the inequity. The single most important thing to remember about equity theory is that if rewards are to motivate employees, they must be perceived as being equitable and fair. REINFORCEMENT-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION. These approaches to motivation explain the role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same. Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated. Expectancy theory and reinforcement theory are similar in that both consider the processes by which an individual chooses behaviors in a particular situation. However, expectancy theory focuses more on behavior choices, and reinforcement theory focuses more on the consequences of those choices.

Reinforcement Contingencies. Reinforcement contingencies are the possible outcomes that an individual may experience as a result of his or her choice of behavior. There are four of these : positive reinforcement, avoidance, punishment, and extinction.
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Positive reinforcement is a reward or a positive outcome after a desired behavior is performed; it serves to strengthen behavior. Avoidance occurs when the individual chooses a behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences; it can strengthen desired behavior. Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken undesired behavior. Extinction is ending undesired behavior by ignoring and not reinforcing it. Providing Reinforcement There are four approaches to providing reinforcement.

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A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement at fixed intervals of time, regardless of behavior. A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement at varying time intervals. A fixed-ration schedule gives reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of the time that has elapsed between behaviors.

A variable-ration schedule varies the number of behaviors needed for each reinforcement and is the most powerful schedule for maintaining desired behaviors.

OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS. Goal Setting Theory. This approach suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for the individual on a regular basis and that rewards should be tied to the accomplishment of goals. Research support for goal-setting theory is more consistently favorable than any other single approach to

Theories of Motivation Many methods of employee motivation have been developed. The study of work motivation has focused on the motivator (supervisor) as well as the motivatee (employee). Motivation theories are important to supervisors attempting to be effective leaders. Two primary approaches to motivation are content and process. The content approach to motivation focuses on the assumption that individuals are motivated by the desire to fulfill inner needs. Content theories focus on the needs that motivate people. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as a hierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated need last. People move up the hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose their strength and the next level of needs is activated. As basic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative. A satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is the one that has not been satisfied. Abraham Maslow first presented the five-tier hierarchy in 1942 to a psychoanalytic society and published it in 1954 in Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row). Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water, and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees' physiological needs by a paycheck. Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm. The organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by benefits.

Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and belonging. The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs through sports teams, parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showing direct care and concern for employees. Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from others. The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteem needs by matching the skills and abilities of the employee to the job. The supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by showing workers that their work is appreciated. Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and the realization of the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill selfactualization needs by assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds while drawing on their aptitude and training.

Alderfer's ERG identified three categories of needs. The most important contribution of the ERG model is the addition of the frustration-regression hypothesis, which holds that when individuals are frustrated in meeting higher level needs, the next lower level needs reemerge. Existence needs are the desires for material and physical well being. These needs are satisfied with food, water, air, shelter, working conditions, pay, and fringe benefits. Relatedness needs are the desires to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. These needs are satisfied with relationships with family, friends, supervisors, subordinates, and co-workers. Growth needs are the desires to be creative, to make useful and productive contributions and to have opportunities for personal development. McClelland's Learned Needs divides motivation into needs for power, affiliation, and achievement.

Achievement motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. They like to be able to control the situations in which they are involved. They take moderate risks. They like to get immediate feedback on how they have done. They tend to be preoccupied with a task-orientation towards the job to be done. Power motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to seize control or dominate others. They love to influence others. They like to change situations whether or not it is needed. They are willing to assert themselves when a decision needs to be made. Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others. This may distract them from their performance requirements. They will usually respond to an appeal for cooperation. Watch the videos. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory describes needs in terms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Frederick Herzberg examined motivation in the light of job content and contest. (See Work an the Nature of Man, Crowell Publications, 1966.) Motivating employees is a two-step process. First provide hygienes and then motivators. One continuum ranges from no satisfaction to satisfaction. The other continuum ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content, such as achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, and growth possibilities. Herzberg uses the term motivators for job satisfiers since they involve job content and the satisfaction that results from them. Motivators are considered job turn-ons. They are necessary for substantial improvements in work performance and move the employee beyond satisfaction to superior performance. Motivators correspond to Maslow's higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization. Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors, extrinsic or job context, are not present on the job: pay, status, job security, working conditions, company policy, peer relations, and supervision. Herzberg uses the term hygiene for these factors because they are preventive in nature. They will not produce motivation, but they can prevent motivation from occurring. Hygiene factors can be considered job stay-ons because they encourage an employee to stay on a job. Once these factors are provided, they do not necessarily promote motivation; but their absence can create employee dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow's physiological, safety, and social needs in that they are extrinsic, or peripheral, to the job. They are present in the work environment of job context. Motivation comes from the employee's feelings of accomplishment or job content rather than from the environmental factors or job context. Motivators encourage an employee to strive to do his or her best. Job enrichment can be used to meet higher-level needs. To enrich a job, a supervisor can introduce new or more

difficult tasks, assign individuals specialized tasks that enable them to become experts, or grant additional authority to employees.

Watch the videos.

The process approach emphasizes how and why people choose certain behaviors in order to meet their personal goals. Process theories focus on external influences or behaviors that people choose to meet their needs. External influences are often readily accessible to supervisors. Vroom's Expectancy Model suggests that people choose among alternative behaviors because they anticipate that particular behaviors will lead to one or more desired outcomes and that other behaviors will lead to undesirable outcomes. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to first-order outcomes, any work-related behavior that is the direct result of the effort an employee expends on a job. Equity is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair or equitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similar outcomes. Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their efforts. If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are

likely to withhold some of their contributions, either consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance. For example, if someone thinks he or she is not getting enough pay (output) for his or her work (input), he or she will try to get that pay increased or reduce the amount of work he or she is doing. On the other hand, when a worker thinks he or she is being paid too much for the work he or she is doing, he or she tends to increase the amount of work. Not only do workers compare their own inputs and outputs; they compare their input/output ratio with the input/output ratio of other workers. If one work team believes they are doing more work than a similar team for the same pay, their sense of fairness will be violated and they will tend to reduce the amount of work they are doing. It is a normal human inclination to want things to be fair. Bowditch and Buono note (see Bowditch, James L. and Anthony F. Buono, A Primer on Organizational Behavior, 4th, John Wiley & Sons, 1997) that while equity theory was originally concerned with differences in pay, it may be applied to other forms of tangible and intangible rewards in the workplace. That is, if any input is not balanced with some fair output, the motivation process will be difficult. Supervisors must manage the perception of fairness in the mind of each employee. If subordinates think they are not being treated fairly, it is difficult to motivate them.

Reinforcement involves four types of consequence. Positive reinforcement creates a pleasant consequence by using rewards to increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Negative reinforcement occurs when a person engages in behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences or to escape from existing unpleasant consequences. Punishment is an attempt to discourage a target behavior by the application of negative outcomes whenever it is possible. Extinction is the absence of any reinforcement, either positive or negative, following the occurrence of a target behavior. Employees have questions about

their jobs. Can I do what management is asking me to do? If I do the job, will I be rewarded? Will the reward I receive be satisfactory to me? Reinforcement is based primarily on the work of B.F. Skinner, a psychologist, who experimented with the theories of operant conditioning. Skinner's work shows that many behaviors can be controlled through the use of rewards. In fact, a person might be influenced to change his or her behavior by giving him or her rewards. Employees who do an exceptionally good job on a particular project should be rewarded for that performance. It will motivate them to try to do an exceptional job on their next project. Employees must associate the reward with the behavior. In other words, the employee must know for what specifically he or she is being rewarded! The reward should come as quickly as possible after the behavior. The reward can be almost anything, but it must be something desired by the employee. Some of the most powerful rewards are symbolic; things that cost very little but mean a lot to the people who get them. Examples of symbolic rewards are things like plaques or certificates.