Biology Notes:

11/20/2011 7:47:00 PM

* Mitosis (One cell divides to make two): Interphase Prophase (early & late) , Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis.

Prophase- Chromosomes coil & become visible, two copies of each chromosome. The copy (chromatid) connects to the original by a centromere. Spindle Fibers extend between the centriole pairs at each end of the cell.. In LATE prophase the chromatids attach to the spindle fibers.

Metaphase- The chromatids move to the centre of the cell (metaphase plate)

Anaphase- Chromatids split, the daughter chromosomes are then pulled towards each end of the cell and arrive near the centrioles at opposite ends.

Telophase- Nuclear membranes form, cleavage furrow shows. Chromosomes uncoil, nuclei reappear and the two cells resemble interphase cells.

Cytokinesis- Cleavage furrow continues, cell splits and two evident cells are formed

Interphase- DNA replication occurs. (GROWING STAGE)

* Asexual Reproduction Offspring have genetic makeup identical to parent (clones), form from mitosis.

Fission & Budding- SINGLE-CELLED ORGANISMSParent cells divides into equal parts and each part develops into a new organism.. (Budding) Parent cells divide into two unequal parts and the new individual arises as a bud from the parent. (Fission)

Fragmentation- MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS. The body of the organism breaks into 2 or more parts, each part regenerates and forms a complete new individual. Common in flatworms etc.

Spore Formation- Spores are released when the sporangium wall disintegrates, a spore lands on a suitable environment and germinates forming a new fungus.

Vegetative Reproduction- The separation of one plant to form a new independent plant.

Parthenogenesis-

* Meiosis - Produces eggs and sperm, called reduction division. Division of nucleus that reduces the number of chromosome number in the parent nucleus by half and produces FOUR haploid daughter nuclei in sperm, one

in eggs. (Haploid- half set of chromosomes, diploid full set)

Prophase- Chromosomes coil & condense.

Metaphase 1- Members of a chromosome pair align, chromatids become apparent & nuclear membrane breaks down.

Anaphase 1- Spindle draws members of each chromosome pair to opposite sides of the cell (centrioles) and a cleavage furrow forms.

Metaphase 2- Chromosomes at each centriole move to a central position, new spindle forms- ( four centrioles ).

Anaphase 2- Centromeres split and chromosomes move to opposite sides of cell.

Telophase & Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm divides and nucleus and nuclear membranes re-appear. 4 haploid cells are formed!

Gametes Spermatozoa & Ova

* Indirect Development- Millions of eggs mean a lower amount of yolk in each egg, yolk provides the energy store for the growing organism, therefore embryonic development is brief. Larval stages followed by metamorphosis into adult.

* Direct Development- Large amounts of yolk, embryos develop for longer periods and hatch in adult form (Non-mammalians) Placental mammals nutrients are transferred from placenta. No larval stage.

Sperm actively fertilize eggs, contribute a single set of chromosomes & determine the sex of the new

individual. Sex chromosome X & Y, females XX, males XY. Fertilized egg zygote.

* Fertilization is the fusion of two gametes. Involves recognition and penetration of the egg by the sperm. This activates the egg and triggers fusion of gamete nuclei.

* Early Embryonic Development: Cell Proliferation repeated mitotic divisions (millions of cells) Differentiation- Specialisation of cells into different types of cells. Morphogenesis- Organisation of specialized cells to form the animal body.

Cleavage- Commences after activation of egg. Is a period of cell proliferation where the zygote is divided into many hundreds of smaller cells. (Mitotic Divisions & cytokinesis) Resultant cells contain a nucleus and a portion of egg cytoplasm containing regulatory factors.

Formation of body plan (Gastrulation)- Outside embryo cells (ectoderm) become skin & nerve cells, inner cells (endoderm) will be the gut, the cells in between (mesoderm) produce bone, muscle, circulatory/excretory & repro systems.

Organ Development- Brain, Circulatory system (heart, blood vessels & blood), limb buds (mesoderm & ectoderm cells), etc.

Differentiation- Process leasing to the expression of a particular pattern of genes in a specialized cell.

Stem Cells- undifferentiated cells can replace themselves by generating more (mitosis) and CAN differentiate into various other cell types.

Cell Death- Mechanism to remove excess tissue, eg. To develop the shape of limbs.

Growth & Maturation- When organs are formed & functioning, the embryonic stage is over, Development continues leading to a sexually mature adult organism.

* Mammals: Monotremes ( Lay eggs) Marsupials (Pouch) Placental.

Most mammals are seasonal breeders.

Mating occurs when a female is in receptive stage (oestrus) around time of ovulation. Pheromones pass between males & females indicating when individuals are ready to mate.

The anterior pituituary controls production of oocytes and sperm, through hormones LH & FSH. (Luteinising hormone & Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) MALES; FSH- sperm production, LH- release of testosterone to mature the sperm. FEMALES: FSH- follicle matures & release oestrogen which increases endometrium thickness and stimulates LH release. LH- triggers ovulation, corpus luteum secretes progesterone & oestrogen to increase thickness again. If no fertilization uterine lining breaks down (period.)

* Male Repro System:

Testes produce sperm. Are a mass of seminiferous tubules which FSH acts on to stimulate spermatogenesis.. Precursor cells in tubules produce spermatocytes, which divide by meiosis to produce 4 sperm. Pass through seminiferous tubules into the

epididymis where they mature & are stored. The contracting vas deferens push sperm towards the urethra where secretions are added to form semen. (which is a nutritious medium & allows sperm to be motile)

* Female Repro System;

Females are born with all the oocytes in their ovaries. Under FSH one or more oocytes resume meiotic division & mature within a follicle. Follicles release oestrogen which thickens the endometrium. LH released from the anterior pituitary triggers ovulation (ovum bursts out of follicle & is drawn by fluid currents into the oviduct.(Fallopian Tube) The oviduct( Fallopian Tube) contracts and sends the ovum towards the uterus. The follicle from which the ovum is released, is now called the CORPUS LUTEUM. Stimulated by LH it secretes oestrogen & progesterone to further thicken the

endometrium in preparation for implantation of the embryo. IF the ovum is not fertilized it disintegrates, the corpus luteum disintegrates and stops hormone release, the uterine lining also then breaks down.

Ovarian cycles can be continuous or seasonal, and ovulation may be spontaneous or induced.

* Early Development of Placental Mammals

Fertilization & Cleavage Fertilization occurs in the upper fallopian tube (oviduct), development commences as the embryo passes down the oviduct, with the zygote undergoing cleavage (mitotic divisions), to produce a blastocyst.

Implantation- The blastocyst reaches the uterus and adheres to the endometrium and implantation occurs. The embryo becomes embedded in the spongy bloody

tissue through projections of the outer layer of the embryo. (cells). These projections and the endometrium develop into the PLACENTA.

* Human Reproduction

Oestrus/Menstrual Cycle- If fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum degenerates and the endometrium breaks down & is lost through menstruation. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum is maintained and progesterone levels remain high, stimulates further thickening & increasing of the blood supply to the endometrium. The CL breaks down during the 2nd or 3rd month of pregnancy as the placenta takes over the role of hormone production.

Conception- Happens in the oviduct & occurs if sex takes place at about the time of ovulation. ( 3 days before 2 days after)

Identical twins (monozygotic)- One sperm, one egg embryo splits, two individuals. Fraternal twins (dizygotic) Two sperm, two eggs two embryos, two individuals.

* Stages of Development-

Early Development- Critical period when the cell division in a developing organ or tissue is most rapid. Teratogens can cross the placenta and cause harm to the embryo. If this happens during the critical period, serious damage can be done as the organ structure may be altered.

The Foetus- After the embryonic stage the baby is now known as a foetus. (8-10 week old) . Organs continue to develop, cells and tissues become specialized to carry out particular functions. The amniotic sac (containing

amniotic fluid), as it develops the foetus receives its nourishment through the placenta.. Blood bypasses the lungs prior to birth.

Birth- (Parturition) is under the control of hormones. The pituitary gland of the foetus releases a hormone which stimulates cortisol release from fetal adrenal glands. This causes the placenta to decrease progesterone secretions and increase oestrogen & prostaglandin. These changes cause the rlease of oxytocin from the mothers POSTERIOR pituitary gland. The increase of uterus size and the babys head pushing on the cervix also release oxytocin, which start uterine contractions which in turn ALSO releases oxytocin.

Lactation- Newborn mammals are nourished by milk from their mothers mammary glands. The first few days after birth the mother produces colostrum which is

nutrient filled, and true milk is produced after the third day. After birth, prolactin is released by the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates milk production. When the newborn suckles, sensory nerves in the nipples send messages to the brain that cause oxytocin to be released from the posterior pituitary, this stimulates muscles in the milk ducts to contract & milk is ejected thorough the nipple.

* Repro Technologies

Monitoring Development:

Amniocentesis- Needle into amniotic sac to test amniotic fluid (14-15 weeks) detects Downs, spina bifida etc.

Chronic Villus Sampling- Carried out earlier in preg (10 weeks), doesnt detect spina bifida, samples the outer membrane around the foetus.

Foetoscopy- photographs of a developing foetus, main purpose is to collect blood & skin samples from the foetus. (15-18 weeks). The amniotic fluid is clear enough to see the foetus though the lens of the foetoscope.

Ultrasound- Waves are directed into the abdomen and are reflected by the structures within to form an image on the screen (2D). The age & sex of the foetus, location of placenta and structural abnormalities are able to be seen.

* Overcoming Infertility-

Minimum Intervention- Lifestyle changes etc.

Artificial Insemination- Mans sperm is placed into partners cervix.

In vitro Fertilization Ovum & sperm are joined to form a zygote in a lab, the embryo/s are then placed in the ladys uterus. Cost is around $2000 per cycle.

GIFT- Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer- Ova are collected, the three most mature are selected, they are mixed with sperm and the gamete cocktail is placed into the oviducts. This mimics natural fertilization.

Micromanipulation- Assisted Hatching : Ovum is held by suction on the end of a pipette and a solution is used to break through the zona pellucida (cells surrounding embryo) Subzonal Insertion; A needle removes 4-10 sperm and these are injected into the space between the ovum and zona pellucida. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection: one sperm is injected directly into the cytoplasm of the ovum.

Surrogacy- An in vitro embryo is transplanted into another female, other than the female which produced it.

11/20/2011 7:47:00 PM

11/20/2011 7:47:00 PM