AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

2011, Science Hu, http://www.scihub.org/AJSIR ISSN: 2153-649X doi:10.5251/ajsir.2011.2.3.332.345

Microwave signal attenuation at 7.2GHz in Rain and Harmattan Weather

1 1

Shoewu, O and 2F.O. Edeko

Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Lagos State University, Epe Campus, Lagos, Nigeria 2 Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria
ABSTRACT Line-of-sight (LOS) attenuation at 7.2GHz was measured in Lagos (6o26N, 3o52E) for twelve months (Aug 08-July'09) using one of the Nigerian Telecommunications radio signal. The measurement was carried out with the intent of highlighting microwave signal attenuation in Harmattan and rain weather conditions. The results are presented in terms of mean signal level, received signal level and fog attenuation, rain attenuation, multipath fading, free space loss and link availability. The observed attenuation values due to Harmattan (fog) and rain attenuation was calculated (using Altshuler's model). Also, the statistics of fade distribution show fast fading of longer duration of the order of 16 to 39 fades per hour during this period (Harmattan) and 24 to 48 fades per hour during the period of rain. This shows that microwave LOS link in this region and regions with similar climatic characteristics are prone to signal degradation as well as fading in the Harmattan and rain season. Keywords: Microwave, Multipath, Pathloss, Attenuation, Link Availability INTRODUCTION Telecommunications transmission facilities (1) are the physical means of communicating large amounts of information over distance. Without exception, communication signals (speech, images, video, or computer data) are electromagnetic waves traveling along transmission lines such as 2-wire line, coaxial line, optical fiber and microwave link. For a given route, the type of transmission line selected depends on the topography, the amount of information to transmit, and the cost. Though fiber optic cables transmits more information with higher reliability than does any other transmission medium, for a long distance over remote or rugged terrain, a microwave relay system is sometimes the better economic alternative (2). The presence of the various forms of precipitation such as rain, snow, cloud and fog in a radio wave or microwave path are always capable of producing major impairments to terrestrial communications. The hydrometeors can introduce significant attenuation, together with a degree of depolarization, through their ability to absorb and scatter radio waves (1). The effects of precipitation on the propagation of radio waves have been studied by a number of workers among others (4,5). Many results of these studies have shown serious attenuation at frequencies in the micro wave region above 10 GHz. Attenuation is less pronounced at frequencies around 3 GHz. However, to a communication system designer, attenuation due to precipitation and atmospheric gases at frequencies above 1 GHz is important. This work was carried out to assess the extent of signal attenuation noticed from the annual routine monitoring of the received signal level recorded at the carrier station in one of the Telecommunication company situated in Lagos. A preliminary investigation of the recorded data of the line-of- sight (LOS) link (3) revealed severe signal degradation during the months of November through February with the months of December and January showing very high fade margins and also during the months of June through September with month of July and August showing low fade margin. In the West African sub-region, December through January is a period that is referred to as Harmattan. Most of the work cited on the effects of precipitation on the propagation of radio waves dwells on statistics of rain attenuation (4).

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METHODOLOGY PATH PROFILE The path design problem is to determine which values of equipment parameters meet link and network performance objectives at an economic cost. The primary equipment parameters are transmitter power, receiver sensitivity, and antenna height and antenna gain. The design solution is arrived at iteratively by changing parameters, then noticing the effect on path performance. The line of sight microwave link used for the project is situated between Epe at latitude 6o 32/N, longitude 3o 52/E which is the transmitting end and Lagos located on latitude 6o 26/N and longitude 3o 27/E which is the receiving end over a path length of 48km. To facilitate an accounting of parameter changes, path calculation sheets are used which list data

pertinent to link description, equipment losses and gains, and fading effects in a spreadsheet. The basic method is to check whether a choice of antenna size and height, for given values of transmitter power and receiver sensitivity, results in a sufficient fade margin for a received signal to remain above a threshold level after losses due to the distance, terrain, obstructions, reflections, and other atmospheric effects. In general, there is not a unique solution to the path design problem, and cost is usually the deciding factor. The end result of the design is a microwave installation drawing set and bill of materials for radios, towers, transmission lines, antennas, materials, and their arrangement into a system that will satisfy the stated performance objectives

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-20 0 LEKKI Latitude Longitude Azimuth Elevation Antenna CL PHASE 1 06 26 40.60 N 003 27 44.50 E 76.83 7 m ASL 103.2 m AGL 5 10 15 20 25 Path length (47.80 km) 30 35 40 45 EPE Latitude 06 32 34.40 N Longitude 003 52 59.60 E Azimuth 256.88 Elevation 7 m ASL Antenna CL 121.8 m AGL Apr 24 09

Frequency (MHz) = 7200.0 K = 1.33, 0.67 %F1 = 100.00, 60.00

Figure 1. Path profile diagram for K=1.33 (hatched profiles are for K=).

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To ensure satisfactory BER performance over a transmission link, only the direct ray and its first Fresnel zone should propagate along the path between the antennas. Ground-reflected rays should be blocked by intervening terrain features, or scattered by rough terrain so as not to cause multipath fading at the receiving antenna. Sharp obstructions or long stretches of smooth earth should not protrude too near the direct ray in order to prevent signal loss from diffraction. Ideally, the air in the vicinity of the path would be well-mixed and stable most of the time so that the reflective boundaries of a stratified atmosphere do not form (10). Under such conditions, the amplitude of the microwave signal is steady at the receiving antenna and the signal output from the receiver is an errorfree reproduction of the signal driving the transmitter at the distant end. The transmission loss for such a propagation path is close to the free space loss. TERRAIN PROFILE This is a graphical representation of the path travelled by the radio wave between the two ends of a link. The path profile determines the location and height of the antenna at each end of the link and also it insures that the link is free of obstruction such as hills, buildings and not subject to propagation losses from radio phenomena such as multipath reflection. Software packages are available which can perform path profile, map out the terrain profile, and identify reflection point and obstruction in the path. The software package is called pathloss 4.0. Alternatively, a path profile can be drawn by hand on graph paper using 30-meter topographic maps of the

area to determine the elevation of each end point and of the intervening area. In the terrain elevation, a path profile must consider the effects of several radio phenomena, including multipath reflection, refraction and also provide adequate Fresnel zone clearance. MULTIPATH FADING A microwave signal (6) propagates as a transverse electromagnetic wave front. Because the top of the beam experiences a different refractive index to the bottom of the beam, the signal is bent upwards or downwards due to refraction. The gradient of refractivity varies according to geographic location and the time of the day and year. Multiple paths can result in disruptions, especially for radio link operating in the lower frequency bands (less than 18GHz) over longer path lengths (greater than 20Km). Disruption can be numerous short outages (measured in milliseconds or microseconds), usually limited to a fading season of a few months in the year. This type of fading has been well characterized by years of empirical measurements, resulting in proven system design methods that limit outages (7) within international circuit limits. By choosing appropriate antenna sizes and diversity methods, international objectives such as International Telecommunications Union Recommendations (ITU-R) can be met modern digital microwave systems. During the era of analog FDM-FM microwave radios, flat fading (also called power fading) was the most serious transmission impairment. The word flat means that all frequencies of the signal passband (8) are attenuated equally. Sufficient power margin was designed into a link to handle flat fades of 30-40 dB below the unfazed free space loss at a receiver.

Figure 2. Multipath

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When digital microwave radios were introduced, system designers discovered that, for signals well within an acceptable flat fading margin (9), a phenomenon called multipath fading frequently causes the bit error ratio (BER) threshold to be exceeded. Under multipath conditions, the receiver sees a weighted sum of time-shifted replicas, or echoes, of the transmitted signal. The echoes are caused when the signal is reflected from multiple atmospheric layers or the ground; and they follow slightly different path lengths to the receiving antenna. The vector summation of echoes with the direct ray can either add to or cancel the received signal strength depending on the atmospheric conditions at the moment. High-capacity digital radios transmit bandpass signals of 30, 40, or 50 MHz bandwidths depending on the operating frequency band. For such large bandwidths the resultant signal cancellation due to multiple reflected rays, is frequency selective (10). The bandpass signals frequency components undergo nonlinear phase shifts and some frequency components also undergo amplitude attenuation, thus distorting the envelope of the propagated signal. The effect on the demodulated baseband signal is dispersion of pulse energy; that is, each bit overlaps with the previous and succeeding bits, blurring the logical levels at the sampling times, and increasing the likelihood of decision error. This is called intersymbol interference (ISI), and it is directly correlated to increases in BER. Performance degradation due to multipath fading increases rapidly for microwave paths longer than 25 miles. DIVERSITY Diversity is the used of two antenna for each radio to increase the odd of receiving a better signal on either

of the antennas. Diversity provides relief to a wireless network in a multipath scenario. Diversity antennas are physically separated from the radio and each other, to ensure that one encounter less multipath propagation affect than the other. The protection schemes that are available include, frequency diversity, space diversity and monitored hot-standby (MHSB). Both space diversity and frequency diversity provide protection against path fading due to multipath propagation in addition to providing protection against equipment failure. Such techniques are typically only required in bands below 10 GHz, specifically for long paths over flat terrain or over areas subject to atmospheric inversion layers. Space diversity requires use of additional antennas, which must be separated vertically in line with engineering calculations. Frequency diversity can be achieved with one antenna per terminal configured with a dual-pole feed. It has the disadvantage of requiring two frequency channels per link, and frequency inefficiency of this technique is therefore a major consideration in many parts of the world. MHSB protection can be at frequencies below 10 GHz if the path conditions are suitable. It is also the normal protection scheme at the higher frequency where multipath fading is of negligible concern. MHSB systems are available using one single-feed antenna per terminal, utilizing only one frequency channel per link.

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SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LINK

Table 1.1 System Characteristics of Lagos-Epe LOS link System parameters Elevation Latitude Longitude Transmitting Frequency Antenna model Antennas Type Antennas Gain Antennas Height Polarization TX power (dBm) TX power (watts) EIRP (dBm) RX threshold criteria RX threshold level (dBm) Maximum receive signal (dBm) Net Path Loss Received Signal Thermal Fade Margin Free space loss (dB) Path length (km) Rain region Rain Attenuation (dB) Rain Rate (mm/hr) Fade Occurrence Factor Po Transmitting Station 6.82m 06o 26/ 40.60N 03o 27/ 44.50E 7.2GHz SP4-71(P) Parabolic dish of 2.4m 43.10 dB 103m Vertical 22.00 0.16 58.50 BER 10-6 -36.51 -15.00 58.46 -36.46dBm 49.54 130.41 10.96 ITU Region P 49.54 353.89 1.43E+01 Receiving Station 7.08m 06o 32/ 34.40N 03o 52/ 59.60E 7.2GHz SP4-71A(P) Parabolic dish of 2.4m 43.10 dB 122m Vertical 22.00 0.16 58.50 BER 10-6 -36.51 -15.00 58.46 -36.46dBm 49.54

Equipment and site engineering: Microwave Equipment Elements: The frequency assign for these fixed microwave services lists 41 bands ranging from 7100 MHz to 8500 MHz i.e. 7.1GHz to 8.5GHz. Antennas, RF transmission lines, microwave combining and dividing components, and radios are the elements of microwave systems common to all of these bands, but their characteristics vary greatly over this range. The following paragraphs describe briefly these building blocks and their functions in system planning. DATA BASE The radio signal data used for this analysis are for the period August 2008 to July 2009. The field

strength variations were recorded for both diurnal and seasonal behavior at the receiving end, Lagos once a week on 12 hours basis. The period was classified into two seasons, namely Period of Fog : November to February Period of Rain: June to September Information on some meteorological parameters like air temperature, relative humidity and water vapour pressure during the fog season i.e. harmattan (NovFeb) and Rain season (June-Sept) were obtained from the daily visibility records of the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET) at Oshodi, situated in Lagos about 3.0km from the site of the radio signal measurement.

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Table 1.2 the visibility in percentage during fog and rain Distribution of Rain Month Percentage of Occurrence June 14.2 July 10.8 August 12.6 September 10.4

Month November December January February

Distribution of fog Percentage of Occurrence 15.1 48 29.4 24.3

Figure 3. Distribution on the number of occurrence of rain during the study period.

Figure 4. Distribution on the number of occurrence of fog during the study period.

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From the two distribution above which is the rain and fog, it was observed that during the rainy season, the visibility is normal and clearer in the early hours of the day and also throughout the day and month. During the fog , the visibility is not normal that is, there is no clearance in the early hours of the day, which affects the microwave signal because of the dust. Sometimes its effect is not felt at all. Although a whole twelve month data seems inadequate for any climatologically related conclusion to be drawn, extensive comparison of data on meteorological parameters mentioned above in terms of duration and spread, within the West-African subregion, showed that the data presented here are representative of this region climate.
Table 1.3 Mean Signal Level & Attenuation Mean signal level Time(hrs) 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 Rain(dB) -63.5 -63.3 -63.6 -63.4 -63.4 -63.2 -63.4 -64 -64.5 -66.6 -67.1 -66.9 -64.6 -65.7 -64.4 -64.5 -64.4 -64.3 -65.7 -64.2 -66.1 -63.2 -63.3 -63.5 Fog(dB) -65 -64.9 -65.2 -65.9 -69.1 -69 -69.5 -69.2 -69.3 -69.4 -68.5 -68.6 -68.2 -67.7 -67.1 -68 -67.8 -67.8 -67.9 -67.3 -67.8 -64.9 -64.7 -64.78

DATA COLLECTION The equipment is then set to start taking the readings and then to display the performance analysis. The equipment have different alarm signals for notification if there is any error in the link and after a period of the time set, the reading is stopped and the reading can be taken. The signal strength data of the following parameters are taken: 1. Mean signal level (msl) 2. Fog and Rain attenuation 3. Fade rate 4. Fade depth 5. Scintillation index

Fog and Rain Attenuation Rain(dB) 2 2 2.3 2.1 3.4 2.9 3.4 2.6 2.6 3.3 4 3.9 3.4 3.1 3.2 4 3.9 4.3 4.8 4.6 4.7 1.8 1.2 1.4 Fog(dB) 1.5 1.3 2 2.4 5.6 5.5 6 5 5.6 2.9 1.4 1.5 3.4 2.1 2.8 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.1 3.1 4.3 1.8 0.9 0.8

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Table 1.4 Diurnal Variation of Fade Rate Time 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 Jan 5 6 6 8 13 45 49 42 48 34 43 28 27 25 25 15 21 16 24 29 18 19 5 4 Feb 6 7 6 13 27 32 28 35 28 17 21 16 21 15 12 10 11 11 13 17 10 5 5 4 Mar 1 1 2 3 5 10 18 12 17 17 16 4 5 6 7 4 7 6 4 7 3 2 2 2 Apr 0 2 3 3 4 6 13 10 11 15 14 6 7 6 9 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 3 4 May 1 2 3 0 1 1 1 2 3 3 10 11 12 5 6 5 4 3 5 7 3 3 0 1 Jun 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 9 8 6 4 5 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 Jul 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 7 9 5 3 4 4 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 Aug 2 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 4 3 3 14 13 9 8 9 5 3 3 4 2 5 2 2 Sept 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 5 17 13 15 7 9 7 4 5 4 2 3 2 1 Oct 3 1 2 1 3 4 4 4 5 8 17 18 15 5 9 3 6 5 1 8 2 2 1 2 Nov 2 3 2 4 8 25 25 28 27 32 33 39 27 24 17 24 24 19 19 17 20 9 5 3 Dec 8 8 12 10 19 49 42 51 41 40 47 31 28 33 27 18 30 29 27 31 20 19 6 5

Table 1.5 Fade Rate and Fade Depth Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Rain 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 3 4 13 15 14 3 7 2 3 3 2 6 1 1 0.5 0.5

-1 Fade Rate (Hr )

Fade Depth (dB) Fog 4 3 6 7 14 35 33 37 36 35 37 25 25 22 19 16 21 13 18 20 16 15 5 4 Rain 3.3 4.1 3.2 3.9 3.1 3.3 2.6 3.2 4.7 3.6 2.7 3.6 4.8 2.6 2.6 2.9 4.7 2.6 2.7 2.8 3 2.9 3 2.8 Fog 5 7.8 5.1 5.8 7.7 7.1 7.6 5.9 6 6 9 7 7.3 7.3 8.8 10.5 11 11.6 11.2 6 8.1 4 4.1 5.1

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Table 1.6 Scintillation Index Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Rain 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.6 1.6 2.8 2.3 3.1 1.4 2.4 1.8 1.9 1.6 2.6 2 3.3 3.1 2.6 2.9 2.1 2.6 2.5 2.7

Fog 4 6 4.1 4.5 5.8 4.9 5.7 4.5 4.6 4.7 6.9 5.9 5.5 5.6 6.8 7.1 7.5 8.2 7.9 4.5 6 3 3.2 4.1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The recorded signal strength data were statistically computed into hourly averages for each month. Using the hourly averages, attenuation values pertaining to fog and rain propagation characteristics of the link were obtained. The data obtained in chapter three are analyzed in this chapter.

MEAN SIGNAL LEVEL The daily variations of the mean signal level for the three classified seasons are shown in Figure 4.1. To arrive at attenuation values pertaining to fog and rain, the difference in field strength between Fog and Rain are computed. Figure4.1.During the month of harmattan (fog), the amplitude variation of the signal is very high compare to the period of rain.

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Figure 5. Daily variation of mean signal leve for Rain and Fog season.

In the month of harmattan, the signal strength is 65 to 69 dBm below normal level between the hours (0500 and 1200) and between the hours of 1300 to 2100 hour, the signal decrease from 5dB to 6dB. The variation appears low between the hours of 2200 to 2400hour which is below normal signal level. In the rain month, the signal level is steady between the hours of 2100 to 0700and for the rest of the day the signal fluctuates as a result of heavy down pour which causes outage and link break down. These result shows that the lower values of attenuation representing higher visibility during rain weather compare to fog. RAIN AND FOG ATTENUATION Microwave radio link above 15 GHz tend not to be affected by multipath because link lengths are short

due to design limitations imposed by high microwave rain absorption. However, microwave links operating in these frequencies are affected by rain and other forms of precipitation (i.e. fog). Subsequent outages affect the annual availability objective. Taking into account the severity of rainstorms in a given region, typically each radio link is designed to achieve between 99.99% and 99.999% availability. Attenuation due to fog is the signal degradation that can be caused as a result of impedance of mismatches in the microwave signal strength. While Attenuation due to rain is a primary cause of communication impairment on radio propagation path and it is indeed the single most significant factor that can affect the performance of radio system. The signal attenuation over distance from the source also depends on the frequency; the higher the frequency, the greater the attenuation.

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Fig. 6 Daily variation of Rain and Fog Attenuation

FADE RATE In microwave communication, fade rate limits the digital data transmission rate and also defines the size of the irregularities in the atmosphere. From the daily hourly fade rates, the average fade rate per hour for each month is computed. Fade rate is the number of fades in a specified time interval Figure 7 shows the diurnal variation of fade rates distribution. The distribution shows that the months of November and February are transitional months. This is expected as Harmattan effects are not intense in early November and late February, sometimes its effects are not felt at all compare to the rain weather. Figure 8 is drawn to show seasonal effect on diurnal variations of fade rates. In the month of rain, the diurnal variation in fade rate is between 1 to 15 fades per hour, the maximum occurring from 1100 to 1300 hours and the minimum which remains fairly constant is observed during the hours of 2100 to 0800. These results show that there is very little variation in fade rate in the Rain season, but prominent variation of up to 38 fades per hour in the FOG months, with maximum always occurring during morning hours. This is indicative of the presence of some atmospheric irregularities along the microwave link during Harmattan season; the effect of Harmattan is normally seen to be normal in the monthly hours.

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Figure 7. Daily variation of Fade Rate

Figure 8. Seasonal Effect on Daily variation of Fade Rate.

It could also be observed that maximum fades always occur during morning hours for all the two seasons. This may be because during the transition period, atmospheric layers, which are usually present, start to move up while heated air mass close to the earth's surface starts ascending and causes appreciable fading to tropospheric propagated signal. The decrease in the observed fade rate during day time hours may be due to the fact that the atmosphere is well mixed.

FADE DEPTH This is the difference between the maximum and minimum signal strength over a certain interval of time, usually over a very small interval. In this work, the hourly fade depth was computed for each season from the hourly averages of the signal strength. The atmospheric irregularities along the radio rays path usually affect the velocity of propagated signal and consequently fading occurs. Fading is usually

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expressed in terms of fade depth. Figure 9 shows the distribution of seasonal effect on diurnal variations of the hourly fade depth.

From Figure 8, fade depth fluctuates round the clock giving an average fade depth of 3.5 dB in the Rain seasons. In the FOG season, fade depth values are much higher, varying between 5 and 10 dB on the average, with the maximum values occurring between 1600 and 1900 hours and the minimum at night time.

Figure 9. Season Effect on Daily variation of Fade Depth

SCINTILLATION INDEX When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the ambient due to the particle clusters formed under different pressure, temperature, and humidity conditions, scattering occurs to the electric wave. This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude and phase of different scattered waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the composite field strength at the receiving point changes randomly. Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level changes little and the main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will not cause communications interruption. The intensity of fluctuations in signal strength is measured by a quantity called the scintillation index(S.I). Figure 10 shows the distribution of seasonal effect on diurnal variation of the scintillation index observed for the three seasons. For all seasons, scintillation

occurs round the clock. During the seasons rain, it varies from 1.5 to 3.5% while in the FOG season, scintillation index is observed to vary from 3 to 8%. CONCLUSION Microwave line-of-sight propagation is based on the principles of electrodynamics. In practice, fading caused by actual terrain, atmospheric and climatic conditions forces the microwave engineer to take a statistical approach to predicting the power loss and distortion of a received signal over time. Field surveys are a practical necessity to verify or correct the accuracy of terrain elevation data, obstructions, and meteorological data. This work has provided the statistics of fog effects on a line-of-sight (LOS) microwave link situated in Nigeria. For the 12-month database of the link, the calculated fog and rain attenuation has been found to give fairly good agreement with the experimental results.

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From the analysis carried out, it has been shown experimentally that fog weather is better compare to the Rain weather, due to the series fluctuation of the signal but there can be a stable transmission during

rainy weather if there is space diversity, large antenna and also proper planning.

Figure 10. Seasonal Effect on Daily variation of Scintillation Index

REFERENCES 1. Kareem, S.A and Aderinto, A.T. (2009) Microwave Signal Attenuation Along Lagos-Epe Line of Sight Link B.Sc Project, Lagos State University Donald C. Livingston (1970) The Physics of Microwave Propagation, Prentice-Hall, 1970. A.A.R. Townsend (1988) Digital Line-of-Sight Radio Links, Prentice-Hall, 1988. Desmond P. Taylor and Paul R. Hartmann, (1986) Telecommunications by Microwave Digital Radio, IEEE Communications Magazine, August 1986. W.D. Rummler, R.P. Coutts, and M. Liniger, (1986) Multipath Fading Channel Models for Microwave Digital Radio, IEEE Communications Magazine, November 1986.

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J.K. Chamberlain, F.M. Clayton, H. Sari, and P. Vandamme, (1986) Receiver Techniques for Microwave Digital Radio, IEEE Communications Magazine, November 1986. L.J. Greenstein and M. Shafi, (1987) Outage Calculation Methods for Microwave Digital Radio, IEEE Communications Magazine, February 1987. Federal Communications Commission CFR Part 101.147, Frequency Assignments, October 2005. T.R. Garlington,(2006) Millimeter-Wave E-Band Radio, ISEC White Paper No. AMSEL-IE-TS-06014, May 2006.

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