Topic 2Cells

Topic 2: Cells
2.1 Cell theory
2.1.1 Outline the cell theory All Organisms are composed of one or more cells Cells are the smallest units of life All cells come from preexisting cells 2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the theory The discovery of cells was linked to the development of technology: Production of high quality lens Invention compound microscope (1950 Jansen) Development of transmission electron microscope (ultra structure) Development of scanning tunneling microscope

a. All living things are made of cells: When living things are observed under the microscope they consistently appear to be composed of cells. However, there are a number of examples that do not conform to the standard notion of what a cell looks like at the microscopic level. Exceptions the that test the rule of cell theory: Muscle cells: challenges the idea that a cell has one nucleus. Muscle cells have more than one nucleus per cell Fungal Cells: challenges the idea that a cell is a single unit. Protoctista: Challenges the idea that a cell is specialized to a single function. Yet, the protoctista can carry out all functions of life. b. Cells are the smallest unit of life. The cell is the smallest unit of organization that can show all the characteristics of living processes. Organelles often require the cooperation of other organelles for their successful function.

c. Cells come only from other cells. Cells carry out a form of cell division to form new cells. This process of cell replication in eukaryotes is called mitosis and in prokaryotes is called binary ssion. The parental cell divides to produce identical daughter cells. This aspect of cell theory suggests that all cells therefore have a common ancestor, the original ancestral cell form which all other cells have arisen by descent. (origin of cellular life).

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2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. Functions of life Movement intracellular and extracellular Respiration production of energy Nutrition need raw materials i.e. food, water, mineral Excretion get rid of waste materials Reproduction ability to produce offspring Homeostasis maintaining a constant internal environment Respond Growth

2.1.4 Compare the relative size of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit. 1 m = 1000 mm 1 mm = 1000 m (micrometer) 1 m = 1000 nm Relative sizes: 1. Molecules (1nm). 2. Cell membrane thickness (10nm). 3. Virus (100nm). 4. Bacteria (1um). 5. Organelles (less 10um). 6. Cells (<100 um). 7. Generally plant cells are larger than animal cells. 2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnication of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of know magnication. Magnication could also be stated (E.g. x250) Or indicated by means of a scale bar. Magnication = magnied size (ruler) real size (scale bar)

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size As the organism gets bigger its surface area : volume ratio decreases This rule is a limiting factor for cell size. As the cell gets bigger the ratio decreases If the ratio decreases the rate of exchange decreases

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties. Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts. The whole is more than the sum of its parts e.g. brain. Individual neurons are not capable of though but communication and cooperation between cells. The whole is greater than the individual cells.

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Multicellular organisms have developed so that they have different cells working on different stuff. This allows greater size. A specialized cell packed up the DNA. It doesn't need and only express the genes it needs.

2.1.8 Cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways. Stem cells specialize to do different jobs. Most of our body organs contain stem cells, adult bodies have stem cells, they can be get from embryos. Stem cells can repair damaged tissues and organs. They will specialize into other cells if they are needed. When given a chemical signal. E.g. Hormones, they will start to specialized. Embryonic stem cells can replace dying cells caused by certain diseases.

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells. Nuclear Transfer Nuclear transfer refers to the nucleus in a cell. Every cells in our body holds the same genes, but specialized cells only turn on the genes needed. Nuclear transfer: removes a nuclear from a egg. A nucleus is collected. Transferring that nucleus into the egg from a body cell. Nuclear transfer can lead to the discovery of the cure for Motor neuron disease. Used in: Bone marrow transplant Skin burn repair. Therapeutic cloning In this type of cloning, the embryo is cloned for only for their stem cells. The resultant embryo would be allowed to grow for perhaps 14 days. It's stem cells would then be extracted and encouraged to grow into a piece of human tissue or a complete human organ for transplant. The end result would be a replacement organ, or piece of nerve tissue, or quantity of skin.

Immune Rejection It occurs when a transplant organ or tissue is not accepted by the body of the transplant recipient. This is explained by the concept that the immune system of the recipient attacks the transplanted organ or tissue. This is expected to happen, because the immune system's purpose is to distinguish foreign material within the body and attempt to destroy it, just as it attempts to destroy infecting organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Cells contains information. All cells from other organisms are destroy by the white blood cells.

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2.2 Prokaryotic cells

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of a prokaryote.

2.2.4 Binary Fission Process: 1. 2. 3. 4. DNA replication Separation of two circular strands of DNA to either side of cell. Cytokinesis (cell divides in two) Each new cell receives about half the cytoplasm therefore each new cell grows.

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2.3 Eukaryotic cells

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell. An example of an animal cell:

N: Nucleus PM: plasma membrane M: mitochondria rER: Rough endoplasmic reticulum GA: Golgi apparatus L: Lysosome MV: Microvilli

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Differences should include: Naked DNA in a loop versus DNA associated with protein in strands, DNA in cytoplasm versus DNA enclosed in a nuclear envelope, No mitochondria versus mitochondria, 70S versus 80S ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalise their functions.

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

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Cell wall - for strength, made of mostly cellulose Large vacuole - contains uid and it helps to maintain cell shape Chloroplasts site of photosynthesis storing light energy as glucose.

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components. Extracellular components (non-living secretions) are found in both plant and animal cells.

Plant e.g. cell wall, made of cellulose: Maintains cell shape and provides support and mechanical strength. Prevents excessive water uptake due to osmosis. Water enters a cell until it becomes turgid. (Helps plant stay upright.) Allows storage of carbohydrates. Acts as a barrier to pathogens specic proteins in the cell wall recognise pathogens and start a defence response. Plasmodesmata are narrow channels through the cell walls that connect the cytoplasm of cells next to each other, allowing exchange of material.

Animal e.g. bone, cartilage and connective tissue. They have a few cells in a matrix of extracellular matrix. e.g. cartilage cells are in a gel-like matrix which contains glycoproteins. They associate with water and collagen and thus provide rmness and resilience in the cartilage. e.g. connective tissue cells and bres in a matrix which provides support, packing, defence, and repair. Examples of connective tissue: blood, lymph, cartilage, bone

2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a digram to show the structure of membranes. Phospholipid bilayer Cholesterol Glycoproteins Integral proteins (embedded) Peripheral proteins (attached to membrane)

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2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

The 'head's have large phosphate groups, thus they are hydrophilic (attract water) or polar. These section are suited to the large water content of the tissue uid and cytoplasm on opposite sides of the membrane. The fatty acid tails are non-charged, hydrophobic meaning they repel water. This creates a barrier between the internal and external 'water' environments of the cell. The 'tails' effectively create a barrier to the movement of charged molecules The individual phospholipids are attracted through their charges and this gives some stability. They can however move around in this plane The stability of the phospholipid can be increased by the presence of cholesterol molecules.

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2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins. 1. Hormone binding sites hormones transported by the blood will only act on cells with the appropriate protein receptor. 2. Immobilized enzymes (membrane-bound) are bound into systems in order to make it easier for a sequence of reactions to occur. 3. 4. 5. Cell adhesion integral proteins can bind to specic proteins in adjacent cells, or bind to extra-cellular matrix. Cell to cell communication either via direct contact of membrane proteins or via hormones or neurotransmitters. Channels for passive transport allow the passage of polar molecules. The outside of the integral protein is hydrophobic by the inside is hydrophilic. 6. Pumps for active transport, e.g. For Na/K ions.

2.4.4 Dene diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration (down a concentration gradient), until there is an equal distribution.

Diffusion across membranes In any type of diffusion, each type of diffusing molecules (gas, solvent, solute) moves along its own concentration gradient. An equilibrium is reached when the net concentration of molecules on each side of the membrane are equal. At this point, net movement stops.

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Two-way diffusion across a partially permeable membrane is common in biological system. E.g. at the lung surface, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood across the membranes of the capillaries and the lung alveoli. While oxygen diffuses in the opposite direction into the blood.

Factors affecting diffusion:

Concentration gradient. Diffusion rates will be higher when there is a greater difference in concentration between two region. The diffusion distance Diffusion over shorter distances occurs at a greater rate than diffusion over large distances. Surface area. The rate of diffusion is greater when there is a large surface area across which diffusion can occur. Physical barriers. The thicker the barriers are, the slower the diffusion is.

Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion occurs when a substance is aided across a membrane by ionosphores. Ionophores are lipid-soluble molecules that increase the permeability of cellular membranes to specic ion. Ionphores often act as channel formers that introduce a hydrophilic pore in the membrane through which ions may pass. Facilitated diffusion selectively increases the diffusion rate of specic molecules (e.g. glucose, amino acids)

Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration (high water concentration) to a region of higher solute concentration (low water concentration)

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Substances need to move into and out of the cell. They are moved across the plasma membrane by cellular transport mechanisms. These may be: Passive (not requiring energy) - diffusion and facilitated diffusion - osmosis Active or energy requiring - ion pumps - cytosis Active transport processes require energy expenditure because materials must be moved against their concentration gradient.

2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes

Molecules are moved against the concentration gradient from a region of their low concentration to a region of their high concentration. Active mean that the membrane protein 'pump' requires energy (ATP) to function The source of energy is ATP is produced in cell respiration

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Transported molecules enter the carrier protein in the membrane. The energy causes a shape change in the protein that allows it to move the molecule to the other side of the membrane.

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane(3).

Cells will manufacture molecules for secretion outside of the cell. Some of these secretion molecules are complex combinations of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. The base protein is coded for by a gene whose expression begins the process. 2.4.8 Describe how the uidity of the membrane allow s it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis(2). a) Exocytosis: vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane. b) Endocytosis:a vesicle is formed by the infolding of the plasma membrane In each of the cases above the membranes are able to form and break without loss of the continuity of the plasma membranes. The process is very similar to the childhood game of playing with bubbles of detergent. Bubbles are produced then they can be watched readily joining together or splitting apart. Membrane uidity: (a) The phospholipid molecules can change places in the horizontal plane. This creates the so called uid property of the membrane. (b) Molecule exchange in the vertical plane does not occur. This maintains the integrity of the membrane. (c) Cholesterol embedded in the membrane reduces its uidity.

2.5 Cell Division

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell cycle consists of growth, duplication and division. The process by which new body cell are produced for replacing damaged or old cells. Stages are continuous

Cell Cycle divided into: Mitosis is the process of nuclear division Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is the actual division of the cell.

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Stage G1 is when cell growth and an increase in the number of cell organelles occurs. Stage S - synthesis of DNA (replication) Stage G2 is when the cell prepares for mitosis

2.5.2 State that tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue. Tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.

Cell division, needed for growth and repair, is usually under strict control. Tumor repressor genes produce proteins which inhibit cell division whereas photo-oncogenes produce proteins which stimulate cell division. If mutations occur in these genes cell division can become uncontrolled tumor.

Mutagens (Carcinogens) Increase the chance of mutation or effect of mutation Certain kinds of radiation (UV LIGHT) Some viruses that can insert their genetic material into chromosomes of host may also contribute to tumor cells.

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Cancer Treatment Surgery before grow & spread Radiation use strong ionizing / nuclear beam to burn all cells in area Chemotherapy Destroys all rapidly dividing cells (including hair, gut lining, sperm)

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