Name Roll No.

: Khaled Mohamed Ali Bedewi : 541010448

Program Semester Subject Code Subject Name Assignment Center Code

: : : : : :

Master of Business Administration MBA III MB0050 Research Methodology Set 1 2527 21st February , 2012

Date of Submission :

1 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 1. a.

Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of each.

Ans.

Measurements may be classified into four different levels, based on the characteristics of order, distance and origin. Many statistics books begin by defining the different kinds of variables you might want to analyze. This scheme was developed by Stevens and published in 1946.
1.

A categorical variable, also called a nominal variable, is for mutual exclusive, but not ordered, categories. For example, your study might compare five different genotypes. You can code the five genotypes with numbers if you want, but the order is arbitrary and any calculations (for example, computing an average) would be meaningless. The example of male and female applicants to an MBA program mentioned earlier is an example of nominal measurement. The numerals or symbols are just labels and have no quantitative value. The number of cases under each category is counted. Nominal measurement is therefore the simplest level of measurement. It does not have characteristics such as order, distance or arithmetic origin.

2.

A ordinal variable, is one where the order matters but not the difference between values. For example, you might ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7 means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be the same as that between 5 and 3. The values simply express an order. Another example would be movie ratings, from * to *****. Example is Individuals may be ranked according to their socio-economic class, which is measured by a combination of income, education, occupation and wealth. The individual with the highest score might be assigned rank 1, the next highest rank 2, and so on, or vice versa. The numbers in this level of measurement indicate only rank order and not equal distance or absolute quantities. This means that the distance between ranks 1 and 2 is not necessarily equal to the distance between ranks 2 and 3. Ordinal scales may be constructed using rank order, rating and paired comparisons. Variables that lend themselves to ordinal measurement include preferences, ratings of organizations and economic status. Statistical techniques that are commonly used to analyze ordinal scale data are the median and rank order correlation coefficients.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

2 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

3.

A interval variable, is a measurement where the difference between two values is meaningful. The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80 degrees. Example is The Centigrade or Fahrenheit temperature gauge is an example of the interval level of measurement. A temperature of 50 degrees is exactly 10 degrees hotter than 40 degrees and 10 degrees cooler than 60 degrees. Since interval scales are more powerful than nominal or ordinal scales, they also lend themselves to more powerful statistical techniques, such as standard deviation, product moment correlation and t tests and F tests of significance.

4.

A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables. Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable. A temperature of 0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no temperature'. However, temperature in degrees Kelvin in a ratio variable, as 0.0 degrees Kelvin really does mean 'no temperature'. Another counter example is pH. It is not a ratio variable, as pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is fairly arbitrary. A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!). When working with ratio variables, but not interval variables, you can look at the ratio of two measurements. A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable. A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature C is not a ratio variable. A pH of 3 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable. Examples Height, weight, distance and area. Since there is a natural zero, it is possible to multiply and divide the numbers on a ratio scale. Apart from being able to use all the statistical techniques that are used with the nominal, ordinal and interval scales, techniques like the geometric mean and coefficient of variation may also be used. The main limitation of ratio measurement is that it cannot be used for characteristics such as leadership quality, happiness, satisfaction and other properties which do not have natural zero points. The different levels of measurement and their characteristics may be summed up.

OK to compute....
frequency distribution. median and percentiles. add or subtract. mean, standard deviation, standard error of the mean. ratio, or coefficient of variation.

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Yes No No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

3 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 1
Ans.

b. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

the purposes of measurement in social science research: According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behavior. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

4 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 2

a. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems? b. Why literature survey is important in research?

Ans.1. a.Identifying research Problem

This involves the identification of a general topic and formulating it into a specific research problem. It requires thorough understanding of the problem and rephrasing it in meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

Types of Research Projects

those that relate to states of nature those which relate to relationships between variables

In understanding the problem, it is helpful to discuss it with colleagues or experts in the field. It is also necessary to examine conceptual and empirical literature on the subject. After the literature review, the researcher is able to focus on the problem and phrase it in analytical or operational terms. The task of defining the research problem is of greatest importance in the entire research process. Being able to define the problem unambiguously helps the researcher in discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones.

Extensive literature review

Review of literature is a systematic process that requires careful and perceptive reading and attention to detail. In the review of the literature, the researcher attempts to determine what others have learned about similar research problems. It is important in the following ways:

Specifically limiting and identifying the research problem and possible hypothesis or research questions i.e. sharpening the focus of the research. Informing the researcher of what has already been done in the area. This helps to avoid exact duplication.

If one had the literature and exercised enough patience and industry in reviewing available literature, it may well be that his problem has already been solved by someone somewhere some time ago and he will save himself the trouble. Nwana (1982).

Providing insights into possible research designs and methods of conducting the research and interpreting the results. Providing suggestions for possible modifications in the research to avoid unanticipated difficulties.

The library is the most likely physical location for the research literature. Within the library there is access to books, periodicals, technical reports and academic theses. Other sources are the Education Index and the Educational Resources information centres (ERIC). Computer-assisted searchers of literature have become very common today. They have the advantage of comprehensiveness and speed. They are also very costeffective in terms of time and effort although access to some of the databases requires payment. Irrespective of the sources of the literature, ethics of research require that the source is acknowledged through a clear system of referencing.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

5 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Ans.1.b. Why Literature survey is important in research?

Doing a literature survey before you begin your investigation enables you to take advantage of the unique human capacity to pass on detailed written information from one generation to another. Reading all the knowledge that's accumulated so far on the problem you want to study can be time-consuming and even tedious. But careful evaluation of that material helps make your investigation worthwhile by alerting you to knowledge already gained and problems already encountered in your areas of interest. A literature survey amounts to reading available material on a given topic, analyzing and organizing findings, and producing a summary. There are many sources for literature reviews, including journals of general interest in each discipline, such as the American Political Science Review. There are also journals for specific topics such as the Leadership and Organization Development Journal. Governments publish great quantities of data on many topics. The United Nations and the United States Government Printing Office are two major sources. In addition, businesses and private organizations gather and publish information you might find useful. For certain problems you may want to search through popular or non-scholarly periodicals as well. While its customary to include only data from sources that actually research the problem in a precise fashion, articles in more popular sources may provide interesting insight or orientations. Talking to knowledgeable people may also give you information that helps you formulate your problem. Thoroughness is the key. Most libraries have staff trained in information retrieval who can help find sources and suggest strategies to review the literature. The Internet, of course, now allows easy access to limitless information on given topics. Thoroughness in your review means not only finding all current publications on a topic but locating earlier writing as well. There's no easy rule for how long ago literature was published on your topic. The time varies from problem to problem. A useful way to locate past as well as current writing is to begin with the most current sources likely to contain relevant material. Then, follow these authors' footnotes and bibliographies. At some point in this search you'll find the material is beginning to be only peripherally related to your current interest or that authors claim originality for their work. Of course, doing a good literature survey is easier when you know a great deal about the subject already. In such a case you'd probably be familiar with publications and even other people who do research in your area of interest. But for the novice, efficient use of library/Internet services and organizing how they check sources are especially important skills. Having located literature, keeping a checklist of useful information will help you read each source. You might ask yourself, particularly for research articles: What was the exact problem studied? How were the topics of interest defined? What did the authors expect to find? How were things measured? What research did this author cite? Have you read it? Who were the subjects of study? What do the results show? Do the data presented agree with the written conclusions? What were the limitations of the study? A thorough literature survey should demonstrate that you've carefully read and evaluated each article or book. Because research reports can be tedious and difficult to understand for new researchers, many tend to read others' conclusions or summaries and take the author's word that the data actually support the conclusions. Careful reading of both tables and text for awhile will convince you they don't always agree. Sometimes data are grossly misinterpreted in the text, but on other occasions authors are more subtle. Consider, for example, the following statements: Fully 30 percent of the sample said they did not vote. Only 30 percent of the sample said they did not vote.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

6 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

The percentage is the same, but the impression conveyed is decidedly different. Reading the actual data before accepting the author's conclusions will help prevent some of these errors of interpretation from creeping into your own research. It's important that after you finish your reading, you're able to write your literature survey in a way that's clear, organizing what you know about the content and methods used to study your problem. You may find it helpful to record information about each source on a separate card or piece of paper so that information can later be reshuffled, compared, and otherwise reorganized. Note in most journal articles that what probably began as a long literature survey is usually condensed on the first few pages of the research report, explaining previous research on the problem and how the current study will contribute. You, too, want to add to this growing body of knowledge we call social science by a creative summary of what's been accomplished by others as well as by your own research.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

7 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 3. a. What are the characteristics of a good research design? [ 5marks] b. What are the components of a research design?
Ans. a. Research Design Definition

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure Is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data more explicitly:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. What is the study about? Why is the study being conducted? Where will the study be carried out? What type of data is required? Where can the required data be found?

b. Components of a research design Components of Research Design:

It is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are: 1. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-continuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age is a continuous variable; whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. 2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their selfconcepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables. 3. Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions. Roll No.: 541010448 Assignment Set 1 MB0050 8 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an experimental group. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as experimental groups. A research design may include only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together. Treatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments. Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment. Experiment unit: Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

9 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 4. a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling. b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling? Ans.4. a. DOUBLE SAMPLING
Definition: A standard form of sample design for industrial inspection purposes. In accordance with the characteristics of a particular plan, two samples are drawn, n1 and n2, and the first sample inspected. The batch can then be accepted or rejected upon the results of this inspection or the second sample be inspected and the decision made upon the combined result. Double sampling plans were invented to give a questionable lot another chance. For example, if in double sampling the results of the first sample are not conclusive with regard to accepting or rejecting, a second sample is taken. Application of double sampling requires that a first sample of size n1 is taken at random from the (large) lot. The number of defectives is then counted and compared to the first samples acceptance number a1 and rejection number r1.Denote the number of defectives in sample 1 by d1 and in sample 2 by d2 then: If d1 < a1, the lot is accepted. If d1 > r1, the lot is rejected. If a1 < d1<r1, a second sample is taken. If a second sample of size n2 is taken, the number of defectives,d2, is counted. Thetotal number of defectives is D2=d1+d2. Now this is compared to the acceptance number a2 and the rejection number r2 of sample 2. In double sampling, r2=a2+ 1 to ensure a decision on the sample. If D2 < a2, the lot is accepted. If D2 > r2, the lot is rejected.

MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING Definition:

It is sometimes convenient and economical to collect certain items of information from the whole of the units of a sample and other items of usually more detailed information from a sub-sample of the units constituting the original sample. This may be termed two-phase sampling, e.g. if the collection of information concerning variate, y, is relatively expensive, and there exists some other variate, x, correlated with it, which is relatively cheap to investigate, it may be profitable to carry out sampling in two phases. At the first phase, x is investigated, and the information thus obtained is used either (a) to stratify the population at the second phase, when y is investigated, or (b) as supplementary information at the second phase, a ratio or regression estimate being used. Two-phase sampling is sometimes called "double sampling". Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Advantages cost and speed that the survey can be done in convenience of finding the survey sample normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

10 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Disadvantages Is not as accurate as SRS if the sample is the same size More testing is difficult to do

Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive or not necessary. Under these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster. Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate. In some cases, several levels of cluster selection may be applied before the final sample elements are reached. For example, household surveys conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics begin by dividing metropolitan regions into 'collection districts', and selecting some of these collection districts (first stage). The selected collection districts are then divided into blocks, and blocks are chosen from within each selected collection district (second stage). Next, dwellings are listed within each selected block, and some of these dwellings are selected (third stage). This method means that it is not necessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region, only for selected blocks. In remote areas, an additional stage of clustering is used, in order to reduce travel requirements. Although cluster sampling and stratified sampling bear some superficial similarities, they are substantially different. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from all the strata, where in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied, either in single stage or multi stage.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

11 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q. 4 Ans.

b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling? 4.b is replicated or interpenetrating sampling

Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or multi-stage or single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable nonsampling errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

12 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q5.

a. How is secondary data useful to researcher? b. What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data?

Ans.5. a. Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources have some advantages: 1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities. 2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach. 3. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made. 4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study. 5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected

Ans. 5.b Evaluation of Secondary Data

When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them. 1. Data Pertinence The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered. What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent? What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this coverage fit the needs of our research? On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2. Data Quality If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is the authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data? Does Roll No.: 541010448 Assignment Set 1 MB0050 13 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

it use trained and well qualified investigators? The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary and other comments that were made in the original source.

3. Data Completeness The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the organizations own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important clues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researchers study.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

14 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

Q.6.

What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more appropriate

Ans. 6. Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific
phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study. The most complete form of the sociological datum, after all, is the form in which the participant observer gathers it: An observation of some social event, the events which precede and follow it, and explanations of its meaning by participants and spectators, before, during, and after its occurrence. Such a datum gives us more information about the event under study than data gathered by any other sociological method. Participant observation can thus provide us with a yardstick against which to measure the completeness of data gathered in other ways, a model which can serve to let us know what orders of information escape us when we use other methods. By participant observation we mean that method in which the observer participates in the daily life of the people under study, either openly in the role of researcher or covertly in some disguised role, observing things that happen, listening to what are said, and questioning people, over some length of time. We want, in this paper, to compare the results of intensive field work with what might be regarded as the first step in the other direction along this continuum: the detailed and conversational interview (often referred to as the unstructured or undirected interview).3 In this kind of interview, the interviewer explores many facets of his interviewee's concerns, treating subjects as they come up in conversation, pursuing interesting leads, allowing his imagination and ingenuity full rein as he tries to develop new hypotheses and test them in the course of the interview. In the course of our current participant observation among medical students? we have thought a good deal about the kinds of things we were discovering which might ordinarily be missed or misunderstood in such an interview. W e have no intention of denigrating the interview or even such less precise modes of data gathering as the questionnaire, for there can always be good reasons of practicality, economy, or research design for their use. We simply wish to make explicit the difference in the data gathered by one or the other method and to suggest the differing uses to which they can legitimately be put. In general, the shortcomings we attribute to the interview exist when it is used as a source of information about events that have occurred elsewhere and are described to us by informants. Our criticisms are not relevant when analysis is restricted to interpretation of the interviewee's conduct during the interview, in which case the researcher has in fact observed the behavior he is talking about.? The differences we consider between the two methods involve two interacting factors: the kinds of words and acts of the people under study that the researcher has access to, and the kind of sensitivity to problems and data produced in him. Our comparison may prove useful by suggestive areas in which interviewing (the more widely used method at present and likely to continue so) can improve its accuracy by taking account of suggestions made from the perspective of the participant observer. We begin by considering some concrete problems: learning the native language, or the problem of the degree to which the interviewer really understands what is said to

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

15 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

him; matters interviewees are unable or unwilling to talk about; and getting information on matters people see through distorting lenses. We then consider some more general differences between the two methods.

Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many things that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and everything, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding. When he observed the movements of the vehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. all such things which are not relevant to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic violation are keenly observed by him. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual: it is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context in which persons behavior occur. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the participants. 4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and precision instruments, if any. Observation has following advantages: (1) The main virtue of observation is its directness: It makes it possible to study behavior as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people about their behavior and interactions he can simply watch what they do and say. (2) Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researchers situation for instance, in interviews; the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is no such artificiality into the researched situation for instance, in interview; the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is not such artificiality in observational studies, especially when the observed persons are not aware of their being observed (3) Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birds etc. (4) Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior through observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by observing what they actually do. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conduct than questioning. Interview method Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be defined as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents gesture, facial expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide. Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, and then Roll No.: 541010448 Assignment Set 1 MB0050 16 | P a g e of 17

SMU - Sikkim Manipal University

Spring 2011

interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible. Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once report is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.

Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the behavioural context of the data furnished by the respondents.

There are several advantages to personal interviewing. First the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be secured. When used with well conceived schedules, an interview can obtain a great deal of information. It far exceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data that can be secured. Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the quality of information received than other method. He can note the conditions of the interview situation, and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the respondents unwillingness, incorrect understanding of questions, suspicion, etc. Third, the interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic level, living conditions etc. through observation of the respondents environment. Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing. Fifth, the accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by observation and probing. Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more, control can be exercised over the interview situation. Demerits of interview method Interviewing is not free limitations. Its greatest drawback is that it is costly both in money and time. Second, the interview results are often adversely affected by interviewers mode of asking questions and interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondents faulty perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc. Third, certain types of personal and financial information may be refused in face-to face interviews. Such information might be supplied more willingly on mail questionnaires, especially if they are to be unsigned. Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondents. No full proof system is available. Note taking in invariably distracting to both the respondent and the interviewer and affects the thread of the conversation. Last interview calls for highly interviewers. The availability of such persons is limited and the training of interviewers is often a long and costly process. Situation where observation is appropriate: Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management representatives. Situation where interview method is appropriate: to study the Reading habits of newspaper/magazines readers.

Roll No.: 541010448

Assignment Set 1

MB0050

17 | P a g e of 17