Aa242B: Mechanical Vibrations: Analytical Dynamics of Discrete Systems

AA242B: MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

Analytical Dynamics of Discrete Systems
These slides are based on the recommended textbook: M. Geradin and D. Rixen, Mechanical
Vibrations: Theory and Applications to Structural Dynamics, Second Edition, Wiley, John &
Sons, Incorporated, ISBN-13:9780471975465
Outline
1 Principle of Virtual Work for a Particle
2 Principle of Virtual Work for a System of N Particles
3 Hamiltons Principle for Conservative Systems and Lagrange Equations
4 Lagrange Equations in the General Case
Principle of Virtual Work for a Particle
Particle mass m
Particle force
force vector f = [f
1
f
2
f
3
]
T
force component f
i
, i = 1, , 3
Particle displacement
displacement vector u = [u
1
u
2
u
3
]
T
displacement component u
i
, i = 1, , 3
motion trajectory u(t) where t denotes time
Particle virtual displacement
arbitrary displacement u
(can be zero)
virtual displacement u = u
u arbitrary by denition
family of arbitrary virtual displacements dened in a time-interval
[t
1
, t
2
] and satisfying the variational constraints
u(t
1
) = u(t
2
) = 0
Important property
d
dt
(u
i
) =
d
dt
(u
i
u
i
) =
du
i
dt

du
i
dt
= u
i
u
i
= u
i
=
d
dt
() = (
d
dt
) (commutativity)
Equilibrium
strong form
m u f = 0 m u
i
f
i
= 0, i = 1, , 3
weak form
u, (u
T
)(m u f) = 0
3
X
i =1
(m u
i
f
i
)u
i
= 0
= (m u
i
f
i
)u
i
= 0, i = 1, , 3
u
T
(m u f) = (m u f)
T
u is homogeneous to a work
= virtual work (W)
Virtual work principle
The virtual work produced by the eective forces acting
on a particle during a virtual displacement is equal to zero
Principle of Virtual Work for a System of N Particles
N particles: k = 1, , N
Equilibrium
m u
k
f
k
= 0, k = 1, , N
Family of virtual displacements u
k
= u
k
u
k
satisfying the
variational constraints
u
k
(t
1
) = u
k
(t
2
) = 0 (1)
Virtual work
m u
k
f
k
= 0
N
k=1
u
T
k
(m u
k
f
k
) =
N
k=1
(m u
k
f
k
)
T
u
k
= 0
Conversely, u
k
compatible with the variational constraints (1)
N
k=1
u
T
k
(m u
k
f
k
) = 0
N
k=1
3
i =1
(m
k
u
i
k
f
i
k
)u
i
k
= 0 (2)
If (2) is true u
k
compatible with (1) (2) is true for
u
k
= [1 0 0]
T
, u
k
= [0 1 0]
T
, and u
k
= [0 0 1]
T
=
N
k=1
m
k
u
i
k
f
i
k
= 0, i = 1, , 3
If the virtual work equation is satised for any displacement
compatible with the variational constraints, the system (of particles)
is in dynamic equilibrium
Major result
dynamic equilibrium virtual work principle
Kinematic Constraints
In the absence of (kinematic) constraints, the state of a system of N
particles can be dened by 3N displacement components
u
i
k
, i = 1, , 3, k = 1, N
Instantaneous conguration
i
k
= x
i
k
+ u
i
k
(x, t) 3N dofs
However, most mechanical systems incorporate some sort of
constraints
holonomic constraints
non-holonomic constraints
Holonomic constraints
rheonomic constraints: dened by f (
i
k
, t) = 0 (no explicit
dependence on any velocity)
scleronomic constraints: dened by f (
i
k
) = 0
a holonomic constraint reduces by 1 the number of dofs of a
mechanical system
example
rigidity conservation of length
3
P
i =1
(
i
2

i
1
)
2
= l
2
Non-holonomic constraints
dened by f (

i
k
,
i
k
, t) = 0
example
no slip speed of point P = 0
=
x
1
= 0 r

cos x
1
+ r

cos = 0
y
1
= 0 + r

sin y
1
r

sin = 0
in addition
x
2
x
1
= r sin cos y
2
y
1
= r sin sin z
2
z
1
= r cos
z
1
= r
hence, this system has
8 variables: x
1
, y
1
, z
1
, x
2
, y
2
, z
2
, ,
4 holonomic constraints
2 non-holonomic constraints
in general, f (

i
k
,
i
k
, t) = 0 is not integrable and therefore
non-holonomic constraints do not reduce the number of dofs of a
mechanical system
therefore, the above mechanical system (wheel) has 8 - 4 = 4 dofs
2 translations in the rolling plane
2 rotations
Generalized Displacements
Let n denote the number of dofs of a mechanical system
The generalized coordinates of this system are dened as the n
conguration parameters (q
1
, q
2
, , q
n
) in terms of which the
displacements can be expresses as
u
i
k
(x, t) = U
i
k
(q
1
, q
2
, , q
n
, t)
Example
holonomic constraint HC1:
2
11
+
2
21
= l
2
1
holonomic constraint HC2: (
12

11
)
2
+ (
22

21
)
2
= l
2
2
= 4 2 = 2dofs
one possible choice of (q
1
, q
2
) is (
1
,
2
)
=

11
= l
1
cos
1

21
= l
1
sin
1
12
= l
1
cos
1
+ l
2
cos(
1
+
2
)
22
= l
1
sin
1
+ l
2
sin(
1
+
2
)
Virtual displacements
u
i
k
(x, t) = U
i
k
(q
1
, q
2
, , q
n
, t) u
i
k
=
n
s=1
U
i
k
q
s
q
s
Virtual work equation
n
s=1
_
N
k=1
3
i =1
(m
k
u
i
k
f
i
k
)
U
i
k
q
s
_
q
s
= 0
Second term in above equation can be written as
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
where
Q
s
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
f
i
k
U
i
k
q
s
is the generalized force conjugate to q
s
Hamiltons Principle for Conservative Systems and Lagrange Equations
Sir William Rowan Hamilton (4 August 1805 - 2 September 1865)
Irish physicist, astronomer, and mathematician
contributions: classical mechanics, optics, and algebra (inventor of
quaternions), and most importantly, reformulation of Newtonian
mechanics (now called Hamiltonian mechanics)
impact: modern study of electromagnetism, development of
quantum mechanics
Hamiltons principle =
_
t
2
t
1
virtual work principle!
_
t
2
t
1
_
N
k=1
3
i =1
(m
k
u
i
k
+ f
i
k
)u
i
k
_
dt = 0
where u
i
k
are arbitrary but compatible with eventual constraints
and verify the end conditions (previously referred to as variational
constraints)
First, assume that f
k
derives from a potential V that is,
(f
k
is a conservative force) V / f
k
= V
Virtual work
W =
N
k=1
3
i =1
f
i
k
u
i
k
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
V
x
i
u
i
k
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
V
x
i
x
i
k
= V
W = V W =
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
where
Q
s
=
V
q
s
What about the term associated with the inertia forces?
Note that
d
dt
(m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
) = m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
+ m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
= m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
+ (
1
2
m
k
u
2
i
k
)
= m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
=
d
dt
(m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
) (
1
2
m
k
u
2
i
k
)
The kinetic energy of a system of N particles can be dened as
T =
1
2
N
k=1
3
i =1
m
k
u
2
i
k
Hence, Hamiltons principle for a conservative system can be written
as
_
t
2
t
1
_
N
k=1
3
i =1
(m
k
u
i
k
f
i
k
)u
i
k
_
dt = 0
=
_
t
2
t
1
_
N
k=1
3
i =1
d
dt
(m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
) (
1
2
m
k
u
2
i
k
)
_
dt +
_
t
2
t
1
(V)dt = 0
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
m
k
u
i
k
u
i
k
t
2
t
1
+
_
t
2
t
1
(T V)dt = 0
Recall the generalized displacements
{q
s
} u
i
k
(x, t) = U
i
k
(q
s
, t) u
i
k
= h(q
s
, q
s
, t)
= T = T (q, q, t) and V = V(q, t)
Recall the end conditions
u
i
k
(t
1
) = 0 q
s
(t
1
) = 0 and u
i
k
(t
2
) = 0 q
s
(t
2
) = 0
Therefore, Hamiltons principle (HP) can be written as
_
t
2
t
1
[T (q, q, t) V(q, t)] dt = 0 q / q(t
1
) = q(t
2
) = 0
Equations of motion
T =
n
X
s=1
T
q
s
q
s
+
T
q
s
q
s
V =
n
X
s=1
Q
s
q
s
HP
Z
t
2
t
1
"
n
X
s=1
T
q
s
q
s
+
T
q
s
+ Q
s
q
s
#
dt = 0
integrate by parts and apply the end conditions
n
X
s=1
T
q
s
q
s
t
2
t
1

Z
t
2
t
1
n
X
s=1
d
dt
T
q
s
q
s
dt
+
Z
t
2
t
1
n
X
s=1
T
q
s
+ Q
s
q
s
dt = 0
=
Z
t
2
t
1
n
X
s=1
d
dt
T
q
s
+
T
q
s
+ Q
s
q
s
dt = 0
The Lagrange equations of motion
_
t
2
t
1
n
s=1
[
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
+
T
q
s
+ Q
s
] q
s
dt = 0
q / q(t
1
) = q(t
2
) = 0
=
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
+
T
q
s
+ Q
s
= 0
d
dt
T
q
s
+
T
q
s
: generalized inertia forces
Q
s
: generalized internal and external forces
Joseph-Louis (Giuseppe Lodovico), comte de Lagrange (25 January
1736 - 10 April 1813)
Italian-born mathematician and astronomer
contributions: analysis, number theory, and classical and celestial mechanics
succeeded Euler in 1766 as the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of
Sciences in Berlin
impact: his treatise on analytical mechanics written in Berlin and rst published in
1788 formed a basis for the development of mathematical physics in the 19
th
century
moved to France in 1787 and became a member of the French Academy
survived the French Revolution and became the rst professor of analysis at the

Ecole
Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794
Equations of equilibrium
N
k=1
m
k
u
i
k
f
i
k
= 0, i = 1, , 3: simple,
but can be dicult to formulate analytically for complex systems
Lagranges equations of motion
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
+
T
q
s
+ Q
s
= 0: more
complex, but can simplify the analytical solution of complex dynamic
problems
Classication of Inertia Forces
Recall u
i
k
= U
i
k
(q, t) u
i
k
=
n
s=1
U
i
k
q
s
q
s
+
U
i
k
t
Substitute in the expression of the kinetic energy
T = T
0
(q, t) +T
1
+T
2
where T
0
, T
1
, and T
2
are homogeneous
forms of degree 0, 1, and 2 in q
s
, respectively, and are given by
T
0
(q, t) =
1
2
N
k=1
3
i =1
m
k
_
U
i
k
t
_
2
(transport kinetic energy)
T
1
=
n
s=1
N
k=1
3
i =1
U
i
k
t
m
k
U
i
k
q
s
q
s
(mutual kinetic energy)
T
2
=
1
2
n
s=1
n
r=1
N
k=1
3
i =1
m
k
U
i
k
q
s
U
i
k
q
r
q
s
q
r
(relative kinetic energy)
From Eulers theorem on homogeneous functions of degree p
_
n
s=1
q
i
h(q)
q
i
= ph(q)
_
it follows that
T
1
=
n
s=1
q
s
T
1
q
s
and T
2
=
1
2
n
s=1
q
s
T
2
q
s
Interpretation of the rst two terms of the Lagrange equations of
motion
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
+
T
q
s
=
d
dt
_
T
1
q
s
+
T
2
q
s
_
+

q
s
(T
0
+T
1
+T
2
)
=

t
_
T
1
q
s
_
r=1
2
T
1
q
s
q
r
q
r
d
dt
_
T
2
q
s
_
+

q
s
(T
0
+T
1
+T
2
)
The transport inertia forces are those obtained by setting q
r
= 0
=

t
_
T
1
q
s
_
+
T
0
q
s
The relative inertia forces are those obtained by assuming
U
i
k
t
= 0
=
d
dt
_
T
2
q
s
_
+
T
2
q
s
The complementary inertia forces are given by the remainder
= f
s
=
n
r=1
2
T
1
q
s
q
r
q
r
+
T
1
q
s
Note that since T
1
=
n
r=1
q
r
T
1
q
r
f
s
=
n
r=1
2
T
1
q
s
q
r
q
r
+
T
1
q
s
=
n
r=1
2
T
1
q
s
q
r
q
r
+
n
r=1
2
T
1
q
s
q
r
q
r
=
n
r=1
_

2
T
1
q
s
q
r

2
T
1
q
s
q
r
_
q
r
=
n
r=1
g
rs
q
r
where the coecients g
rs
= g
sr
do not depend on the velocities q
s
,
but only on the generalized displacements and time
The complementary inertia forces have the nature of
gyroscopic forces. Because of the skew-symmetry of the coecients
g
rs
, it follows that
n
s=1
f
s
q
s
=
n
s=1
n
r=1
g
rs
q
r
q
s
= 0
Leonhard Euler (15 April 1707 - 18 September 1783)
Swiss mathematician and physicist
contributions: innitesimal calculus and graph theory
impact: mechanics, uid dynamics, optics, and astronomy
the asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor
Energy Conservation
When the generalized displacements U
i
k
are independent of time,
T = T
2
=
1
2
n
s=1
n
r=1
N
k=1
3
i =1
m
k
U
i
k
q
s
U
i
k
q
r
q
s
q
r
=
1
2
n
s=1
q
s
T
2
q
s
=
homogeneous quadratic form of the generalized velocities
Dierentiation with respect to time of the above expression leads to
2
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
q
s
T
q
s
+
n
s=1
q
s
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
(3)
From T = T (q, q) it follows that
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
q
s
T
q
s
+
n
s=1
q
s
T
q
s
(4)
(3) - (4)
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
q
s
_
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
T
q
s
_
Energy Conservation
From the Lagrange equations of motion, it follow that
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
q
s
Q
s
Since for conservative forces Q
s
=
V
q
s
, it follows that
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
=
n
s=1
V
q
s
q
s
=
dV
dt
and therefore
d
dt
(T +V) = 0 E = T +V = cst
Classication of Generalized Forces
Internal forces
linking forces
elastic forces
dissipation forces (may have external origins too)
External forces
conservative forces
non-conservative forces
Linking forces
f
i
1
+ f
i
2
= 0, i = 1, , 3
virtual work: W =
3
P
i =1
f
i
1
u
i
1
+ f
i
2
u
i
2
=
3
P
i =1
f
i
1
(u
i
1
u
i
2
)
for admissible virtual displacements (compatible with the real
displacements), u
i
1
= u
i
2
W = 0
Linking forces do NOT contribute to the generalized forces
acting on the global system
the above result is a nice aspect of Lagrangian mechanics
Elastic forces
produced work is storable in a recoverable form
V
int
=
3
X
i =1
N
X
k=1
V
int
u
i
k
u
i
k
= T
V
int
= V
int
(q, t) T =
n
P
s=1
Q
s
q
s
= V
int
where
Q
s
=
V
int
q
s
Dissipative forces
remain parallel in opposite direction to the velocity vector v and are function of its
modulus v =
s
3
P
i =1
u
2
i
k
f
k
= C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
k
v
k
virtual work
W =
n
X
s=1
3
X
i =1
N
X
k=1
C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
i
k
v
k
u
ik
q
s
q
s
=
n
X
s=1
Q
s
q
s
=Q
s
=
3
X
i =1
N
X
k=1
C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
i
k
v
k
u
ik
q
s
since v
i
k
=
du
i
k
dt
=
u
i
k
t
+
n
X
s=1
u
i
k
q
s
q
s
and
v
i
k
q
s
=
u
i
k
q
s
, it follows that
Q
s
=
3
X
i =1
N
X
k=1
C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
i
k
v
k
v
ik
q
s
=
N
X
k=1
C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
k
q
s
1
2
3
X
i =1
v
2
i
k
!
=
N
X
k=1
C
k
f
k
(v
k
)
v
k
q
s
Dissipation function: D =
N
k=1
_
v
k
0
C
k
f
k
()d Q
s
=
D
q
s
Dissipated power: P =
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
=
n
s=1
q
s
D
q
s
If D is assumed to be a homogeneous function of order p in the
generalized velocities, then
dT
dt
=
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
=
dV
dt

n
s=1
q
s
D
q
s
=
dV
dt
pD
=
d
dt
(T +V) = pD
p = 1: dry friction
p = 2: viscous damping
p = 3: aerodynamic drag
Conservative external forces: these derive from a potential
V
ext
/ Q
s
=
V
ext
q
s
their virtual work during a cycle is zero
W =
_
Q
s
q
s
=
_
V
ext
q
s
q
s
=
_
V
ext
= 0
Non-conservative external forces
W =
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
f
i
k
u
i
k
=
3
i =1
N
k=1
n
s=1
f
i
k
u
i
k
q
s
q
s
= Q
s
=
N
k=1
3
i =1
f
i
k
u
i
k
q
s
Summary: taking into account the non-conservative external forces,
the power balance of a system solicited by internal and external
forces can be written as
d
dt
(T +V) = pD +
n
s=1
Q
s
q
s
Lagrange Equations in the General Case
In the general case of a non-conservative system with rheonomic
constraints, the Lagrange equations of motion can be written as
d
dt
_
T
q
s
_
+
T
q
s
V
q
s
D
q
s
+ Q
s
(t) = 0
where
V = V
ext
+ V
int
= total potential
D = dissipation function
Q
s
(t) = non-conservative external generalized forces

Aa242B: Mechanical Vibrations: Analytical Dynamics of Discrete Systems

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AA242B: MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

AA242B: MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

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