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(1) Problems of Syntax Syntax is the branch of linguistics which studies the structure of sentence.

It is concerned with the ways words are combined to form sentences. Ilyish recognizes two levels within the domain of syntax: that of phrases and that of sentence. The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of phrases are widely recognized Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase, Prepositional phrase. Ex. The old man was staring gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP the old man, the window; one prepositional phrase out of the window; and so on. A consideration should be done between two other notions sentence and clause. It is with specimens of simple sentences that we study such categories as parts of the sentence, main and secondary; word order, and other different notions. As long as we come to composite (a term found in Ilyish, standing for both complex and compound) sentences, we have to deal with the notions of main clause, head clause, and subordinate clause. Whatever is said about a simple sentence also applies to an independent clause within a composite sentence. 1 a) Syntactic patterns. Ilyish speaks of phrase patterns and sentence patterns. Phrase patterns can be as follows: A + N, Nm + N, V + Adv, V + N (words belonging to different class); N + N, V + V, Adj. + Adj., Adv. + Adv. (words belonging to the same class). English simple sentence/clause structure is made up of the following 5 constituents: S subject, V verb, O object, C complement, A adverbial modifier. The S usually stands in initial position and is followed by the V. The types of verbs are essential for the types of sentence patterns. Each clause pattern has a nucleus (which is obligatory part) and may attach optional extensions. (Cs Complement to the Subject, Subject Complement; Co Complement to the Object, Object Complement; Cp Predicator complement) SV The train arrived. SVC Shes a teacher.; She became a teacher. S V Cs He is a students. S V Cp The boy resembles his father. SVA She is in London. SVO He broke the window. SVOC S V O Cs Mary will make John (IO) a good wife (CS). S V O Co Mary made John (DO) a fool (Co). S V O Cp He turned him (DO) into a slave (Cp). S V O A He put the vase (DO) on the table (Adverbial modifier). S V O O He gave his sister (IO) a book (DO). 1 b) Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies those aspects of meaning which derive from the context of an utterance, rather than being intrinsic to the linguistic material itself. According to Leech, Grammar is what is expressed on the surface level and pragmatics is what is expressed on the deep level. According to Cook pragmatic meaning illustrates what a word or utterance means and does, according to the context. It is not usually perceived as an authority to semantic meaning but as dependent upon it. Pragmatic meaning is derived from the interaction of semantic meaning with the context.

(2) Types of Syntactic Relations 2 a) Coordination is a grammatical means of connecting clauses with equal rank. It is a joining syntactical relationship. It is a typical syntactic relation by which a sentence can be extended it may involve more than two members. The dog frightened the child.; The dog frightened the child and chased his brother. etc. Coordination in a sentence can be syndetic when it uses coordinators like conjunctions or adverbs or it can be asyndetic without coordinators. Ex. I went to the market and there I bought fruit. (syndetic); People appeared, cars disappeared, the situation got worse. (asyndetic) Coordination is the typical means of joining clauses in Compound Sentences. There are several types of coordination in the compound sentence: Copulative coordination with its typical coordinator and. And denotes simple addition if there is logical connection. By and can be implied: a) chronological consequence/successive action She did her homework and she went for a walk.; He kissed her and sat down.; b) result He saw the crash and called the police.; c) parallelism She loves and admires him.; d) contrast John is nice and his sister is nasty.; e) condition Give me some money and Im going to help you.; f) simple addition He has long hair and he wears blue jeans. Nor and neither indicates that both clauses are negative. Neither Peter wanted that job, nor did his wife. Disjunctive coordination central coordinator or. This type of coordination suggests choice the meaning of one clause excludes the other clause (one or the other of the clauses is true but not both of them). He is at work or he is at home. Or indicates alternative: You can cook a meal or you can go to a restaurant. Adversative coordination the central coordinator is but; other are whereas, while, nevertheless, however all of them denote contrast. The room was small but the corridor was wide. 2 b) Subordination is a syntactic relation where the joined members are not of equal rank. In the sentence The dog frightened the child. the verb frighten demands something to complete its meaning the child (in this case). The child is subordinate to the verb. Some verbs demand a phrase, others a whole sentence. Some word class needs something to complete their meaning semantically. Subordination is binary and involves only two members in most cases. It is non-symmetrical relationship: Ann loves John because he has a big house. When it is not binary, there is a hierarchical organization. Subordination appears within the complex sentence in which one or more parts are represented by clauses. 2 c) There are two types of subordination concord and contact. Concord means the agreement of a verb with its subject as in He does, They do. There are several types of concord: I) Grammatical concord refers to: - Common countable nouns: a clause in the position of S How they got there doesnt interest me.

(part of Q 2) II) Concord of person as with to be I am, You are and Present Simple She plays III) Notional concord agreement to the idea of member The police have difficult job.

IV) Proximity agreement with the word that

precedes the verb Nobody, not even teachers were listening. V) Subject-Object concord in member and gender He injured himself in the leg. VI) Subject-Complement concord in number The child was an angel. VII) Pronoun concord refers to personal pronoun which agrees with their antecedents in number. Contact is another relation. It means that the verb agrees in number with the word that precedes the verb One of ten agree to go home. 2 d) Interdependence it concerns two syntactic units which are independent (comperatively) and at the same time dependent on each other. The dog independent but at the same time dependent on the child. 2 e) Accumulative relations are another type of relations, ex. my own children my and own are not similar in grammatical terms. They form a kind of collocation. In the phrase my own house my own refers to house, house is the head word (antecedent), and my doesnt refer to own. We cannot use my without own. very big houses the adj big is subordinate to houses, very is subordinate to big; houses is independent. The position of the words also determines whether the item is in position of coordination or subordination. Ex. garden flowers; flower garden.

(3) Principle of Combination of Word Classes Grammar has to study the aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of the worlds making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions of the phrase as a whole. A) Combinations of words belonging to the same class 1) Noun + Noun Noun Phrase Johns bag; science fiction This is a most usual type of phrase in Modern English. It must be divided into two subtypes, depending on the form of the first component, which may be in the common or in the genitive case. The type noun in the common case + noun may be used to denote one idea as modified by another in the widest sense. We find here a most varied choice of semantic spheres, such as speech sound, silver watch, army unit. The first component may be a proper name as well, as in phrases a Beethoven symphony or London Bridge. The type noun in the genitive case + noun has a more restricted meaning and use. 2) Verb + Verb Verb phrase to be + inf She is to come late to be + pres. Part. continuous tense modal verb + inf She can write 3) Adj + Adj yellowish brown 4) Adv + Adv fairly quickly B) 1) Some combination of words belong to different clauses Adj + Noun Noun Phrase blue shirt Another very common type, which is used to express all possible kinds of things with their properties. Num. + Noun Noun Phrase three birds V + Adv Verb Phrase speaks loudly

2) 3)

- Nexus construction non-finite verb forms To

say this in public was stupid. - Prepositional phrase After the exam is the time. - There may be not in concord with the following noun phrase: There is hundreds of people on the waiting list.

(14) The complex sentence (Types) In complex sentences the clauses are not on an equal footing. In the simplest case, a complex sentence consisting of two clauses only, one of these is the main/independent clause, and the other a subordinate clause. The independent clause can function as a complete sentence. The subordinate clause also contains a subject and a verb but cannot function as an independent sentence. Ex. We surveyed the damage as the wind subsided. The semantic relations that can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied that with coordination: such as relation of time, place, concession, purpose, etc. are expressly stated in complex sentences only. Then again, the means of expressing subordination are much more numerous there is a great variety of conjunctions [when, after, before, while, till, until, though, that, as, because, since, etc.], a number of phrases performing the same function [as soon as, as long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as, etc,], besides a certain number of conjunctive words: relative pronouns [who, which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever] and the relative adverbs [where, how, whenever, wherever, however, why]. The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well. For instance, if the main clause of a complex sentence is interrogative or imperative, this implies that the complex sentence as a whole is also interrogative or imperative respectively. Ex. Never you mind (imperative) how old she is., so the whole sentence is imperative.

V + Noun Verb Phrase It may correspond to two different types of relation between an action and a thing. In the vast majority of cases the noun denotes an object of the action expressed by the verb, but in a certain number of phrases it denotes a measure rather than the object, of the action. This may be seen in such phrases as, walk a mile, sleep an hour, wait a minute, etc. It is only the meaning of the verb and that of the noun which enable the hearer or reader to understand the relation correctly. V + Noun Predicative ( ) She is a student. V + Noun Object Im reading a book.

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V + Pronoun Verb Phrase I saw her

(4) The Simple Sentence (types) includes clause/simple sentence patterns. The Sentence is a group of words capable of expressing a complete thought or meaning (according to traditional definition). The sentence is a main unit of analysis in Syntax. It is unique among other linguistic units because there is no an inventory (list of all possible sentences). The sentence is a chunk of text made up of units which are known as immediate constituents. According to type of communication there are 4 types of sentences: I) Declarative type, which contains statement, which gives information about events, grammatically they are characterized by Subject-Predicate structure with the direct word order. The statement can be positive or negative. Ex. They work in a factory. II) Interrogative sentences contain questions and have communicative function to ask for information 1. General questions they open with a verb operator auxiliary, link verb or modal. The tone is rising and the word order is Verb-Subject Has (operator) she (S) been (V) there? Do (operator) you (S) agree (V)? 2. Tag questions consist only of an operator, which is prompted by the verb in the statement and a pronoun prompted by the Subject. When the statement is positive, the tag is negative. Negative statement positive tag negative answer You didnt go to school, did you? Negative statement negative tag/Positive statement positive tag conclusion of the speaker; these are used to make a guess, to express interest, surprise Your mothers at home, is she? You dont like my cooking, dont you? 3. Alternative questions imply choice between two or more answers. They open with an operator but the suggestion is expressed by or. Is she coming or not? Is - operator 4. Rhetorical question, dont expect an answer Didnt I tell you it would rain? 5. Wh-questions open with an interrogative pronoun which aims to get detailed information Where did you last night? III) Imperative sentences express commands, request or warning. They aim to make someone perform an action Dont do that! IV) Exclamative sentences express strong feeling. The question words are intensifiers expressing a high degree of emotion Strawberries! How nice! Similarly, Huddleson distinguishes four main types: 1) declarative You made a good job of it.; 2) interrogative Did you make a good job of it?; 3) exclamative What a good job you made of it!; 4) imperative Make a good job of it!. Huddleson though prefers the term clause type to the term sentence type because in the following case Come with us by all means, but you may find it hard work., the composite sentence consists of a sequence of clauses. It is the separate clauses that are classified by type (Come with us by all means is imperative and the second is decl.). The sentence as a whole cannot be assigned to any of the four types, but when a sentence has the form of a clause we can talk of the sentence as being declarative or whatever. Declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative are syntactic categories. They are terms in a system of clause/simple sentence classes distinguished form each other by certain features of syntactic structure. Statement, question, exclamation and directive (last one is Huddlesons term for command) are the corresponding semantic

(part of Q 4) categories. Stating, questioning, and directing are to be different kinds of illocutionary act.. H. distinguishes exclamation as somewhat different from the other three types in that it involves an emotive element of mean that can be overlaid on a statement, a question, or a directive. (What a rough he was!; How, on earth, did you do it so quickly?; Take that bloody grin off your face!) Syntactically only the first one is exclamation, the second is interrogative and the 3rd imperative but they all function as exclamative. The types of Sentences according to structure are (1) Simple and (2) Composite term found in Ilyish, it refers to both complex and compound sentences. Simple Sentence contains one clause or only one Subject-Predicate unit. According to the members of the simple sentence we can distinguish two types: one-member sentences and two-member sentences. This distinction is based on the difference in the main parts of a sentence. One-member sentences have only one principal part but it is not a subject or predicate: Night. An old park. 1. There are two subtypes of one-member sentence: a) Nominal, when the principal part is expressed by noun: Silence! b) Verbal, in which the principal part is expressed by the non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund To think of what? 2. Two-member sentences they have subject and predicate. They can be complete and incomplete (or elliptical). a) Complete sentence I came straight here. b) Incomplete/elliptical, i.e. a two-member sentence with either the subject or the predicate omitted (different than the one-member sentence) Ready? English simple sentence/clause structure is made up of the following 5 constituents: S subject, V verb, O object, C complement, A adverbial modifier. The S usually stands in initial position and is followed by the V. The types of verbs are essential for the types of sentence patterns. Each clause pattern has a nucleus (which is obligatory part) and may attach optional extensions. (Cs Complement to the Subject, Subject Complement; Co Complement to the Object, Object Complement; Cp Predicator complement) SV The train arrived. SVC Shes a teacher.; She became a teacher. S V Cs He is a students. S V Cp The boy resembles his father. SVA She is in London. SVO He broke the window. SVOC S V O Cs Mary will make John (IO) a good wife (CS). S V O Co Mary made John (DO) a fool (Co). S V O Cp He turned him (DO) into a slave (Cp). S V O A He put the vase (DO) on the table (Adverbial modifier). S V O O He gave his sister (IO) a book (DO).

(5) The phrase, Nexus Constructions [Phrase] Ilyish recognizes two levels within the domain of Syntax, that of phrases and that of sentences. He term phrase as every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word (for instance the perfect forms of verbs). The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech. For instance they may both be nouns, or one of them man be an adjective and the other noun, or again one of them maby and a verb and the other a noun, or one may be preposition and the other noun; or there may be three of them. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. A phrase as such has no intonation, just as a word has none. The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of phrases are widely recognized Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase, Prepositional phrase. Ex. The old man was staring gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP the old man, the window; one prepositional phrase out of the window; and so on. NP is an important syntactic category. Its most obvious characteristic is that it can perform certain functions in a sentence, such as S, DO, or PrO. VP is another important syntactic category. In a sentence consists of a verb together with its obligatory objects and complements and its optional modifiers, but excludes the S of the sentences. Most typically, a VP functions as the predicate of a sentence. Ex. Susie [spread the peanut butter carefully over the bread]; Susie [wants to {go home}]; Susie [has decided that she {needs a new car}]. A VP may also function as a complement of a verb, which means that it is contained within a larger VP, ex. {go home}, and {needs a new car}. Adj.P is an entire phrase which behaves just like an Adjective: it takes the position of an adjective and modifies a noun like an adjective. Ex. very big, proud of her achievements, more expensive than that one. An AP normally contains an adjective as its head (big, proud, expensive). Adv.P is a complete phrase which behaves just like a simple adverb, such as very carefully or more slowly than Lisa. PrP is a syntactic unit consisting of a preposition followed by a noun phrase, ex. in the box, under the bed, to London, without a hope, in front of the house, in spite of her protestations. [Ilyish] The syntactic relations between the components of a phrase fall under two categories (1) agreement or concord, (2) government. [Nexus constructions] There are many different kinds of nexuses according to Mincoff although the nexus contains no verb, it contains some form of the non-finite verb infinitive, participle, gerund. Ex. Seeing (pres. part.) the books on the table; I enjoy seeing a nice film. Nexus constructions are widely used in English because they are more universal than finite verb forms. Nexus construction may functions as:

(part of Q 5) distinguish the following cases: 1. Objective case + Infinitive I saw him (Objective case) run (infinitive). This construction is used after the verbs of: - Sense perception see, smell, feel, hear, notice I noticed her arrive. - Command, desire ask, want, wish - Causation cause, make, get, force She forced him to go. 2. Nominative case + to infinitive it usually goes with passive voice verbs: She was noticed to come. 3. The construction for to Ex. For John to marry her will be a disaster. This structure may function as subject, predicate, attribute, object and adverbial modifier. Nexus construction with the -ing form. It refers to the following: 1. The absolute construction which has a subject of its own: Nobody saying a word (abs. construction), the meeting was closed. 2. The extrapositional attribute it does not have subject of its own and refers to the main subject of the sentence Talking loudly (-ing NC), she prepared the dinner. 3. The unattached participle is a structure which has no subject of its own Looking up the hill (NC impersonal), a cottage can be seen. Nexus construction with the Past Participle. These structures are the same types as those with the -ing form. 1. The absolute construction The job done (abs. construction), they went home. 2. The extrapositional attribute Broke in spirit (NC), he retired. 3. The unattached participle in very rare cases. Nexus object I heard that matter discussed (NO) last night. (part of Q 14) Above we defined a complex sentence as a sentence containing at least one subordinate clause. Any classification of complex sentences is therefore bound to be based on a classification of subordinate clauses. The main clause is a clause which does not form part of a larger clause. Every sentence necessarily contains at least one main clause. A complex sentence contains in addition at least one subordinate clause. The subordinate clause cannot stand alone to make a complete sentence by itself, but which must be attached to another clause in a complete sentence. There are several types: (1) an adverbial clause We left [before we arrived]; (2) a relative clause The runner [who dropped the baton] was draught; (3) a complement clause She says [that she will come]; (4) an embedded question I dont know [where she is]; (5) a sentential subject [That she smokes] surprised me. Ilyish classifies the subordinate clauses in the complex sentence based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of simple sentence. He talks about subject, predicative, object, attributive, adverbial [clauses of place, of time, of result, of purpose, of concession, of manner and comparison, causal and conditional cl.], appositional and parenthetical clauses. It seems that he rejects the existence of relative clauses in the complex sentence basically stating that each subordinate clause can be viewed as relative clause. Similarly to the case with the compound sentences here we can also talk about syndetic (with coordinators) and asyndetic (without coordinators)

(6) Word order (FSP, Pragmatics) Word order in English is very rigid. There are several reasons for that. The personal endings of the verb have disappeared except for the 3 p.sg.pres.simple tense. The adjective appears in one single form and sometimes the adj. are homonymous with the adverbs. The SVO (subject-verb-object) word order is typical for English and any change of it is strictly formalized and follows specific rules. The word order is functional it carries meaning. The words are fixed in a sentence and there are strict rules for their position. The basic word order of a declarative clause is Subject Verb Object. This pattern expresses the relation in the real world: Actor=S + Action=V + Goal=O There are two deviations for this basic word order pattern inversion and dislocation. Inversion concerns the SV order transformed into VS order: S and V change their position. Inversion can be: - Partial when only the auxiliary comes before the Subject Have you seen him? = Vaux. S Vfull - Full inversion When a full verb comes before the subject Here comes the sun. Inversion can also be: I) Grammatical (functional) when is caused by some grammatical process like interrogation Have you seen him? Functional inversion (FI) indicates that a sentence is not declarative. Inversion is a means structuring the sentence so as to indicate some grammatical process. 1. FI in questions: Do you know this? 2. FI in imperative sentences Dont (Vaux.) you (S) come (Vfull) here! 3. FI in exclamatory sentences very restricted How boring is this man (full inversion) 4. Conditional sentences without if Were I a king I would do many things. II) Dislocational inversion when is caused by the dislocation of some sentence constituent to initial position. Dislocation means shifting some sentences constituents form their normal position. Spassov calls it emphasis through dislocation. The speaker is producing sentences and direct his and listeners attention to a certain word in a sentence. Ex. Never had he seen such a beautiful vase. The whole perspective is changed and the attention is drawn to never. It is a means of emphasis. I visited him often (AM). Often (dislocated AM) did (Vaux) I (S) visit (V full) him. 1. Dislocation of the S (subject) because the S is in initial position there will be a contradiction. Thats why we may consider as subject dislocation the case with complex subject with anticipatory it: It is obvious that he is not going to come. That he is not going to come (S = subordinate clause), is obvious. 2. Dislocation of the V (verb) (predicate). If we place the V before S it will be mean inversion but there is a structure in English with there which is not inverted pattern. There arrived (V) a stranger (S) in town.; Away ran the cat. in a fairy tales. After direct speech Thats enough, said Human. 3. Dislocation of the O (object) With inversion Not a word did she say.

(part of Q 6) 4. Dislocation of adverb With meaning of frequency Often have I seen such things. With negative meaning Hardly (AM) had (Vaux.) she (S) done (Vfull) anything wrong. When the adverbial is thus to indicate manner 5. Dislocation of predicative (Cs) No full (Cs) was he. Other cases of inversion: 1. When a statement is repeated I and ready. So, am I.; 2. Full inversion with phrasal verbs: Out went the lights, in rushed the guests. [FSP] The Prague school introduced the idea of the functional sentence perspective. Most sentences consists of two sections, one of them containing that which is the starting point of the statement (or the old information), and the other the new information for whose sake the sentence has been uttered or written. The pair of terms used to express these two sections is theme and rheme. The theme need not necessarily be something known in advance. It is the starting point of the sentence, not its conclusion. In Modern English there are several ways of showing that a word or phrase corresponds wither to the rheme or to the theme. Ways of showing that a word or phrase corresponds with the rheme: (1) The construction it is that [who, which] with the word or phrase representing the rheme enclosed between the word it is and the word that [who, which]. Ex. For it is the emotion that matters. (2) Another means of pointing out the rheme is a particle (only, even, etc.) accompanying the word or phrase in question. Ex. Only the children, of whom there were not many, appeared aware and truly to belong to their surroundings, for the over-excited games they played (3) Another means of indicating the rheme may sometimes be the indefinite article. Ex. Suddenly the door opened and a little birdlike elderly woman in a neat grey skirt and coat seemed almost to hop into the room. [change a with the]. Means of representing that a word or phrase corresponds with the theme: (1) It may be achieved by using the definite article. (2) Another means is a loose parenthesis introduced by the prepositional phrase as for [as to]. Ex. As for the others, great numbers of them moved past slowly or rapidly, singly or groups, carrying bags or parcels, asking for directions

Subject To live in Sofia (NC = S) was her ambition. Object Ive seen this play performed (NC = O) in many towns. Predicative She appeared to like it.

Attribute His desire to meet her is not weaker. Nexus construction with the infinitive. We can

Without inversion That book (O) I know Dislocation of the O for contrast Some things (O) I (S) can do (V) and some things (O) I (S) cannot

complex sentence. (7) The Subject (Impersonal constructions) The Subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence which together with the Predicate constitute the predicative bond. The S is the thing (including objects, person, and abstract notions) which is subjected to description by the predicate. Its features and characteristics are described by the predicate. The S is a nominal constituent. The S is a main part and it doesnt depend on other sentence constituents. It is in an agreement with the predicate S-V concord. Concord helps to indentify the S. The S in English is always in initial position before the verb. The train arrived. S may form a sentence Whos calling? John. There is such term as empty subject in English or a lesser when it functions as a grammar element, without semantic meaning. It rains. She entered and closed the door. here, the second clause has not a subject for economy. This is called ellipsis, and concerns the syntactic level. As English Language develops from synthetic to analytical one the personal endings of the verb are dropped. That is why the S is obligatory. Semantic types of the S: I) Agentive subject when the doer of the action is the subject. John (S) read the letter. II) Affected subject in the same semantic relation, the doer is expressed by a prepositional phrase The letter (S) was read by John. III) Instrumental Subject denotes the instrument of the verbal action The key opened the door. actually somebody with the key opened the door. IV) Force Subject when a natural or mechanical force performs the action. The wind broke the window. V) Recipient Subject with the verbs of possession John has a car.; with the verbs of perception I see her every day.; with prototypical passive The girl was given an apple. My friend (S) was shown a picture. VI) Locative Subject it denotes location The city is foggy. VII) Temporal Subject denotes time Yesterday (S) was a holiday. VIII) Eventive Subject it denotes events The performance (S) started early. [Morphological realization of the Subject] Subject is mostly expressed by a noun or another part of speech but nominal in its character. The S is a nominal constituent of the sentences substantival. Subject can be realized by: 1) A noun phrase this is the prototypical morphological word class: a) Simple noun phrase Blood (S) is thicker than water. (part of Q 7) Subject Impersonal constructions Constructions it a finite or non-finite verb clause It is difficult to remember this poem. There is a theoretical issue with this kind of construction, as to what should be treated as a S. It is difficult to do this. 1. The first view is that it is the formal subject, whereas to do it is the notional subject. 2. The second view it is the S and difficult is a subject complement. 3. In this case we have discontinuous S made up of it + to do it where the constituents are separated from each other but together they form one unit. Most expressions of anticipator can be rendered with another type of structures: It is evident that he is the best. That he is the best is evident. Constructions with unstressed there. Such sentences are known as existential sentences: There is a cat under the bed. This construction has an important role in English because it makes it possible to shift the real subject to put it after the verb. One day there came a stranger into the village. There constructions are a legitimate way of placing the S after the verb. It could be necessary of the following reasons: a) Communicative purposes the most important new information has to be placed at the end. One day in the little village there appeared a white swallow. (8) The Predicate (Types, Classification) [dictionary] In the traditional two-way division of a sentence, all that part of the sentence which is not the subject. There are two major views as to what should be treated as predicate. The first one makes a distinction between a grammatical operator and a notional component He (S) had (Operator) given the boy a book (predication). Here the operator operates with the grammatical categories whereas the prediction bears the semantics. In the second view the predicate is regarded as the verb form which may take some complements. He (S) had given (P) the boy a book (Complement). This is the traditional definition which is usually followed. The P is the second main part of the sentence. It says predicates something about the S. In most cases it is a verb but there are exceptions. Predicates contain finite verb forms which agree with the Subjects in number and person. According to their structure predicates could be simple and compound. Morphologically they are verbal and nominal. The combination of the two groups determines four types: Simple verbal predicate Simple nominal Compound verbal Compound nominal 1) The Simple Verbal predicate (SV predicate) is made up of finite verb form in indicative (which consists of one word only). 2) The Simple Nominal predicate (SNp) is expressed by a noun or an adjective it does not contain verb forms He a gentlemen!!! here we have an exclamation of absurdity. Another subtype is of elliptical sentences Wonderful thing, beer! The Compound Predicate consists of analytical verb tenses formed of a finite and a non-finite verb forms. The finite form is called operator: He has (operator only the first auxiliary) been writing letter for an hour. There are forms expressing mood, tense, aspect, voice, and a second form carrying meaning.

(V). (9) The Predicative (Gram&Sem Characteristics) The Predicative (Cs) is part of the compound nominal predicate; it is the nominal part. It completes the meaning of the link verb. [Intensive (or link) verbs have a meaning which is locked in the subject and does not go out of it.]. The Predicative (Cs) refers back to the S through the verb. S V Cs He became a teacher (Cs). The predicative could be an adjective or a noun. It denotes a feature or characteristic of the S. She got angry (Cs = adj.).; She is a nurse (Cs = noun). I) Classification according to the meaning of the link verb, which can be stative or dynamic: 1) Predicatives of becoming they represent a change of state, or some new feature of the Subject She turned pale.; He became teacher. 2) Predicatives of being, which represent a permanent feature of the state of the subject She looks nice.; He seems happy. seem acquires a meaning of being and can be substituted by is. Different types of directions are formed (affected by the verb): SVCs The direction is towards the Subject. The Verb cant function without a predicative. SVO There is a strong syntactic relation between the V and the Predicative (Cs). There is no change of the meaning of the verb. II) Classification according to the degree of connection with the link verb, there are: 1) Extra-positional predicative outside the clause There he sat, a giant among wolves. Here the connection is loose and if we miss the predicate the sentences still exists. When the connection with the link verb is loose the verb has a strong lexical meaning of its own. (10) The Object (Structural and Semantic Classification) Objects are part of the complementation of the verb. They complete the meaning and refer to a participant directly or indirectly affected by the verbal action. Typically, objects are substantival nominal constituents (= NP). Burton-Roberts distinguishes 6 types of verbs according to the type of object they take intransitive, mono-transitive, di-transitive, intensive, complex transitive and prepositional. The intransitive verb group is one that doesnt require any further constituent to the verb phrase. A mono-transitive verb group is one which requires single noun phrase to complement it. That noun phrase is said to action as a direct object ex. Max spotted those wild cats.(DO) A di-transitive verb group is one which requires two noun phrases as its complementation. Objects, depending on the relation to the verbal action, fall into DO (directly affected by the verbal action), IO (indirectly affected) and Ob (very similar to IO, difference the paraphrase for). In most cases di-transitive verbs take one IO and one DO. Ex. Max will buy his butler (IO) a salami slicer (DO). Since the indirect object is mainly a person and the direct one a thing, their great interest fall in the person and this generally leads to it being mentioned first. [IO can be recognized by its position. The IO always precedes the DO.] I told him the news. The indirect object should have the meaning [+human] or at least [+animate]. The typical case is when the IO is (animate), whereas the DO is inanimate. Then the distinction animate vs. inanimate helps differentiate between recipient and thing received I gave the girl an apple. English demonstrates a universal tendency: [animate] > [inanimate]. Thats why if 2 elements are structurally identical, the animate one will come closer to the verb and thus precede the inanimate: S V NP (animate) NP (inanimate). This is due to the phenomenon created by and centered on and around humans. Theres only 1 exception to this rule when the objects are pronouns, then the DO may precede the IO I gave it to her. If, however, the 2 objects are structurally different, then theres a tendency for the simpler structure to come first and then follows the more complex structure: [simple] > [more complex] I gave the apple to the girl. NP > PP (=P + NP) According to M. Mincoff the verbs that take an indirect object fall into two groups: (1)Verbs of giving They offered him a big toast.; (2) Verbs of communication She told him a lie. There is, however, a small group of ditransitive verbs, where the distinction DO vs. IO is neutralized. Diagnostic features for IO are: 1) It cant stand alone, it must be accompanied by DO.

b)

When the S is very large and it needs to be placed at the end There came the day when we finally met after long years of negotiations, broken promises and lies. (large subject) Another kind of Impersonal Construction is a prepositional phrase: After 5 oclock (S) is the best time to meet.

2)

3)

b) Complex noun phrase The girl you are talking


to (S = complex NP) is my secretary. 2) A finite verb clause

a) That-clause That his wife has left him (S b) Wh-clause What was said about (S) is
irrelevant. 3) A non-finite verb clause stupid. finite verb clause) doesnt make him unhappy. (part of Q 8) The compound phraseological predicate the verb here is reduced to an auxiliary and losses part of its semantics. This is a result of the analytical tendencies of the language. They are frequent in spoken language. We can distinguish 2 types of Compound phraseological predicate: - Verb + substantive It took time The verb take lost here a lot of semantics. Examples: to pay attention; to take shelter; to make sense; etc. Verb + indefininte article + substantive He didnt

The Compound Nominal predicate is made up of link verb + predicative. Here the link verb is void of lexical meaning; it is a bridge between the subject and the predicative. He is a teacher (CNp). The predicative here bears the semantic content. 4) The Compound Verbal predicate (CVp) it consists of 2 parts: - a semi-auxiliary part it is a finite verb which can have a modal or aspect meaning - a notional part which bears the lexical meaning of the predicate (an infinitive or ing form) Depending on the meaning of the semi-auxiliary there are 2 subtypes of CVp: a) The compound modal verbal predicate contains a semi-auxiliary with modal meaning: - Modal + infinitive can, make - Be, have + infinitive He was to arrive. He is to give a lecture tomorrow.

Supplementary predicative She married young here the predicative completes the meaning of the verb. The connection is still relatively loosed and the predicative can be omitted She married. The Supplementary predicative may be part of a Nexus obj They pointed the door green (NexusO) 3) The True Predicative in this case the link verb is void of lexical meaning. The connection with the predicative is strong and we cannot omit it He looks nice., She is a teacher. With some verbs it is possible to have either supplementary or true predicatives She stood (V link) six feet (Supplementary predict.) in her stockings.; He stood (Vlink) godfather (True predict.) to the child. Morphological realization of the predicative The predicative denotes some characteristic of the Subject and thats why the most typical realization is the adjective.

I)

An adjective or adjectival phrase Suddenly everything went black (Cs=adjective).; He appeared glad to see me (Cs=adj.phrase). II) A noun or a noun phrase another typical phrase the second most typical realization. Martin will make (link verb) a good husband (noun phrase). III) Prepositional phrase He looks of my age.; The house was in a mess.

a)

a) With a to-infinitive To say this in public is b) With ing form Robert being away doesnt
bother me.

Verbs with modal meaning + infinitive or ing form wish to go, try to escape, etc. He wanted to write (infinitive) the letter. Modal verbs are called closed system because they cannot function separately. b) The compound aspectual verbal predicate the semi-auxiliary has aspective meaning begin to read; stop drinking; keep going - Semi-auxiliary + infinitive or ing form The

IV)

A finite verb clause Things were as they had always been (finite verb clause). V) A non-finite verb clause can be two types infinitive clauses with to His priority is to become a poet (non-finite/Nexus). An ing clause The most surprising thing was John being elected chairman (Cs). Predicative to the Object (or Objective complement)

It can be paraphrase by means of a PrO. (Prepositional structures) with to or for. Verbs of this type are to teach s.b sth, to forgive , envy, ask, etc. Ex. I forgive my wife her stupidity. Any of these objects can stand alone, hence none of them meet criterion 1 for IO. Also, if we try to paraphrase the suspected IO my wife we get the following Ex: *I forgave the stupidity to my wife. Hence it doesnt meet criterion 2 there is no IO with verbs of this group. Such verbs should be treated as cases with 2 DO (Vtr. + DO1 + DO2) where one of the objects is animate and the other is inanimate. This means that the animacy hierarchy would came into effect here on 2 occasions: (1) The

stand a chance.; I hoped to make a trip.

finite verb form expresses aspect, repetition or duration.

(part of Q 10) (2) In the passive theoretically any object can be paraphrased into S of the passive but in practice only the pass with the animate one would be widely used, whereas the passive with the inanimate one would be marginal. The Passive paraphrase is a viable test in English for the objecthood of a constituent. Any O in English can be paraphrased as a passive subject. She was given a book./A book was given to her.; The children were looked after by P. In the latter case even the PrO has been paraphrased as a passive structure. Semantic types of Object Semantically (or structurally), there are 2 main types of O direct and indirect. Semantically, there are different contents for the DO and IO a) The direct object can be

(11) The Attribute [Ilyish] The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, a substantival pronoun, a cardinal numeral, and any substantivized word, and characterizing the thing named by these words as to its quality or property. The attribute modifies other sentence constituent and characterizes it. It characterizes a noun or substantivized constituent in terms of property or quality. It refers to the antecedent or the head word. According to its position we distinguish the following types:

1) Pre-positive attribute preceding the noun.

An affected participant refers to the person or thing which is directly affected or otherwise involved in the verbal action. This is the typical role of the DO. Jakc broke the bottle. Effected participant DO denotes sth wh exists by virtue or comes as a result of the verbal action Ex. Jack invented the bottle./ to write a letter, devise a plan, paint a picture, etc. The difference between affected and effected DO is a covert category which can be only indirectly attested by the so-called do to test: What did Jack to the bottle? A. He broke it ok (affected); *B. He invented it. not ok (effected); The type effected/affected is determined by the semantic contents of the verb. Locative Od, denotes location, Ex. to walk the streets (through, along), pass the house (by), to swim the river (cross), to jump the fence (over) Cognate Od this type is form the same or similar root as the verb. Ex. to sing a song, dream a dream, to act a past, run a race, to die the death of a saint Object of extent or measure to run a mile, the car weights a tone, the ploughs cost $10 (Quirk defines them so) Other treatment for the 2nd and 3rd example here the O are called Cp (Predicators complement) (theyre not omissible). These are attribute Cp. Ex. The policeman fined me with 10 leva. b) Types of IO (semantic types) The most typical role of the IO is that of Recipient and it is invariably animate I gave the girl an apple., I found your mother (rec. IO) a place (DO) in the room. [*I found the TV set (manmade) a place in the room. the correct version here should be I found a place for the TV set.] In rare cases as an exception we may have expressions like: I gave the door (affected IO, not animate) a kick (DO with the role of effected O); I paid her (affected IO) a visit (effected DO) = I visited her.

This is a nice car. In some cases the English prepositive attribute can be very large extended. 2) Post-positive attribute following the noun The matter discusses is of great importance. According to their scope of meaning there are: a) Restrictive attributes they restrict the meaning so as to identify among similar items He drinks only red wine. (not white) b) Non-restrictive attributes they supply additional information This is my poor old father. Morphologically the attributes can have the following realization: The pre-positive attribute can be: An adjective, which is the typical attr. I visited their splendid museum. A participle past participle a broken rose; -ing participle a smiling face Apostrophy (s) genitive a fishermans cottage, She heard her mothers voice. A noun (a typical English phenomenon) country cottage, the car door Adverbial phrase a faraway cottage A clause can be a prepositive attribute a popdown-for-the-weekend cottage Classification of the post-positive attributes: 1) Non-finite verb structures

(12) The Adverbial Modifier [Ilyish] gives the following definition of the Adverbial Modifier: It is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a verbal noun, and adjective, or an adverb, and serving to characterize and action or a property as to its quality or intensity, or to indicate the way an action is done, the time, place, cause, purpose, or condition, with which the action or the manifestation of the quality is connected. This is the secondary part of the sentence. It designates the circumstances of the verbal action and qualifies it as to manner, intensity, condition, time, place, etc. Semantic classification [according to meaning] of the adverbial modifiers is as follows:

When we have a complex transitive verb, the predicative specifies some characteristic features of the direct object, They appointed her secretary. The predicative of the Object has an intense relation with the object they are in an agreement They consider him genius. (part of Q 12) Time adverbials in end-position tend to occur in the order duration, frequency, time-when Ex. I used to swim for an hour everyday during my childhood. When more than one of the main classes of adverbials occur in end position the normal order is manner means instrument place time. Ex. He was working with his long molar in the garden the whole morning. Sentence adverbials (for ex. certainly, indeed, surely, perhaps, possibility, in fact and so on) are peripheral to the sentence. The difference between them and the other adverbials is clearly seen in the examples Naturally, the children are behaving well while you are here. The children behave naturally 1st ex. naturally is a sentence adv. and means of course; in the 2nd ex. it is a manner adv. and refers to the verb. Sentence adv. often conveys the speakers comment on the content of what he is saying. To be sure (adv.), we have heard many such promises before. Jackson distinguishes 3 types of adverbials disjuncts, subjuncts and conjuncts. Jackson claims that a small number verbs need adjunct in the structure of the sentence in which they function as predicators. Ex. Rob put his hand in the water. The sentence would normally be ungrammatical unless an adjunct with the semantic role of locative circumstance is presented. Adjuncts are, however, not usually obligatory in this way. Ex. In the morning I had my breakfast in the corner of a hotel dining room. In the corner adj. and the semantic role of time; in the morning expresses time, so it is not an oblig. element. Subjects dont function as full elements. In sentence structure the way that adjuncts do. Their function is generally subordinatie to one element or another in the sentence though theres a group of subjuncts which functions in respect to the sentence as a whole. There are 2 types of subjuncts; 1)view point subjuncts; 2) item subjuncts. The 1st group represents a comment by the speaker/writer; 2nd are subordinate to some element or another in the sentence. The 2 groups are subdivided in 2 different subtypes (Grammar and meaning; by Jackson). Disjuncts are adverbials which dont modify anything within the sentence and are only loosely associated with it. This feeling is because of the use of the core in writing and by the distinct intonation in speech. Here, again, there are 2 subtypes (Gram and meaning, H. Jackson). Conjuncts like disjuncts, they are very loosely associated with the rest of the sentence and when they are present, the sentence sounds rather old out of context. For a starts, you got no clothes on. The conjuncts are used to indicate what kind of relation holds between the sentence and its linguistic context. They have no function in respect to any element within the sentence that they modify. They serve to link sentences into a coherent discourse

word order of expression I envied my friend the car. (*I envied the car my friend.);

Of manner They went slowly (AM).

Of place and direction She lived in England (AM). Of time and frequency At 5 oclock (AM time) they went home.; They go to Spain every year (AM frequency). Of cause He was stiff with long sitting. Of degree of property, condition and so on. Structural classification of the adverbial modifiers [according to their morphological peculiarities, i.e. according to the parts of speech and to phrase patterns] Leech and Svartik distinguish adverbials with a number of different structures: Adverbs (Peter was playing well (adv.)), prep. phrases (Peter was playing with great still (prep.phrase)), finite clauses (Peter was playing well although he was very tired (fc)), non-finite clauses (Peter was playing to win (infinitive), Being (present part.) captain of the team, Peter played to win, when urged by his owns we agreed to play again, Peter was playing unaware of the danger (verbless clauses), Peter played last week (noun clause), noun clauses followed by ago or long ago Three years ago Peter played football regularly. A sentence can have more than one adverbial (My fathers working hard in the kitchen today). Leech and Svartvic distinguish 3 main positions: Front position before the subject On Sundays we so shopping Mid-position immediately before the main verb if no auxiliary is present Bill never goes abroad.; or after the first auxiliary of theres more than one verb present The end position after an object or complement if theres one present otherwise its after the verb Bill drove very careful. Long adverbials clauses, prepositional and noun phrases normally occur in end position though front position is not uncommon for emphasis or contrast (we went to Chicago in Monday, In Monday we went to Chicago.) The mid-position is usually restricted to certain adverbials such as almost, hardly, just, etc. The chairman almost resigned.; Adverbials denoting means and instruments usually have an end position. They make, very well; The children go to school by bys; They examined that specimen.; Place adverbials (Location & Direction) usually have an

-ing form The dog barking next door (restrictive) is a bitch. Past participle The substance, discovered by accident, helped many people. Infinitive The first train to arrive was from Varna. 2) Some adjectives and be in post position under French influence: Time immemorial, Blood Royal. There are adjectives with ending -ble which can be in post position mission impossible 3) Prepositional phrases a tree by the river 4) Single adverbs a journey home Occasionally, the apposition refers to the whole sentence: Ex. He accused them of treachery, an attack that was warmly resented. The attribute might refers to the subject of the sentence. Ex. The Great Wall in China, the largest structure ever built by human beings, is visible from the moon. When the attribute is not in direct contact with its antecedent and stands either at the head or the tale of the sentence we speak of extra-position. Ex. Meek and modest in her white dress, she goes to see them.

(13) The compound sentence (Types) Traditional grammar classifies sentences as simple, compound and complex. Huddleson explains this classification by reference to the distinction between subordinate and main clause. A simple sentence contains only one clause a main clause. A complex sentence contains 2 or more clauses at least one of which is subordinate. Compound sentences consist of clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions. There are several types of coordination in the compound sentence: Copulative coordination with its typical coordinator and. And denotes simple addition if there is logical connection. By and can be implied: a) chronological consequence/successive action She did her homework and she went for a walk.; He kissed her and sat down.; b) result He saw the crash and called the police.; c) parallelism She loves and admires him.; d) contrast John is nice and his sister is nasty.; e) condition Give me some money and Im going to help you.; f) simple addition He has long hair and he wears blue jeans. Nor and neither indicates that both clauses are negative. Neither Peter wanted that job, nor did his wife. Disjunctive coordination central coordinator or. This type of coordination suggests choice the meaning of one clause excludes the other clause (one or the other of the clauses is true but not both of them). He is at work or he is at home. Or indicates alternative: You can cook a meal or you can go to a restaurant. Adversative coordination the central coordinator is but; other are whereas, while, nevertheless, however all of them denote contrast. The room was small but the corridor was wide. All these different means of coordination of the clauses convey different meaning throughout the produced sentences. On the other hand, coordination in a sentence can be syndetic when it uses coordinators like conjunctions or adverbs or it can be asyndetic without coordinators. Ex. I went to the market and there I bought fruit. (syndetic); People appeared, cars disappeared, the situation got worse. (asyndetic). So, according to the method of joining the clauses the compound sentences can be said to be syndetic and asyndetic. When discussing simple sentences we had to deal with communication types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences. With compound sentences this problem requires special treatment. If both (or all) clauses making up a compound sentence belong to the same communication type it is clear that the compound sentence belongs to this type, too. But there are also compound sentences consisting of clauses belonging to different communication types. In that case it is impossible to state to what type the compound sentence as a whole belongs.

end-position. The meeting will be upstairs. The place adverbial can occur together in end position usually with the smaller unit before the larger. Ex. Many people eat in Chinese restaurants in London. Ex. Chinese restaurants smaller unit; London larger unit; from smaller to larger units. Only in the larger unit they can be moved to the front position In London many people eat in Chinese restaurants. .

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