INSTRUMENT APPROACH

INTRODUCTION 1. Instrument flying demands confidence and accuracy. Confidence is achieved by knowledge and accuracy by preparation and practices. Knowledge about the instruments, procedures will definitely enhance preparation on instrument flying. More so adequate practices will give us accuracy in instrument flying. Gentlemen, presently Army Avn is having Cessna Grand Caravan and bell 206L4 in its fleet and both of this ac is equipped with VOR, DME, ILS, Xponder, RMI, Radio Altimeter etc. Adequate knowledge on these eqpt will certainly add efficiency in flying these machines. AIM 2. SCOPE 3. The presentation will covered in 3 broad heads. These are as follows: a. Related Definitions. b. Orientation with Instruments required in Precision Approach. c. Instrument Approaches. RELATED DEFINITIONS 4. Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP): An instrument approach or instrument approach procedure (IAP) is a type of air navigation that allows pilots following predetermined maneuvers by reference to flight instrument to land an aircraft in reduced visibility (known as instrument meteorological conditions or IMC), or to reach visual conditions permitting a visual landing. Approaches are classified as either precision or nonprecision, depending on the accuracy and capabilities of the navigational aids (navaids) used. Precision approaches utilize both lateral (localizer) and vertical (glideslope) information. Nonprecision approaches provide lateral course information only. Precision approaches and systems

To discuss matter related with instrument flying.

ILS - Instrument Landing System MLS - Microwave Landing System PAR - Precision Approach Radar (Military) GPS (with vertical navigation via WAAS or EGNOS) - Global Positioning System LAAS - Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) for Global Satellite Navigation Systems (GNSS) JPALS - Joint Precision Approach and Landing System GCA - Ground-Controlled Approach (mostly military)

Nonprecision approaches and systems

Localizer VOR Non-Directional Beacon or NDB with complementary Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) installed on board Localizer Type Directional Aid or LDA Simplified Directional Facility or SDF GPS - Global Positioning System TACAN SRA - Surveillance Radar Approach (known in some countries as an ASR approach) ASR - Airport Surveillance Radar (Military designation for SRA)

5. Decision Height or Altitude: A decision height (DH) or decision altitude (DA) is a specified height or altitude in the precision approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been acquired. This allows the pilot sufficient time to safely re-configure the aircraft to climb and execute the missed approach procedures while avoiding terrain and obstacles. 6. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA): Time at which it is estimated that the ac will arrive over a specific pt. 7. Estimated Approach Time(EAT)/Expected Approach Clearance: The time at which ATC expects that an arriving ac, following a delay, will leave the holding pt to complete its approach to ldg.

8. Runway Visual Range (RVR) is a term to define the distance over which a pilot of an aircraft on the centreline of the runway can see the runway surface markings delineating the runway or identifying its centre line. RVR is normally expressed in feet or metres. RVR is used as one of the main criteria for minima on instrument approaches, as in most cases a pilot must obtain visual reference of the runway to land an aircraft. The maximum RVR reading is 2,000 metres or 6,500 feet, above which it is not significant and thus does not need to be reported. RVRs are provided in METARs and are transmitted by air traffic controllers to aircraft making approaches to allow pilots to assess whether it is prudent and legal to make an approach.
The Initial Approach Fix is the point where the initial approach segment of an instrument approach begins. An instrument approach procedure may have more than one Initial Approach Fix and initial approach segment. The initial approach fix is usually a designated intersection, VOR, NDB, or DME fix. The initial approach fix may be collocated with the intermediate fix of the instrument approach and in such case they designate the beginning of the intermediate segment of the approach. When initial approach fix and intermediate fix are combined there is no initial approach segment. 10. Final Approach Fix (FAF), a position aligned with the runway, from where a safe controlled descent back towards the airport can be initiated.

9.

ORIENTATION WITH INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED IN PRECISION APPROACH

11. DME: Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. Aircraft use DME to determine their distance from a land-based transponder by sending and receiving pulse pairs - two pulses of fixed duration and separation. The ground stations are typically collocated with VORs. A typical DME ground transponder system for enroute or terminal navigation will have a 1 kW peak pulse output on the assigned UHF channel. A low-power DME can also be colocated with an ILS localizer where it provides an accurate distance function, similar to that otherwise provided by ILS Marker Beacons.

Main article: Distance Measuring Equipment

Distance measuring equipment (DME) provides pilots with a slant range measurement of distance to the runway in nautical miles. DMEs are augmenting or replacing markers in many installations. The DME provides more accurate and continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS glideslope to the pilot, and does not require an installation outside the airport boundary. When used in conjunction with an ILS, the DME is often sited midway between the reciprocal runway thresholds with the internal delay modified so that one unit can provide distance information to either runway threshold. On approaches where a DME is specified in lieu of marker beacons, the aircraft must have at least one operating DME unit to begin the approach, and a "DME Required" restriction will be noted on the Instrument Approach Procedure

12. A localizer is one component of an Instrument Landing System (ILS). The localizer provides runway centerline guidance to aircraft. In some cases a localizer is at an angle to the runway usually due to obstructions around the airport. It is then called a Localizer Type Directional Aid. Localizers also exist in stand-alone instrument approach installations and are not always part of an ILS or Instrument Landing System. The Localizer is placed about 1,000 feet on the far end of the approached runway. Its useful volume extends to 18 NM for the path up to 10 degrees either side of the course. For an angle of 35 degrees either side of the course the useful volume of the Localizer extends up to 10 NM. Horizontal guidance gets more accurate the closer you fly to the Localizer station. Localizer approaches have their specific weather minimums found on approach plates.

The Localizer The localizer signal provides azimuth, or lateral, information to guide the aircraft to the centerline of the runway. It is similar to a VOR signal except that it provides radial information for only a single course; the runway heading. Localizer information is displayed on the same indicator as your VOR information. When tracking the localizer the pilot turns towards the needle in the same manner as with VOR navigation. The localizer indicator reacts differently from a VOR in several ways. The localizer consists of only a single course. The localizer course needle is sensitive as a VOR needle. Heading adjustments four times as must be much sensitivity of the indicator. For VOR work, each smaller because of the increased dot under the needle represents 2 deviation from course while for the localizer each dot under the needle represents 0.5 deviation from course. Because the localizer provides information for only one radial, the runway heading, the Nav. receiver automatically cuts out the OBS, the Omni Bearing Selector knob. Rotating the OBS still rotates the course ring on the instrument, but has no affect on the needle. How sensitive is the Localizer? Near the Outer Marker, a one-dot deviation puts you about 500 ft. from the centerline. Near the Middle Marker, one dot means you're off course by 150 ft. Specifics of the Localizer The localizer antenna is located at the far end of the runway. The approach course of the localizer is called the front course. The course line in the opposite direction to the front course is called the back course. The localizer signal is normally usable 18 NM from the field. The Morse code Identification of the localizer consists of a three-letter identifier preceded by the letter I. Here is the localizer identifier for Providence's Runway 5R.

13. Glide Slope: A glideslope or Glidepath (GP) antenna array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GP signal is transmitted on a carrier frequency between 329.15 and 335 MHz using a technique similar to that of the localizer. The centerline of the glideslope signal is arranged to define a glideslope of approximately 3 above horizontal (ground level). The beam is 1.4 deep; 0.7 below the glideslope centerline and 0.7 above the glideslope centerline.
The Glide Slope The Glide Slope is the signal that provides vertical guidance to the aircraft during the ILS approach. The standard glide-slope path is 3 downhill to the end of the runway. Follow it faithfully and your altitude will be precisely correct when you reach the touchdown zone of the runway.

Tracking the glide slope is identical to tracking a localizer. If the glide-slope needle swings away from centerup or downmaneuver the aircraft towards the needle by adjusting the engine's power. Don't point the aircraft's nose up or down.

The glide path projection angle is normally adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to a distance of 10 NM.

14.

Marker beacons

The NDB station co-located with Middle Marker of Beijing Capital International Airport ILS RWY36L Main article: Marker beacon

On most installations marker beacons operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz are provided. When the transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the pilot's instrument panel and the tone of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The distance from the runway at which this indication should be received is promulgated in the documentation for that approach, together with the height at which the aircraft should be if correctly established on the ILS. This provides a check on the correct function of the glideslope. In modern ILS installations a DME is installed, co-located with the ILS, to augment or replace marker beacons. A DME continuously displays the aircraft's distance to the runway.
[edit] Outer marker

Blue outer marker

The outer marker should be located 7.2 km (3.9 NM) from the threshold except that, where this distance is not practicable, the outer marker may be located between 6.5 and 11.1 km (3.5 and 6 NM) from the threshold. The modulation is repeated Morse-style dashes of a 400 Hz tone. The cockpit indicator is a blue lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code. The purpose of this beacon is to provide height, distance and equipment functioning checks to aircraft on intermediate and final approach. In the United States, an NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon in the ILS approach (called a Locator Outer Marker, or LOM); in Canada, low-powered NDBs have replaced marker beacons entirely.
[edit] Middle marker

Amber middle marker

The middle marker should be located so as to indicate, in low visibility conditions, the missed approach point, and the point that visual contact with the runway is imminent, ideally at a distance of approximately 3,500 ft (1,100 m) from the threshold. It is modulated with a 1300 Hz tone as alternating dots and dashes at the rate of two per second. The cockpit indicator is an amber lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code.
[edit] Inner marker

White Inner Marker

The inner marker, when installed, shall be located so as to indicate in low visibility conditions the imminence of arrival at the runway threshold. This is typically the position of an aircraft on the ILS as it reaches Category II minima. Ideally at a distance of approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) from the threshold. The modulation is Morse-style dots at 3000 Hz. The cockpit indicator is a white lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code

15. ILS: The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow. Instrument Approach Procedure charts (or "approach plates") are published for each ILS approach, providing pilots with the needed information to fly an ILS approach during instrument flight rules (IFR) operations, including the radio frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids and the minimum visibility requirements prescribed for the specific approach.

Principle of operation
An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, one providing lateral guidance (Localizer), the other vertical guidance (Glideslope or Glide Path) to aircraft approaching a runway. Aircraft guidance is provided by the ILS receivers in the aircraft by performing a modulation depth comparison.

The emission patterns of the localizer and glideslope signals. Note that the glideslope beams are partly formed by the reflection of the glideslope aerial in the ground plane. A localizer (LOC, or LLZ in Europe) antenna array is normally located beyond the departure end of the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. Two signals are transmitted on one out of 40 ILS channels between the carrier frequency range 108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz (but

only the odd kHz, so 108.10 108.15 108.30 and so on are LOC frequencies but 108.20 108.25 108.40 and so on are not). One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz and these are transmitted from separate but co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a narrow beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centerline, the other to the right. The localizer receiver on the aircraft measures the Difference in the Depth of Modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation for each of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The difference between the two signals varies depending on the position of the approaching aircraft from the centerline. If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline. In the cockpit, the needle on the Horizontal Situation Indicator, or HSI (The Instrument part of the ILS), or CDI (Course deviation indicator), will show that the aircraft needs to fly left or right to correct the error to fly down the center of the runway. If the DDM is zero the aircraft is on the centerline of the localizer coinciding with the physical runway centerline. A glideslope or Glidepath (GP) antenna array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GP signal is transmitted on a carrier frequency between 329.15 and 335 MHz using a technique similar to that of the localizer. The centerline of the glideslope signal is arranged to define a glideslope of approximately 3 above horizontal (ground level). The beam is 1.4 deep; 0.7 below the glideslope centerline and 0.7 above the glideslope centerline. Localizer and glideslope carrier frequencies are paired so that only one selection is required to tune both receivers. These signals are displayed on an indicator in the instrument panel. This instrument is generally called the omni-bearing indicator or nav indicator. The pilot controls the aircraft so that the indications on the instrument (i.e. the course deviation indicator) remain centered on the display. This ensures the aircraft is following the ILS centreline (i.e. it provides lateral guidance). Vertical guidance, shown on the instrument by the glideslope indicator, aids the pilot in reaching the runway at the proper touchdown point. Some aircraft possess the ability to route signals into the autopilot, allowing the approach to be flown automatically by the autopilot.

ILS categories
There are three categories of ILS which support similarly named categories of operation. Information below is based on ICAO - certain states may have filed differences. Check with your state's documentation.

Category I - A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than 200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone elevation and with either a visibility not less than 800 meters (2,625 ft) or a runway visual range not less than 550 meters (1,804 ft). Category II - Category II operation: A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone elevation but not lower than 100 feet (30 m), and a runway visual range not less than 300 meters (984 ft). Category III is further subdivided o Category III A - A precision instrument approach and landing with: a) a decision height lower than 100 feet (30 m) above touchdown zone elevation, or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range not less than 200 meters (656 ft). o Category III B - A precision instrument approach and landing with: a) a decision height lower than 50 feet (15 m) above touchdown zone elevation, or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range less than 200 meters (656 ft) but not less than 50 meters (164 ft). o Category III C - A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations. A Category III C system is capable of using an aircraft's autopilot to land the aircraft and can also provide guidance along the runway surface.

In each case a suitably equipped aircraft and appropriately qualified crew are required. For example, Cat IIIc requires a fail-operational system, along with a Landing Pilot (LP) who holds a Cat IIIc endorsement in their logbook, Cat I does not. A Head-Up Display which allows the pilot to perform aircraft maneuvers rather than an automatic system is considered as fail-operational. Cat I relies only

on altimeter indications for decision height, whereas Cat II and Cat III approaches use radar altimeter to determine decision height.[2] An ILS is required to shut down upon internal detection of a fault condition as mentioned in the monitoring section. With the increasing categories, ILS equipment is required to shut down faster since higher categories require shorter response times. For example, a Cat I localizer must shutdown within 10 seconds of detecting a fault, but a Cat III localizer must shut down in less than 2 seconds.[1]

Low visibility approaches

Many instrument approaches allow for landing in conditions of low visibility. ICAO classifies ILS approaches as being in one of the following categories:

ILS Categories

Category Decision Height (above threshold)

RVR limit

greater than 200 ft

550m or 1800 ft

II

less than 200 ft

350m or 1200 ft

IIIa

less than 100 ft

150m - 200m (see below)

IIIb

less than 50 ft

75m - 150m (see below)

IIIc

No DH

No RVR

Cat III mimima depend on Roll Out Control & Redundancy of the Autopilot. Low visibility approaches are those in categories II and III. For larger aircraft it is typical that these approaches are under the control of the flight control system with the flight crew providing a supervisory role. Traditionally smaller aircraft which lacked redundancy in the flight control systems could not fly these approaches. (Imagine a radio getting a glitch at the moment of flare which causes the airplane to "think" that a large correction is required. The result would, most likely, be a sudden turn which at low altitude would be catastrophic.) A Head-Up Display allows the flight crew to fly the aircraft using the guidance cues from the ILS sensors so that if such a large deviation were seen, the pilot would be able to respond in an appropriate and safe manner. This is becoming increasingly popular with "feeder" airlines and most manufacturers of regional jets are now offering HUDs as either standard or optional equipment. In addition a HUD can provide a low visibility take off capability. For both automatic and HUD landing systems, the equipment requires special approval for its design and also for each individual installation. The design takes into consideration all of the additional safety requirements for operating an aircraft in close proximity to the ground and takes into consideration the ability of the flight crew to react to a "system anomaly." Once installed, the equipment also has additional maintenance requirements to ensure that it is fully capable of supporting reduced visibility operations. In all cases, additional crew training is required for such approaches, and a certain number of low visibility approaches must either be performed or simulated in a set period of time for pilots to stay 'current' in performing them.

For practical reasons Category IIIc approaches are rare, but category IIIb approaches are relatively common at major airports. There are also air traffic control considerations with low visibility approaches: when using ILS, the integrity of the signal must be protected, which requires that certain areas of the airport close to the installations being free of other aircraft and vehicles. Also there must be bigger gaps between aircraft on final approach to both protect the ILS signal and to cope with slower runway vacation times. In addition, the airport itself has special considerations for low visibility operations including different lighting for approach, runways, and taxiways as well as the location of emergency equipment.
Rate-of-descent formula

A useful formula pilots use to calculate the descent rate on the glideslope.
Rate of Descent = Glideslope Angle ( Groundspeed / 60 ) 100

where:

Rate of Descent is in feet per minute Glideslope angle is in degrees from the horizontal (Usually 3 degrees) Groundspeed is in knots Rate of Descent = 5 Groundspeed

If the glideslope is the standard 3 degrees then the formula can be further simplified to: INSTRUMENT APPROACHES

Basic principles
Instrument approaches are generally designed such that a pilot of an aircraft in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), by the means of radio, GPS or INS navigation with no assistance from air traffic control, can navigate to the airport, hold in the vicinity of the airport if required, then fly to a position from where he or she can obtain sufficient visual reference of the runway for a safe landing to be made, or execute a missed approach if the visibility is below the minimums required to execute a safe landing. The whole of the approach is defined and published in this way so that aircraft can land if they suffer from radio failure; it also allows instrument approaches to be made procedurally at airports where air traffic control does not use radar or in the case of radar failure. Instrument approaches generally involve five phases of flight:

Arrival: where the pilot navigates to the Initial Approach Fix (IAF: a navaid or reporting point), and where holding can take place. Initial Approach: the phase of flight after the IAF, where the pilot commences the navigation of the aircraft to the Final Approach Fix (FAF), a position aligned with the runway, from where a safe controlled descent back towards the airport can be initiated. Intermediate Approach: an additional phase in more complex approaches that may be required to navigate to the FAF. Final approach: between 4 and 12 nms of straight flight descending at a set rate (usually an angle of between 2.5 and 6 degrees). Missed Approach: an optional phase; should the required visual reference for landing not have been obtained at the end of the final approach, this allows the pilot to climb the aircraft to a safe altitude and navigate to a position to hold for weather improvement or from where another approach can be commenced.

When aircraft are under radar control, air traffic controllers may replace some or all of these phases of the approach with radar vectors (the provision of headings on which the controller expects the pilot to navigate his aircraft) to the final approach, to allow traffic levels to be increased over those of which a fully procedural approach is capable. It is very common for air traffic controllers to vector aircraft to the final approach aid, e.g. the ILS, which is then used for the final approach. In the case of the rarelyused Ground-Controlled Approach (GCA), the instrumentation (normally Precision Approach Radar) is on the ground and monitored by a controller, who then relays precise instructions for adjustment of heading and altitude to the pilot in the approaching aircraft. VOR DME ILS APPROACH Comm: AC: Dhaka , Rdr 000 Request VOR DME ILS approach for RW14. ATC: Rdr 000, you are clear to set course for DAC, Main 3000 ft and report overhead DAC, No delay expected. AC: Roger.