The Qing Dynasty:

Replaced the Ming Dynasty: 1368 start of the 17th century began to decline The Manchu, nomads from the northeast, challenge power in China Qing emperors: Shunzi 1644-1661 Kangzi 1662-1722 - liberal, successful Yongzeng 1723-1735 - strict, ruthless, successful Qianlong 1736-1795 - middle road Jianqing 1796-1821 - Nian Rebellion, White Lotus Rebellion Daoguang 1821-1851 - First Opium War (Treaty of Nanking) Xianfeng 1862-1875 - Taiping Rebellion, Second Opium War, Anglo-French occupy Beijing Tongzhi 1862-1875 - Self-Strengthening Movement Guangxu 1875-1908 - Dowager Empress; Boxer Rebellion Puyi 1908-1912 - 3-4 when he takes throne, Oct. 10 Revolution (Double 10th) protesting railway investment Absolute Monarchy - Personal government by King (emperor who makes and is above the law (Ltat cest moi Louis XIV) (primogeniture? not always) - Divine right of kings (e.g. the mandate of heaven) - Ministerial system, sometimes with a chief minister, appointed by, and dismissed by the monarch - Provincial governors also appointed by and dismissed by the monarch - Royal trained civil service; loyalty a prerequisite - Favouritism common corruption possible - Sale of monopolies - Tax farming - Mercantilist economic system - Expansionist foreign policy: dynastic marriages/alliances, plus war - Royal standing army, expandable by adding local levies - Conspicuous expenditure - Patronage of the arts and scholarship Lack of: - Political representation - Body of statute law - Cabinet system/ prime minister - Nationalism Qianlongs reign: - The middle road between his grandfathers, Kangxi, lenient reign and his fathers, Yongchen, harsh reign. - Finally put an end to the Olod, a Mongolian tribe, threat - 70 million taels in the treasury at the end of his reign - Toured the country like his grandfather did (much more elaborate) - Qianlongs reign marked the zenith and decline of the Qing Dynasty Decline of the Qing Dynasty: End of Qianlongs reign

- Dynastic decline: traditionally implied as a loss of moral & administrative vigour among the bureaucracy. It agrees with Hsus definition that it includes moral degradation and political corruption in the administration Certain limitations include: the administration still held together after the civil war, concern of institutional reform & national defence, preserved nation - Manchu begins to decline from corruption & overspending - Externally strong but internally shrivelled - Administrative, military & moral problems falling dynastic fortune - Suspicions tightened up rules & regulations no opportunity to show initiative crippling efficiency assumed less responsibility kowtow more, talk less no other opinions voiced leadership faltered - Hoshen (symptom of wide-spread corruption) a handsome bodyguard, Qianlong had him raised up the ranks quickly, Hoshen took advice & stole 800 million taels (1.5 billion $) more corruption even after his death anti-corruption fees didnt stop the squeeze peasants took the brunt b/c of increased taxes from corrupt officials - Manchu became lazier b/c they were excused from work no longer could fight generals so corrupt that they prolonged wars for the military funds - People used to luxurious spending drained treasury - Population increased but land could not keep up at a similar rate - Scholars no longer applied their knowledge to the world took no responsibility or leadership, moral degradation - Vulnerable to internal rebellion & external invasion - Secret societies such as: Heaven and Earth Society (Triad Society), Ko-lao Brotherhood Association (S. China) & *White Lotus Sect (N. China) - These societies wanted to overthrow the Manchu & restore the Ming - Heaven and Earth: Ming loyalists, avenge the Chinese the Manchus killed anyone could join, but it was mostly the lower class - Ko-lau: didnt accept unclean blood but most everyone else, wanted Ming restored - White Lotus Sect: older sect that wanted to destroy Mongols & restore Sung destroy Manchu & restore Ming had revolts mass arrests & persecution more revolts govt. too corrupt to stop it rebellion finally stopped after 9 years (WLR) - Smaller countries surrounding China took part in an elaborate tributary system (very costly) financially strenuous, but smaller states got protection from China & China had a wall around them Westerners came, had to participate in tributary system Westerners couldnt put up with tributary system conflict, humiliation of the Qing empire tributary system wore out - No Industrial Revolution because of: Elvin: the disdain for mercantile activity and the difficulties in organising a large private economic organisation, not a lack of resources, technological stagnation limited development Myers: the redistribution of wealth; no great fluctuations in population of prices of goods and services (price revolution) Eastman: Confucianism not at the root of Chinas inability to industrialise, but rather because the Chinese valued harmony and stability over domination Administrative Deficiency: Even in the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the emperors practiced censorship to stop the spread of ideas that would lead to rebellion. Officials, especially Chinese ones, did not have the chance to show initiative or independence. The emperors enforced many restrictions and regulations on the officials. Soon, to avoid punishment, officials began to assume less responsibility. His sponsorship of

literary developments also had less scholarly motives. He could control which books could be published. He had unacceptable books burned and he had at least sixty cases of literary inquisition. The tight restriction of the scholars during the Qing dynasty had been practiced throughout the Qing dynasty. Scholars didnt apply their knowledge to society, but instead became oblivious to their duties and only tried to gain attention from those in higher positions. Source: Hsu Opulence and pride: Qianglong loved opulent and luxurious goods. He spent a large amount of money filling his palace with beautiful and ornate pieces. Everything about the palace shone with the glimmer of untold wealth. Qianlong also had quite a large ego. His massive spending habits contributed to the decline. He wrote A Record of Ten Perfect Accomplishments about his achievements during his reign. According to Hsu, only one of these accomplishments actually had merit. The others deserved little recognition as they consisted of police actions and local campaigns. The book cost 120 million taels to publish and further depleted the treasury. [See Foreign Relations] Source: Hsu Hoshen and other corruption: Qianlong became quite senile during the end of his reign. One day he spotted a handsome bodyguard, Hoshen, and took him under his wing. Hoshen quickly rose up in the ranks and took advantage of the situation. He embezzled a huge amount of money from the treasury. It amounted to about 800 million taels. While Hoshen was not the direct cause of corruption but a symptom, he became a symbol of the massive corruption. Many other government officials became corrupt and selfish. Extortion became regular and even anti-corruption fees could not stop the deep-rooted corruption. Bribery became the norm and officials led a way of life much more lavish than their salary allowed. The officials practiced the squeeze, asking for taxes much higher than the actual amount so the excess amount can be kept for a profit. Most of the burden from the corruption fell on the peasants. Military decline: The bannermen of the military had seriously degraded during this time of peace. They not only became lazy and unable to fight but they also took advantage of their position and used their power to embezzle money. They were paid much more than necessary and led a life of gambling, watching cockfights, and theater going. Generals prolonged their military campaigns to raise their chances of embezzlement. The White Lotus Rebellion took eight years to be suppressed, much longer than necessary, because of the corruption and decline of the military. Population: The population had increased much larger than the land had increased, which led to a lower living standard. The population in 1660 was 100 to 150 million and increased to 300 million in 1800. The land, on the other hand went from 549 million mou of land in 1661 and 1791 million mou in 1812. The population increased more than 100% in about 150 years but the land only increased less than 50% in that time. This caused dissatisfaction with the government and many of the poor, homeless and unemployed joined in rebellions or resorted to thievery. The population increase combined with literacy increase led to fierce competition for jobs and higher positions. Many resorted to bribery or took their knowledge elsewhere, like secret societies.

Tributary System: Smaller and less powerful countries surrounding China had the obligation of giving China tributes. Countries like Korea, Vietnam, Siam and Burma had big processions to China carrying extravagant gifts for the emperor. The ruler of the respective country would go to the emperors palace and do the ceremonial kowtow. Then, he would present the emperor with his gift and the emperor would do likewise. However, unlike the visiting ruler, the emperors gift would be much less expensive. The visiting would stay in China until the emperor saw fit for him to leave. Though the system was technically created so the outer states would bestow the emperor with wealth, this system actually took money out of the treasury. Internal Rebellion: Different secret societies that were anti-Machu were formed such as the White Lotus Sect, the Heaven and Earth Society (Triad Society), and the Kolao Brotherhood. They all wanted to overthrow the Qing and restore the Ming to power but the most important of these societies was the White Lotus Sect. The Heaven and Earth society accepted anyone who was willing to join but the Ko-lao Brotherhood was a bit more selective. The White Lotus Sect was originally created to overthrow the Mongols and restore the Sung but now it was dedicated to overthrowing the Qing to restore the Ming. They led a revolt in 1793 that sparked mass arrests and persecution. Therefore, in 1796 they led a protest because official oppression forced people into revolt and government troops were too corrupt to suppress the revolt (Hsu, 129). The rebellion was only put down nine years later in 1804 after ineffective and costly campaigning. Foreign Relations: Western powers such as Britain wanted to open up trade in China. They sent a foreign envoy named Lord Macartney to promote trade between China and Britain. He needed to gain places for British traders to reside and where English law could be practiced near the tea, silk and wool producing and consuming areas. He also needed to negotiate a trade treaty, stop the abuse in Canton, make the Chinese desire British products, obtain diplomatic representation at Peking and open up Japan, Cochin China and Eastern Islands to British trade. Qianlong believed the British had come as tributaries and to celebrate his eighty-third birthday. After Lord Macartneys visit, he sent the King of England a letter listing the reasons why China would not comply with the demands of the British. Some of his major arguments included the fact that other China had everything it needed and wanted and the British had nothing to offer the Chinese. This demonstrates Qianlongs naivety of the advancements of the Western World. He refused to see what other countries had to offer. Because China was the Middle Kingdom, he believed that it was the most advanced and prosperous kingdom in the entire world. And in the Asian world, this was true. Unfortunately, Qianlongs overconfidence and failure to understand and adapt to the new situation caused their downfall. Western Trade Missions During these trade missions, the emissaries were instructed to do everything according to Chinese customs to appease them; however, the kowtow was the one thing they would not do as the British would only bow to their queen Macartney Mission 1793 - Macartney wanted to negotiate trade, open more ports, and have diplomatic relations with China

He predicated the Qing dynasty would fall before his death due to internal rebellion and revolt. He believed this because of what he saw during his stay in China. He noticed that the role of power was inherent instead of voted upon like in Britain. He found this not to be in Chinas best interest because a son could easily be unable to rule capably. China was an absolute monarchy, so the emperor had total control, power and authority by the Mandate of Heaven (Ltat cest moi). Macartney thought that just the fact the Manchu, foreigners, ruled the Qing Dynasty created tension in the country. The reward and punishment system was also questionable because of the favouritism and corruption of the government. Some were rewarded too much while others were too harshly punished. Another factor was the extremely large population. Land increased but only at 50% at most while the population increased nearly twice as much. This created a large workforce but it also led to fierce competition in academics. This led to corruption and scholars buying their way to a higher position. And even with a higher position, the emperor placed strict laws over the scholars. Scholars didnt come up with new ideas, but rather they stuck to old ones. Therefore, China didnt progress further and there was no Industrial Revolution. Because of all these problems and poor living conditions of the peasants, many secret societies dissatisfied with the Qing were formed and started rebellions. Though the Qing Dynasty didnt fall immediately or during the time in which Macartney predicted, the Qing dynasty declined because of corruption and internal rebellion. But the most important factor was the foreign pressures put on the Chinese. Qianlong said that the trade was impractical because there were no accommodations, translators, or hongs (trade families). He also was worried that other European countries would demand to open ports. He also proclaimed China had everything it needed or wanted and it had no desire for foreign trinkets. He also felt the distance was too great to exercise control. However, these reasons dont explain his refusals very well. Most are excuses to keep China isolated. While some of these points have some merit, others are plain ridiculous. Most were just inconveniences for China, not Britain, but Qianlong tried to turn it so it sounded like it would be in Britains best interest to comply with Chinese demands. However, Macartney was more willing to comply with the Chineses demands than Amherst

Amherst Mission 1816 - Aims: secure the removal of grievances at Canton, the establishment of free trade between British and Chinese merchants, the abolition of the Co-hong system, the opening of more ports north of Canton, and the right to diplomatic representation in Beijing - Would not comply with the demands of the Chinese - The kowtow was the reason for his expulsion - Britain left with three options regarding China: abandon the China trade, submit to Chinese law, or change the situation through the use of force Napier Mission 1834 (Napier Fizzle) - He was not even able to reach the capital to meet Qianlong - Ignored all the regulations of the Chinese and was told to go back home

Tried using force to see the emperor anyways and both China and Britain rebuked his actions Died without making it back to Britain

The Chinese treated the Westerners like they were giving tribute to the Emperor when they really wanted trade and access to China. These misunderstandings caused much strife for both sides. The Westerners couldnt put up with the system any longer after the Napoleonic Wars and the Industrial Revolution made them stronger. First Opium War (First Anglo-Chinese War) 1839-1842 Key Players: British Charles Elliot, Sir Henry Pottinger, Palmerston Chinese Daoguang, Lin Zexu, Qishan, Yishan, Lin Weihi Key Events: - 1836 Qing order to abolish Opium trade - 1839 British Opium handed over and destroyed - HMS Volage fired on Royal Saxon (ironically the first Opium War began due to a Royal Navy ship firing across the bow of a British ship.) - British Expeditionary Force sent - Canton was blockaded by the British - British attacked north - Qunbi Convention ($6 million and Hong Kong agreed to be given to the British) but it was rejected, following this Qishan and Elliot were replaced by their governments - Pottinger led attacks north - Nanjing threatened by the Birtish - 1842 Treaty of Nanjing - 1843 Treaty of Bogue - Opium cause of symptom? March 24th 1839: Lin ordered the stoppage of trade and confined British traders to their warehouses in Canton where they were held for six weeks Although it was handed over to Lin from Elliot on March 27th, Elliot believed that the Chinese authorities were now responsible for the cost of the opium, and more importantly, the opium was no longer the property of private British traders, but the public property of the British government June 3: opium systematically destroyed in trenches (with salt, lime and water) July 1839: Killing of Li Weihi by English seamen (brought up the question of extraterritoriality British subjects to be tried by British law even in foreign lands) October 18 1839: Palmerston (without consultation from Parliament) told Elliot that a British Expeditionary Force was being sent to blockade Canton Elliot had refused to sign Lins bond which would have led to the British accepting Chinese jurisdiction in return for the continuation of legal trade (not opium) but two British trade ships signed without Elliots consent it in order to continue trading Restrictions placed upon trade by the Canton System, diplomatic relations, legal jurisdiction and the cultural differences underpinning those Significance of opium: - Illegal trade (Qianlong had declared opium illegal in 1796)

Vast quantities of silver leaving China East India Companys monopoly Destruction of Chinas social fabric 2-10 million Chinese addicts Supply and demand Daoguangs abolition of opium trade on September 19, 1836 Lin Zexu demanded that the British hand over their opium stock in Canton Charles Elliots response, HMS Volage firing across the Royal Saxon

- Opium gave the occasion - The British fought the war for so they could expand trade with China - In Britains declaration of war on China (20 Feb 1840) it is obvious that the British are exaggerating the violent outrages committed by the Chinese. They protested outlawing opium in China when it was also outlawed in Britain (hypocritical). They also had tricked the Chinese into destroying public property of the British government when Elliot demanded that the British merchants hand over their opium to him to deliver to Lin for destruction - The Chinese fought against the foreign barbarians and opium - British felt restricted with the Chinese demands and they could no longer put up with the arrogance of the Chinese - Much was a clash of cultures although the cultural clash doesnt start a war Post-war treaties show causes of British dissatisfaction with the situation prevailing before the war and reasons why they started the war Treaty of Nanjing (1842) - Opening of 5 new ports in Canton, Shanghai, Xiamen, Fuzhou and Ningbo - Ceded Hong Kong to the British - Indemnity of $21 million - Fixed tariff - Abolishing the Cohongs monopoly on the trade - Equality in official correspondence Treaty of Bogue (1843) (supplementary treaty) - Extraterritoriality - Most favoured nation status Opium not mentioned in either treaty; it remains illegal Destruction of opium excuse to attack China to achieve trade Chinese and Western cultures had many conflicting views and ideals. The Chinese believed they were self-sufficient and superior to the rest of the world. The British could not tolerate their attitude towards trade and interacting with other nations. Also, Chinas system of government and law enforcement was much harsher than Western cultures that had moved from absolute monarchy to a developing democracy. Both nations saw the other as barbaric or uncivilised. Even though opium was an important issue between the two countries, it only provided the occasion (Fairbank, 32) for the war rather than the cause. However, in the Chinese perspective, they believed to be fighting only to stop illegal trade while the British desired more trade. The Opium War was the aftermath of many different circumstances. Not all were preventable but war could have been avoided. Neither the Chinese nor the British were entirely to blame for the war, but both countries decisions led to war. One

deciding factor was obviously trade. The British wanted better conditions and access to Chinese goods. This was at the heart of their motives. China didnt want anything to do with the foreigners and treated them as inferior. Both sides irritated the other with their persistence, the British pushing opium trade and the Chinese enforcing the tributary system and the kowtow. Neither side wanted to submit to the other because of their pride. This led to Britain and China clashing, with Britain being the clear victor because of the Industrial Revolutions new technology. They easily crushed the Chinese forces. Though opium was a cause, it wasnt the only cause for the war. Rather it gave an excuse for the countries to fight for incentives other than opium. Historiography: John K. Fairbank: opium provided the occasion rather than the cause of the war The three main causes were: the clash between two conceptions of international order, conflicting economic conceptions, and disputes over legal institutions. Gladstone: Sole blame on the British for this unjust war Karl Marx: claimed opium was a central issue as its sale blocked other trade and led to a deadly duel D.K. Fieldhouse: war due to economic reasons i.e. the China trade was inextricably linked with the economy in India. The opening of the Chinese market was of paramount importance (economic imperialism) James Polachek: Opium war was due to factional politics in the Qing court e.g. Spring Purification Circle Without opium, Chinese history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would have been far different. (Brook and Wakabayashi, 1) These measures of hostility on the part of Great Britain against China are not only justified, but even rendered absolutely necessary, by the outrages which have been committed by the Chinese Authorities against British officers and Subjects, and these hostilities will not cease, until a satisfactory arrangement shall have been made by the Chinese government. (Cheng, Lestz & Spence, 3) The Opium War is best characterized as a trade war (Elleman, 13) argued that the British merchants were happy to unload their unsold opium, and expected its destruction merely to send up the price for the new crop. (Elleman, 17) The cause of war is the kowtow! the arrogant and insupportable pretensions of China, that she will hold commercial intercourse with the rest of mankind, not upon terms of equal reciprocity, but upon the insulting and degrading forms of relation between lord and vassal. John Quincy Adams (Roberts, 32) Historians generally agree that opium provided the occasion rather than the sole cause of war. One leading Chinese historian has concluded that the Opium War was essentially a conflict between Eastern and Western cultures. P.C. Kuo (Roberts, 32)

To the Chinese the war was fought over the opium question; but for the British merchants the issues were much wider Michael Greenberg (Roberts, 33) The close and concrete connection between the opium trade and the war of 18391842 cannot be denied, and there is nothing unfitting about the term Opium War, which has been disavowed by many as being unjustifiably pejorative. Chang Hsinpao (Roberts, 33) but nothing was said in the treaties about the future of opium trade. (Roberts, 35) Second Opium War (Arrow War) 1856-1860 Key Players: Chinese Xianfeng, Qiying (Imperial Commissioner), Xu Guanqi and Ye Mingshen (Imperial Commissioners and anti-foreigner), Prince I, Prince Gong British Pottinger, John Davis (Plenipotentiary full powers granted to an individual to represent their government), John Bowring (British Superintendent of trade), Harry Parkes (British Consul Canton) French Gros (French military commander) Russian Ignatiev (Russian ambassador) Key Events: - 1842-1844 relative stability due to Qiying-Pottinger relationship - Qing preoccupied with Tailing Rebellion from 1850 - British and French involvement in Crimean War (1853-1856) against Russians over declining Ottoman Empire - However, Davis, Pottingers replacement, did not get on with Qiying - Canton City Question (Chinese opposition to British in Canton) - 1847 British raid on Canton, Qiying conceded to British demands and resigned - Treaty of Nanjing revision question arose in 1854 (12 years after its implementation most favoured nation clause) - Ye Mingshen refused to negotiate - Arrow Incident 1856 leads to the outbreak of the Second Opium War. Chinese navy invaded a ship belonging to British and arrested the soldiers and tore down the flag. This offended the British and treated the ship as their territory. This was the spark of the war. - In October 1856 the British attacked Canton, French joined the British in the attack after the murder of a French missionary - Ye Mingshen was captured and sent to India, where he died shortly thereafter - Anglo-French force take the Dagu forts and Tianjin in May 1858 - Qiying was recalled to assist with negotiations, but these failed - 1858 Treaties of Tianjin (with Russians, Americans, British, and French) Led to the representation in Beijing, opening of ports, indemnity, and greater access to travel into the interior of China - 1858 Shanghai Tariff Conference 5% tariff on imports, good deal for the western powers - The Dagu Repulse (Bruce was attacked on his way to Beijing) - Anglo-French force retaliate by taking Shanghai, Tianjin and threaten Beijing - Harry Parkes arrested, Elgin attacked Beijing, Xianfeng fled to Manchuria - British and French troops burned down the Summer Palace

Elgin dictated terms of the Convention of Beijing to Prince Gong e.g. British ambassador in Beijing, Kowloon to the British, further indemnity, Tianjin opened to trade Ignatiev played both sides and earned huge territorial concession in a Supplementary Treaty of Beijing for Russia

Self-Strengthening Movement (Tongzhi Restoration) 1862-1874 Causes: - Loss of the Arrow War (and the first Opium War) - Rebellions - Lost tributary system loss of prestige and security - Similar to Maos Five Year Plans (GLF) catch up to the West - Learn from the West to ultimately defeat the West Main People: Tongzhi Dowager Empress Chixi Zeng Guofan Li Hongzhang 30 years old, takes lead Prince Gong Xiaofungs half brother Zuo Zongtang Wei Yuan According to Hsu, the three stages of the movement: 1) Military improvements (arsenal) 1861-1872: firearms, ships & scientific knowledge 2) Industrial (heavy industry: steel, mining, etc) 1872-1885: railway, telegraph 3) Light industry (textiles, luxuries, etc) 1885-1895: cotton weaving, agricultural techniques Successes: Improve transportation, communication & light industry Built more naval bases & armaments Western education Nanjing Arsenal Dockyards Bei Yang Army Kiangnan Arsenal Improved relations with West Zangli Yamen (Foreign Office) Failures: Corruption (Li Hongzheng); nepotism Plans broke down very quickly Done mostly for show Weapons substandard No political, social, or cultural reforms Poor leadership; inefficient bureaucracy Lack of central planning and coordination Barely scratched the surface of modernization Lost the French War (1884-5) & Japanese (1894-5) Mismanagement of funds Osbourne flotilla