A project of Volunteers Purifi-W of

in Asia water . on_ 3 sna1.L y*

Technical

Paper kc.

Published by: International Reference Water Supply P.O. Box 5500 2280 HM Rijswijk The Netherlands Avaiiabie from: International Reference Water Supply P.O. Box 5500 2280 HM Rijswijk The Netherlands

Centre

for

Community

Centre

for

Community

Reproduced by permission of the International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply. Reproduction of this microfiche document form is subject to the same restrictions of the original document. in any as those

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY

TECHNICAL The Purification of

PAPER NO. 3 Water on a Small Scale

MARCH 1973 ,,

Introduction In -the tion Org. There rural sanitary In

1956 Mr. R.N.

World of Health Water

Clark

of The Division in Geneva scale which

of Environmental prepared a note in was published the

Sanitation on the Bull. Wld.

of Hlth.

Organisation

Purifica-

on a small

1956, 14,
is a great drinking

820-826.
need water for these supply W.H.O. paper, no. and it practical leave exists. suggested including to the I.R.C. for available. efforts latter that in the
the

instructions,

especially

for

areas,

where

health

conditions

much to be desired

and no

connection to repub I.R.C. I.R.C.

he?. with sh this

Community

Water

supply This

new data from

tech,lical in supply. its

paper briefing

3 resulted
is intended

collaborative by the hoped It is

between organisation paper of will water

and W.H"0,

to be used

of new consultants.

be of use

to them and also

to many others

working

field

I.R.C. improve

will this

highly paper..

appreciate

receiving

any contribution,

which

may further

-5-

There vidual

are or

three domestic

general scale: I.

methods

for

the

purifii:ation

of

water

on r:n indi-

Boiling disinfection, and

2. Chemical 3. Filtration These methods can be used singly

or in

combination.

1. Boiling Boiling and it is is a satisfactoi-y equally effective 'n-thod for destroying the water is disease clear organisms or cloudy, in water

whether

whether

it is relatively pure or highly contaminated with organic matter. Boiling destrOVE rril forms of disease organisms usually encountered in water, J- 2" tihether they of be bacteria, fuel required Under water, per quart). must be brought is sometimes over the has reached should minimum and, at that being to n "rt ,"Ll" "oiling, temperature. for at to low level one minute of will height boil at . The appearance as is is the sufficient reached minutes. say, boiling sea-level temperatures of five of it spores, to boil the requires cercariae, water about cysts varies usually
1

or ova. with the type with of fire, the boil-

The amount stove, ing of (approx.

and vessel. drinking 2 lb

conditions

associated wood to boil

kp of

one litre

To be safe, bubbles ance of indication boiling Five below should minutes mist point

water

(simmering) that will for water the

canfused water. continue suitable as a rule, intervals water a boiling

appear-

or steam water

None 01 Ia'lGse signs to boil least further above lower

Having locations,

be the elevation

1000 metre
be given

locations

1000 metres, at higher It is also than in

the altitudes.

reason

recommender clear which water. it is purpose.

that It

turbid is

or

cloudy

water

be boiled water and to use

somewhat in this the same contain-

longer container er for

good practice

to boil

to ?,e cooled

and stored

no other

I.N.L

THE 1972

NETHERI.

4NDS

/ I \
HOLE 1CM

PLASTIC

COVER

DIA --

FIG.1

CHLORINATION POT FOR HOUSEHOLD WELLS CAR 400 LITRES PER DAY (100 GPO) OF DRINKING CHEMICAL RECHARGE EVERY 3 WEEKS (SOURCE: CPHERI, NAGPUR.INDIA)

WATER;

Boiling particularly

elters

the carbon from

tase

of

water

because to

it

drives of is filled the in not Water

out

dissolved water

gases, as this

dioxide. one container risk of a day, of in the

The practice another recontamination. a partially even boiled it water is than though taste preferable

Aerating left of

by stirring a period where container stored to in the pclof is

or 5y pouring makes for several is covered, inoffensive luted water hours, will

recommended for the if of container,

a serious up to surface lose In taste

there

a good air

exposed, most any case,

mouth

particular the risk

a refrigerator.

to be reconciled drinking

of boiled

to run

2.

Chemical

disinfection has its of own private in Fig. Public with the disinfection well the well. as its source in of into several jar Research drinking simple successful chlorinator Institute, iodine Centre water, but

Where a house the ef:: water ient

can be disinfected methods using India. in at the chlorine. Central

Research a double disinfection International

has resulted 1. illustrates Health method W.H.O. of Engineering

designs developed Nagpur, is for For still

An alternative development Water Supply. the

by means of Reference

Community water

brought grounds

into of

house

from its

outside safety.

Rources,

simple are

chemical recommenand

treatment ded on the iodine. Chlorine -------Chlorine against the nor most water usual against

can be given

to ensure efficiency

The two chemicals availability

and easy

chlorine

is the

a useful bacteria doses, organisms such it

disinfectant commonly is into not embedded

for associated effective -n solid is

drinking with against particles.

water certain with limited satisfy for

and is cysts Chlorine organic use tne

effective In alin and ova, enters matter for

water-borne

diseases.

instantaneously and in

chemical form,

combination only of to

V'combined't must addition

disinfection. de-

Sufficient mand" of

chlorine water in

therefore to the

be added amount

"chlorine action.

required

bacterial

-8-

This but luted

combination the presence residual water, for

with of

other such

substances gives general, quantities Turbid water in

may

giv<? rise water,

to

3 chlorine tnat a "free or highly is not

taste, pol-

a taste large

some indicltion a cloudy of organic

chlorine" suitable it

exists.

containing chlorination.

matter,

can be filtered,

and when c lear,

can be successfully indicates for is about or easily sold contain to the easiest the "UTavel available under about

chlorinated. that chlorine to apply treating strength water!'. sources a variety of of chlorine trade of are chlorine appropriate the commercial Annex 1). quantities laundry These of will pure of a contact to destroy in water the period harmful form of of about bacteria. a solution. about A good such stock 20-33 minutes is

Experience necessary Chlorine solution This is "Zonite" Other bleaches usually diluted water. It This freshly after opening, lime, opening, few hours then This plicates Another stock it is also is

to use in

contains

1;:; available

chlorine. as "Milton",

proprietary

disinfectants

IILKI~S (see

3% to 5% available
by addition

and can be easily

a 1% solution

possible

to purchase which the in the opened. whole

bleaching about of of

powder this over

or

chlorinated chlorine rapidly period,

lime. when without after in can use. coma diminishes even

a white made.

powder However, is result <;o use the off is

contains strength a loss solution. chlorine in a tightly subject dosing. Storage

307: available powder a long at once, lime

the

container can also is best

strength. The inert in to the clear stoppered chemical

In using will

chlorinated settle which for future which

container

immediately soluti.Jn bottle

to make up a stock leaving solution the type reliability of powder is active still of and kept

be poured

degradation

high-test Containers been

hypochlorite, of this of powder cans

which should bursting

contains be kept when left

about as cool ir.

70% available
as possible, the stock ite better whole its is hot solution after container strength sun or

chlorine. there in in having hot the than once.

instances places.

storage

The powder lime. and will is not this lime, so it the even

can be used High-test keep its necessary will is opened.

to make a hypochlor-

same way as chlorinated chlorinated is or opened, However, two after

more stable at in

strength to use lose most the of

-the container a month

material

container

Chlorine in brown places.

solutions or gri-en

are bottles,

unstable well

in

warm climates. and stored

They in

should dark,

be kept cool:

stoppered

To make a litre.'(one quisite amount

Tither

1~,' t) rat:;r to cup)

of

about the liar_J of of of

I$

stc,:': laundry

.:-qlution, bleach, lime, hypochlorite.

add the

re-

of

any of

following:

F 250 ml (I

01 40 g (Lh or Smailer amounts., The proprietary ly have quantities

tablespoons) of stock

cnlorina-ted

15 g (1 tablespoon)

!.Lgh-test

solution

can be made by using

proportionate

dit;lr;;;,Lanis, strengtr: add three ounce dosage like should

'~1 which

ex;.tples

have

bet-1 given, U~lulion.

genes*al-

a 1% solution water, highly of

3nd can be '~.:.ed wihout drops very should of

1%

To chlorinate of water but period clear sulphur* tact complete Chlorine examples use '_ ; ;: ,..-. >' I:' I: " L 1: i '.: " -
3 t-. $. ^ ), :L> r ;,,:-

solution gallons. or It if is

to each If it the

litre water that

(c!ua;-t is a conensure

or one fluid odour, the about

to 32 imperial be doubled.

coloured,

weak tea,

has a noticeable use to

repeated

30 minutes

be allowed

before

disinfection. is of also available other on the brand package in brands tablet which should action. core form, given of which in Annex carefully. first the the is Tablets is outer the 1. following Directions For disinfects portion chlorine the whole the dechlorthe of are and for water the to example,

commercial

may be avaiiable: be followed This Then, tablet after

"Halazone"

llChlor-d%hlor"; as given a special dissolves, the must core taste. Chlor-dechlor with tablet reduce amount inating ineffective. The foregoing illustrates

names are

has a double chlorine the If in even inner

compound. more than at the one of these

neutralizes one tablet tablets

remaining added ', after are

to be used, dissolved

be put of

same time.

completely

practices a practice

are

all

related for well

to water chlorination.

within

the

house.

Fig.

1.

suitable

Iodine ;+ .,, w---e_ --..s '2 i ,; ;.: ', 'Iodine is an excellent disinfecting b,) .i', \,._, '.'. normally available from any chemist. j' _,' ;<-.

agent In

and, addition, iodine

as tincture water of to

of which for

iodine, iod ine,

is

disinfectantstants disinfec iss "Gloi one litre turb turbid'id or

based on iodine are commercially available, :'. b,.' i'1; 1 ,: baline". Each tablet contains sufficient ,i.,. ,I',','. -,,, '~(,.,: _', i .,,.,.:r' water by liberating I:,$, .:.:'- (one quart ) of clear !

an example

disinfect

8 mg of iodine;

- 10 -

highly prior mates in If of

polluted this 1. of cloudy not should

water,

two tablets less than to

are

recommended. Other

Contact very

period cold clishown

to use should Annex tincture 2% strength is is

be not

20 minutes

and in

be increased

25 minutes.

makes are

iodine will well

is suffice suited

used for for

to disinfect one litre having clear in disinfection and the

water, of water. noticeable with filtrate the

normally colour,

two drops water even when

However, solution. can then

which clear, Turbid If will

. .

or muddy,

or water

iodine polluted, higher

water water

can be filtered is known There is taste.

be treated. the dose but it

the

or suspected

to be heavily using

should

be doubled. produce

no harm

dosage,

a medicinal produced potassium leptospira, the

The commercially tetraglycine cysts, cercariae, is

tablets

are

normally

iodine as well.

compounds, against

such

as

tri-iodine,

and are

effective

amoebic

and some viruses a similar be followed, i.e. contact

When iodine mended proprietary read for

disinfectant should the

period minutes. should

to that

recom-

chlorine tablets

20-30

When u:-<ing be carefully

manufacturer's

instructions

and followed.

Potassium Permanganate ---------------------Potassium water. rapidly dosage other time without is not It is permanganate is a powerful in waters in the brown spent has frequently been agent, organic g/l. vibrio, treated is but with which and its used for the disinfection its action of is used ~.

oxidizing containing 2000 or 0.5 cholera Water

on which material. Potassium it is that use is is

account

The commonly permanganate of little

one part against a dark

may possibly use against in

be effective disease produces

organisms.

potassium difficult

permanganate to remove

precipitate,

scouring. a satisfactory

The opinion disinfectant

expressed

potassium not

permanganate

recommended.

11

3.

Filtration are water ceramic filter two types supplies: filter, (Fig. of filters sand is the of prime commonly filter, a finer purpose used which of texture. which for is the relatively There is is tre,itment coarse; also removal of
ilouse-

There hold the carbon chlorine.

the which 2.)

and the

oI excess

Sand filter ----------The household effective csriae, coarse turbidity first clear This coal organic terial a higher this these quent With place ever firstly, least and, greater A simple diameter on a stand, in diameter water has is sand filter, bacteria. large matter treating no purifying compounds, renewed. which in the count :Jith not the in found. dep-th the of rate filter. than in the unless It skillfully will, however, ?nd will although alum, operated, remove strain it is cysts, out may pass of tc relatively ova, most of certhe by a certain charabsorb bachaving exte?lt of view Subse' to water inagainst and similarly and visible carefully almost frequently matter, growth can also filters to this in fine bacterial happen should or cloudiness. can be obtained. but

crganisms, suspension, water effect, even Charcoal There the sandfilters. with its this Sand filtraticn

some fine which charcoal.

may be made more effective as a result filters is have contain being lost the of unless property

Some household effect

function

absorb the

taste-producing

filters are

can serve

as nutrients unfiltered as a single be boiled household points which through

causing water. step of

an undesirable filtered To a lesser point treatment.

instances

From a hygienic

be used water mind, It

filtration reservation water sand that

should the

or disinfected. sand in water inch) the or is, filter 4.8 filteimakin; passes in finds a filter should fact, should not a definite use whereare, be at be desirable

treatment. is the that

can easily through flow

be made for

household

The essential sand of

60 cm (2 ft>

- an additional (4 Imp.

15 cm (6

secondly, than filter with at

200 i/m2/hr

gall./ft'/hr from with drum to a steel the

US gall./ft'/hLa). ir drum inch)

can be constructed inch) of high, the a container the bottom

drum 60 cm (24 inch) cut off. a hole filter l'lace outlet. the 2 mm (:;/t;l

and 75 cm (30

head

underneath,

and drill serve

as the

NETHERLANDS

24 iNCHES DIA QQCM.-~ _-

INLET

FILTERED

WATER

FIG. 3

S4ND FILTER CAPACITY 1 LITRE

I MIN

(12 GPH)

Place of fine for ;!\'. ly the

a few ten timetres drum and fill to sand. Make a hole and insert of or such layout for oil prior and stones before highly

of in

small
10

stones, side is of length not

about the drum of

pea-size, of pipe the just for in top below Fig.

in with

the the

bottom top rim line. initialout and may be

within the

cm (4 inch)

rather

an overflow used

a short a filter should

an overflow
3.

A general heavily disinfected The sand fully

illustrated normally should

Drums

chemicals to use. are the also filter

be used

as they cleaned

contaminated.

The drum used

be thoroughly

likely is water

to be contaminated assembled. and allowed The filter

nnd have should for

to be carethen be before

cleaned with

,,:. '. t 2 : -: : /~ " rc; . ,,'

filled draining

chlorinated

to stand

2 hours

to waste. the filter keep to place a hollow should a filter, at but several all the a continuous the filter disc in a small forming per flow filled, on the the sand. of water with surface A filter per prior running a slight of into the of to the under di-

To operate top, It the clear In fall vals pends sand (even dation just inlet

sufficient to prevent should deliver which such filter time, of

to keep

overflow. sand these of drinking. flow to interdeA slow degrethe as algae

may be necessary

mensions

one litre

minute

(12 gallons

hour)

water,

nevertheless it times. filter weeks is or is

be chlorinated to keep of filtration only since surface because in the first

operating the in off

desirable The rate should even

a continuous is its of of likely at long efficiency the sand.

through /. j .i( :. ',g ,I : L.. ., I, _

be cleaned months, on the barrier

possibly highly filter of of when the the

on the after chlorine

biological chlorination solution). however, with to keep

growth a reliable is will filter green it

as described,

to disease

organisms,

failing occur

chemical week after of the

Passage start described

of organisms, a newly below. the

,,_4.. ,.;' ',

: ,i, / ,

constructed Trouble filter

and after growths perfectly

cleaning (algae) dark, since

filter green

can be eliminated this

by covering

depends on light for growth. When it becomes necessary to clean the ^,,I (' ^; i .I' filter, a very thin layer, about .& cm (l/4 inch) can be carefully scraped <...,.. ,<, 'I ).I off and discarded, following which the sand surface should be lightly '- 4 r_., .( :,z raked or scratched to leave it loose. After several such cleanings, the ," ', )I>, ,'ZI ,,, sand should be restored to its initial level with clean sand aiter ,'. ,, _I I .' .t', scraping the filter surface down to a clean level. ':$ ~ .*,I,I p,( :', :. I: /. ,_;:: ,,' ~,, j",.,( ), I_ ._ ,_/._ i'>j...C'. :.' :;".'.. '_,'*( .g;,,:,,,,I .: 'II/, ,,_':a',' ;;,;,! /,,:AI,(, Lx,

R.C. HE NETHERLANDS 972

PLASTIC

TUBE

CHLORINATED

WATER

SLUDGE

WATER FIG.2 CARBON FILTER FOR REMOVING EXCESS CHLORINE (SOURCE: MIN. OF HEALTH, INDONESIA)

36649

For steel floe cium hour ready

more turbid

waters,

settling cc solution followed continuous for the

or cotlgul:iting The la-tter of one for

:knd seLtli!lg oul :ilinut;c:: of about ( !,.I g) of tablespoon) settled

pl*ivr in 'I ur.i.il of half water

Lo
~i~ar:c~c

filtration 100 litres sLarts

may be necessary. drum by stirring of to the water form, under be allowed filtering.

may be c:lrricd tzble~poon about three 'l0 g (one A period settle; the

:kl~~~ into .! calan is then

to be tre;tLeti by ndding st5.rrir.g. floe to

carbonate should for

Ceramic fil-ters ----^L---------There ceramic is is very the only are several filters, ilaving candle, of types of cera!nic pore method filters,
pumps,

such and there

as pressure is water LI wide of through the

filters, range the of these candle with clog

non-pressure media filter filters,

and filter different and the convenience. with

sizes. of clean or

The !leurt getting turbid water

:.~ly of

a matter

Only cloudy

@should be used water,

ceramic

otherwise,

candles

quickly. filter cercariae, the smaller candles disease or otherwise are useful They in removing suspended partially passage matter, be effective water should a through

Coarse-grained helminth in always ova, removing

and cysts.

may only after

organisms, disinfected filter. pore sizes I .5 disease of a filter the once free bacterial time, p . These

and consequently

be chlorinated

coarse-grained Porcelain larger the king water After pass clog. running boiled filters

or industrial-type are made with 11 . should will

from for

a radius water of usually is

of

5011 or the filters in are drin-

down to 0.30 radius Chamberland filters during passage water after the If for

To be satisfactory be about Selas all period such 015.

purification, such fine-grained found safe treatment. penetrate filter or oil, quite will the

maximum pore porcelain

Examples and similar and it

L2 and the a limited through use, This filter gets a stiff 20 minutes.

remove

orga:lisms without

to use and

further

a prolonged filter. the a filter water with

15 or

however, breakthrough at least brush coated

growth even it soap, if

can generally a week, from

be prevented should be scrubbed

by cleaning does not under and then

and boiling

or clogged,

grease,

Another various all sity moval candle, N filters tered should or five is be taken types is of Kieselguhr

type pore

of

filter earth

candle filter. commonly are the

is

known the in

as the types water.

Kieselguhr, this efficient Among the filters. only with safe are

or infusorial also in is made with removing porothe type The filshould they four reof

or diatomaceous

Like found

porcelain,

sizes. filters

The finer-grained Berkefeld The V filters and following be further bacteria, further as of at without candles frequently, most. type of of the with needs filter filter the the candle, wall porosity surface

of bacteria graded

well-known Their for this

and Mandler N (normal, are

as V (tlvieltt, or fine). material, should the grade more the smallest

or course),

or intermediate),

and W ("wenig", the through of days water

suitable to destroy is

suspended remove this

filtration and it

treated

bacteria. to use water The same care except longer that than

treatment. candles, intervals

Kieselguhr at

porcelain

be cleaned

of not

There in teria action. Above frequent permit point Filter of Water and is where water a hand pump is systems catalyst

a special the in surface such in

known is is are not

as the impaired,

"Katadyn" with but the

filter, bac-

which

impregnated killed

a silver

a way that contact

coming

by oligodynamic becomes clogged. at possibly chlorine.

Such a filter filters unfiltered of view, the and their to water

cleaning

only should cracks For this

when it

attachments guard to against get by. water in the lower under filter tube is

be carefully or leaks reason also which

examined might with and from

intervals

a hygienic

filtered

should

be disinfected filter, attached through Another The candle water of A third type to which the the

candles is simply

can be mounted with poured for use is which from like is the in in is at the

a gravity-type or top, candles trickles pressure.

consists upper one. candles, is filtered fitted and the inside. these with made in

two reservoirs stored piped being pump.

candle

ceramic is is

compartment. directly as needed. put through filter into the to the

mounting system, water, being Any of selected.

water case drawn

available attached the

mounted

a pressure

The suction water

a vessel filter another candles

operated is

a bicycle discharged if

pump,

candle tube. are

The filtered

satisfactory

suitable

: , s ;;. _, " L

Water storage .o-----------No matter nullified filtered protection" a considerable ly tant disappears to keep contamination. which how much care if water the is water Water will period unless the treated simple. the water; dust, storage is is taken it with in producing after chlorine deal However, of free chemicals from the with this safe water, If this will refor imporbe or contaminated treatment. or iodine light residual are made. of hazards to store

boiled

"unprotected" treated of time. water successfully additions

may be subjected

to immediate has "residual recontamination effect It is

eventualvery

recontamination. water; to do not prevent

The principles dip the anything entry of

are into insects, of with t;ie

Use clean and keep or other

vessels the foreign

vessels

covered

substances. periodic to prevent emptying, the .,rashing,

Cleanliness and rinsing of slime

vessels chlorinated

involves water,

heavily

accumulation

growths. practicable, enough are if the is to used, small-mouthed prevent,the arrangements the a spigot. of dirt, preferably depends out flies, dust and other of primarily wasps, lost use of The fact ensure decreases storage. impervious on the roaches, foreign vessel. and othe;, matter, It some form The be and should insects, entry vessel. should vessels of should be used easy with a neck When large either vessels large

Wherever narrow vessels by tipping is to use,

a dipper, be made for The best

cup or hand. pouring, with scheme

or by rolling possible, entry of enough precaution cover not

To prevent of tight cover form

necessary, to keep

washable

material.

and type enough

substantial Another water into bottled, may survive drinks pends In the

to be easily to the

or broken. commercially that their with such purity. time, of but but sugar produced products cysts in bottled are put is

relates

and carbonated bottles its bacterial long

beverages. does not content of

and capped periods their purity carbonated its action Thebest others.

When water

and ova sweetened safety de-

The amount properties,

determines on initial case hut than safe. of

bactericidal and long

complete

storage. the alone would carbon cannot dioxide does inhibit are more on to make beverages

beverages, is selective, Carbonation policy

bacteria, resistant a beverage

since

some organisms Le counted

seem to be to use only

IU

bottled maintain operation. It Ice is

in

establishments high

reliably standard

known of plant

to use

pure

ingredients and standards

and which of

a suitably

hygiene

also

relevant should ice is the drinking into

to mention be made from water reliably beverage cooling.

that properly to

ice, water but

too, treated from it

can harbour water; a public should round that

contamination. means, be put beverage from water supply.

cubes the

chlorinated Unless directly containers

or piped known itself,

be pure, only

never the

packed

to effect

Conclusion In all conclusion, for is large cities when dealing granted. have established, traveller job of in water It safe is it with water drinking supplies. be safer would water it is the safest validity nothing advised to not to of take that this

anything assumption

frequently, would

and often Unless be well

wrongly,

assumed

to leave

chance.

The transient own unobtrusive

particular, purification.

to do his

Summary of

treatment

Type 1. All 2. Clear 3. Slightly 4. Turbid

5.

of types

water.

Recommended processes for rendering water suitable for drinking. boiling chlorination filtration (disinfection) and disinfection filtration

water turbid

coagulation, settling, and disinfection

Special types, e.g. excessive hardness, corrosive, high content oi minerals such as iron or manganese

seek professional special treatment

advice

for

ANNEX 1. PROPRIETARY NAMES OF SOLUTIONS OR TABLETS SUITABLE FOR WATER PURIFICATION FOR INDIVIDUAL USAGE.

The following mention not which

I.

proprietary specific that not of they are Centre,

names are or of endorsed in

giver, certain

for

infc-r:~;ationmanufacturers' by WHO or of

only... products the

The does WHO Internature

of

companies

imply are

or recommended

national

Reference

preference

to others

a similar

mentioned. chlorine

Sources

a. Solid ---------- form "Halazone" "Chlor-dechlor" "Hydra-chlorazone"

_.

- tablets - tablets - tablets Heyden" - tablets - tablets

(Use as directed) (
( II if '1 '1 II 1' II 'I II !I II II > )

"Halamid" "Chloramin-T b.

( (

> >

Liquid ----------- form "Zonite" "Milton "Javel "Dankin's and other laundry "Clorox", "Regina" - liquid antiseptic" water" - liquid commercial bleaches, "Dazzle" e.g. and (usually to 1%)
3-5s

1% chlorine (approx. used as supplied) - liquid( ( - liquid(approx. "

II II II

solution
I' I'

- can be
II II > >

solution"

0.5% chlorine chlorine

solution) solution - dilute

2. Sources

of

iodine

a. Solid I--------- form "Individual "Portable "Globaline" B. Liquid c--m---'--- form l'Lugolls "Tincture solution" of iodine" - liquid - liquid (approx. (approx.
5% iodine

Water Aqua"

Purification

Tablets"

- tablets

(use ( (
II I'

as directed)
II II I' II > >

- tablets

- tablets

solution)
SOlUtiOn)

2% iodine