Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) A Bipolar Junction Transistor (a.k.a.

a BJT or Bipolar Transistor) is an active semiconductor device formed by two P-N junctions whose function is amplification of an electric current. Bipolar transistors are made from 3 sections of semiconductor material (alternating P-type and N-type), with 2 resulting P-N junctions. Schematically, a bipolar transistor can be thought of in this fashion:

One P-N junction is between the emitter and the base; the other P-N junction is between the collector and the base. Note that the emitter and collector are usually doped somewhat differently, so they are rarely electrically interchangeable. While the terms "collector" and "emitter" go back to vacuum tube days, the base derives its name from the first pointcontact transistors -- here the center connection also formed the mechanical base for the structure. In modern practice, the base region is made as thin as possible to achieve reasonable levels of current gain; it is often only about one millionth of a meter thick. Bipolar transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP according to the arrangement of their N-type and P-type materials. Their basic construction and chemical treatment is implied by their names. So an NPN transistors is formed by introducing a thin region of Ptype material between two regions of N-type material.

On the other hand, a PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of N-type material between two regions of P-type material.

Since the majority and minority current carriers are different for N-type and P-type materials, it stands to reason that the internal operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will

also be different. These two basic types of transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown here:

NPN PNP Note that the two symbols are subtly different. The vertical line represents the base (B), the angular line with the arrow on it represents the emitter (E), and the other angular line represents the collector (C). The direction of the arrow on the emitter distinguishes (graphically) the NPN from the PNP transistor. If the arrow points in, (Points iN) the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN (Not Pointing iN). Bear in mind that the arrow always points in the direction of hole flow (current), or from the P-type to N-type sections, no matter whether the P-type section is the emitter or base. On the other hand, electron flow is always "against" the arrow, just like in the junction diode. As a result, a PNP transistor is "triggered" when its base is pulled low; an NPN transistor is "triggered" when its base is brought high. Note that the bipolar transistor is a current-amplifying device, unlike the vacuum tube and the field-effect transistor (FET), both of which depend upon voltage changes to operate. It is the amount of current flowing in the base circuit that controls the amount of current flowing in the collector circuit.

DIODE:
The diode is the simplest form of semiconductor. It is available in two basic flavors, germanium and silicon, which indicates the material used to manufacture the active junction within the diode. Diodes are used in a variety of applications, and there are numerous subtypes. Here is a list of the most common.

Rectifier. The average diode, it rectifies AC current to provide DC only. Zener. It limits voltage to a predetermined level. Zeners are used for low-cost voltage regulation. Light-emitting. These diodes emit infrared of visible light when current is applied. Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). This is a type of high-power switch used to control AC or DC currents. Bridge rectifier. This is a collection of four diodes strung together in sequence; it is used to rectify an incoming AC current.

diode symbol Diodes carry two important ratings: peak inverse voltage (PIV) and current. The PIV rating roughly indicates the maximum working voltage for the diode. Similarly, the current rating

is the maximum amount of current the diode can withstand. Assuming a diode is rated or 3 amps, it cannot safely conduct more than 3 amps without overheating and failing. All diodes have positive and negative terminals (polarity). The positive terminal is the anode, and the negative terminal is the cathode. You can readily identify the cathode end of a diode by looking for a colored stripe near one of the leads. Fig. 5-11 shows a diode that has a stripe at the cathode end. Note how the stripe corresponds with the heavy line in the schematic symbol for the diode.

diodes

All diodes emit light when current passes through them. This light is generally only in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The light-emitting diode (LED) is a special type of semiconductor that is expressly designed to emit light in human visible wavelengths. LEDs are available to produce any of the basic colors (red, yellow, green, blue, or white) of light as well as infrared. The infrared LEDs are especially useful in robots for a variety of different applications.LEDs carry the same specifications as any other diode. The LED has a PIV rating of about 100 to 150 V, with a maximum current rating of under 40 mA (usually only 5 to 10 mA is applied to the LED). Most LEDs are used in low-power DC circuits and are powered with 12 V or less. Even though this voltage is far below the PIV rating of the LED, the component can still be

ruthlessly damaged if you expose it to currents exceeding 40 or 50 mA. A resistor is used to limit the current to the LED.

Led