Semiconductors and Amplifiers Laboratory

MM1EM1

Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

Electromechanical Systems 1 MM1EM1 Semiconductors and Amplifiers Laboratory

Important notes: You should read the instruction carefully. Your work will be inspected. You should also perform some research on the subject of the laboratory, which will allow you to gain more benefit from the experiment.

Objectives
To introduce the basic concepts of semiconductors and operational amplifiers To understand the functions of diodes and transistors, both in terms of their characteristics and in terms of their applications for rectification and amplification

Important note:
There is a lot to get through and time is extremely critical in this laboratory you have almost one hour to complete each part of the laboratory, and no more. At the end of each hour, you might be moved to the next part, whether you have finished the previous one or not. It is therefore very important that you read the laboratory sheet in advance, and ask in the exercise class or class if you do not understand anything. If you find you are making no progress on a particular part of the laboratory, seek help from one of the free demonstrators. You are encouraged to perform the plotting and calculation aspects of the exercise within the laboratory session after finishing all the experiments, but remember that your priority is to complete the experiments themselves. If you have not completed the plotting and calculation aspects, finish them off later. A group number will be given to you by lab demonstrator during the lab. Do not forget to write down that group number on your cover sheet.

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Part 1: Diodes
The semiconductor diode Figure 1a: symbol of a semiconductor diode. Figure 1b: dark stripe marking the cathode of the device. Restriction: current flows in one direction only.

Fig 1 Fig 2 Forward bias: fig 2a, Va > Vb, current flows in direction of arrow. Reverse bias: fig 2b, Va < Vb, negligible current flow. Diode I-V curve: Fig 3 shows a silicon diode I-V curve. At reverse bias, no current should flow. In reality, the I-V curve departs from theory due to the existence of leakage current but in this experiment we will not consider reverse bias and assume that the diode behaves as a perfect insulator under reverse bias.

Fig 3 An analogy from mechanical engineering The diode serves as the electrical equivalent of a one-way valve in a fluid flow system - just as a valve allows fluid to flow in one direction not the other, the diode allows current to flow in one direction only. The analogy can be extended further: Imagine that the moving part of the valve is held onto its seat by a force caused by gravity or by a spring, to keep it closed. A small forward pressure is needed to overcome this force and allow forward flow. This is analogous to the 0.7V forward bias required to cause current to flow Under reverse pressure, no significant flow can occur. But in practice the seal is unlikely to be perfect, so a very small leakage flow occurs, increasing with reverse pressure. This is analogous to the current flowing under reverse bias, and can similarly be ignored for practical purposes.

Fig. 4

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Experiment 1.1: Diode I-V Curve (Forward bias) (Additional equipments needed: Two multimeters) 1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig 5a; Fig 5b is the schematic. (In all experiments make sure about your wiring, setting and connections before turning ON the system. If you have any doubts ask for help from demonstrator)

Fig. 5 2. Switch ON the Module Power Supply. 3. Adjust the 0-2V DC knob (the upper knob of the two small knobs on circuit board) to give roughly 0.1V across the diode. 4. Record the current (I) and the actual voltage in Table 1, when the readings on multimeters are stable and not fluctuating. 5. Repeat steps 3 & 4 using the voltages given in Table 1. You may need to change the sensitivities of the multimeters. 6. Plot a graph of current vs voltage, with title, labels and units, on the grid provided. Nominal Voltage (mV) 100 200 300 400 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 Table 1
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Actual Voltage (mV)

Current

Diode I-V curve 25 January 2011

Semiconductors and Amplifiers Laboratory MM1EM1 Question 1: At what voltage does the current start to flow significantly (specifically, at what voltage does it exceed 5 mA)?

Rectification Rectifier: diodes are commonly used in rectifying circuits to convert an alternating signal to an unidirectional signal. Half wave rectifier: with reference to fig 6, current can flow in the clockwise direction but not anti-clockwise. Fig 7b shows the response of the circuit for a sinusoidal input signal (fig 7a). Fig .6

Fig 7 Experiment 1.2: Half wave rectifier (Additional equipments needed: Oscilloscope, one multimeter and signal generator)

The initial settings for the oscilloscope need to be as follows: Channel 1, DC coupled, 2V/div Channel 2, DC coupled, 2V/div Timebase 5 ms/div
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Construct the circuit in Fig 8.(connect the earth connoctors of both probes to 2.2) Move oscilloscope traces to centre of screen. Connect the signal generator to its input socket on the base unit and switch it ON. Connect a multimeter between 2.1 and 2.2. Set it to the AC voltage range (e.g. 20V AC range). Set the frequency of the signal generator to mains frequency (50Hz), and adjust its output to 5V RMS (14.14V peak to peak). Set the DC offset knob on the signal generator to zero by pulling that knob out and turn it unti-clockwise to zero. Align the oscilloscope trace markers for CH1 and CH2 (start of the CH1 wave on the left of the screen) to the centre line. Sketch the oscilloscope traces on the grid provided. Mark clearly the peak voltages, the dc levels and the periods of the two traces. Note the voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and the timebase setting (s/div) CH1 /div CH2 timebase /div /div

Question 2: Identify the two main differences between the AC and rectified signals (hint: one of them is a result of the diode forward voltage).

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Experiment 1.3: Smoothing circuit and reservoir capacitor (Additional equipments needed: Oscilloscope, one multimeter and signal generator)

Fig 9 To obtain a more uniform voltage from the half wave rectifier, a smoothing circuit is needed. There are many circuits that can fulfill this function, a simple one is obtained by connecting a capacitor in parallel with R3 (as shown in Fig 9) 1. Leave the circuit from the previous experiment unchanged except for additionally shorting 2.6 & 2.9, and 2.8 & 2.11 as shown in Fig. 9. 2. Same as last experiment set the signal generator to 50Hz and 5VRMS 3. Sketch the oscilloscope traces on the grid provided. Mark clearly the peak voltages, the dc levels and the periods of the two traces.

Voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and the timebase setting (s/div) CH1 CH2 timebase /div /div /div

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Part 2: Transistors and amplification

Introduction to Transistors In this experiment you will use an NPN bipolar junction transistor. It has three connections: collector, base and emitter, see Figure 10.

Fig 10

The main function of a transistor is amplification, particularly amplification of small currents and of small variations in voltage. The laboratory will illustrate how it operates as a current amplifier and voltage amplifier, and will illustrate a frequently-encountered amplification circuit. Transistor current gain Figure 11 shows a simple transistor (NPN) circuit, known as the common-emitter. We will investigate the relationship between the currents and the voltages. For practical purposes, it can be assumed that collector current Ic is proportional to the base current Ib with the constant of proportionality being known as (beta) or hFE:

Ic
Fig. 11

Ib Vc

Vb Ie

Ic

Ib

Equation 1

IMPORTANT: Throughout the laboratory, make sure that all voltage supplies are switched off or set to minimum before setting up the experiment. Whilst you are performing measurements or observing output waveforms, you may need to change the sensitivities of the measuring instruments. Always record the settings of the instruments and include them in the report. Experiment 2.1: Collector output characteristics (Additional equipments needed: Three multimeters) In Figure 11, the collector current Ic is affected by both Vc and I b. To find their relationships, one parameter (Vc) will be kept constant at 1V throughout the experiment while the other two
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are measured. 1. Ensure that the power supply knobs are set to zero. 2. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 12. Set two of the multimeters to act as ammeters: Set one to the DC 200 A setting and connect between points 7.2 and 7.3.(base current) Set the other to the DC 20 mA setting and connect between points 7.6 and 7.10.(collector current) Set the third multimeter to act as a voltmeter on the DC 20V setting, connected between points 7.11 and 7.12. Get a demonstrator to check your wiring. 3. Switch on the unit and set the Variable DC control knob (which provides the collector voltage) to 1V (i.e. set Vc=1V). 4. Adjust the 0 2V DC knob (base voltage) to give a base current of 10 A (i.e. set Ib=10 A) as closely as you can and record the actual value. You may find it easer to use a screwdriver or trimming tool to adjust the voltage supplies as the circuit is very sensitive. 5. Record the collector current in Table 2. 6. Repeat steps 3 & 4 with base current set at 20, 30, 40 and 50 A. Note: You may notice a tendency for the collector current to creep up slowly at the highest settings. This is caused by the dissipation of power as heat in the transistor, which produces an increase in . Never try higher current and REDUCE the variable controls to zero when the readings are taken to prevent overheating and damaging the transistor. 7. On the grid provided, plot the transistor current gain characteristic Ic vs Ib for Vc=1V Base Current (target value) 10 A 20 A 30 A 40 A 50 A Base Current (actual value) Collector current for Vc = 1V

Table 2

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20 18 16 14 12 Collector 10 Current 8 (mA) 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40 50

Base current ( A)

Question 3: Rerrange equation 1 to show the current gain in terms of the collector current Ic and base current Ib. Hence calculate the current gain (or hFE) of the transistor (using the last row of your table of values).

The Common Emitter Amplifier Fig.13 In this section, we will investigate some of the important aspects of a common emitter amplifier, perhaps the most frequently-encountered amplifier R circuit. Add a load resistor RL to the circuit in Fig 11 to give Fig 13, and consider the sequence below: Vb

RL

Ib VS

Ie Fix the collector voltage Vc at a certain value. Change Vb by a small amount. This will change the base current Ib. The collector current Ic will change (look at the results obtained from the last section!). This will cause the voltage across the load resistor to change. Conclusion: a change in the base voltage will result in a change in the output voltage. From Table 2 above, it can be seen that the range of the base current is in A, whereas the collector current is in mA. Therefore, a small change in the input leads to a large change in the output, and hence amplification!

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Experiment 2.2: Voltage amplification: AC (Additional equipments needed: Oscilloscope, two multimeters, signal generator and signal generator split connecting wire)

Fig. 14 A very common application of the circuit you have just tested is as an amplifier, for instance within radio sets and other audio applications. It is instructive to demonstrate its use for this purpose. Experiment 2.2 Part 1 1. 2. Once again, reduce both power supplies to zero setting and switch off. Construct the circuit shown in Fig 14. The multimeter settings should be as follows: First multimeter: 20V DC range between points 7.11 (+ve supply) and 7.12 (earth), measuring supply voltage VS Second multimeter: 20V DC range between points 7.6 (collector) and 7.12 (earth), measuring collector voltage VC Get a demonstrator to check your wiring, switch on and adjust the supply voltage to be 9V, using the Variable DC control knob. 4. Adjust Vb (0 2V DC knob) until the collector voltage Vc reaches approximately 4.5V (the adjustment is very sensitive so any value between 4 and 5 V is acceptable). This is said to bias the transistor so that its collector has a potential which is halfway between the two limiting output values (0V and 9V), maximizing the possible range of variations of Vc (around 4.5 V with respect to its quiescent (neutral) position).

3.

Experiment 2.2 Part 2 5. Switch off the main switch on the experiment base unit without resetting the voltage controls.
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6.

Leave the circuit set up but additionally make the following connections: Use the appropriate wiring connector and connect the black plug from the signal generator to point 7.4, circuit #7 Connect the red plug from the signal generator to point 2.11, circuit #2 Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope also to point 2.11, circuit #2 Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to point 7.6, circuit #7 Connect point 2.9, circuit #2 to point 7.1, circuit #7 (Note that the earths of the various parts of the circuit board, and of the oscilloscope, are connected together internally). The demonstrators can help you to set the signal generator and oscilloscope. The initial settings for the oscilloscope need to be as follows: Channel 1, AC coupled, 10 mV/div Channel 2, AC coupled, 1V/div Timebase 0.2 ms/div Set the trigger to operate from Channel 2 as this is the stronger signal. The initial settings for the signal generator need to be as follows: Frequency 1kHz, sine wave, symmetrical waveform. Set the attenuation at -40dB by choosing -20dB on the signal generator front panel (shift+8) by pulling out the amplitude knob (AMPL) for an additional reduction of -20dB. Amplitude knob set so that when oscilloscope is connected, an amplitude of around 40 mV peak-peak is measured on Channel 1. The circuit should now be as follows (Fig. 15):

Fig. 15 This looks complicated, but in fact you are simply connecting a signal generator (simulating, for example, an audio signal from a microphone, or other mid-frequency, low-amplitude signal) to the base of the transistor, and using a capacitor (borrowed from another experiment) to isolate the DC
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potential of the transistor base from the signal generator. Note that a much more conventional layout of the circuit diagram for this experiment would be as shown in Fig. 16 (the voltmeters and oscilloscope are omitted):

Fig. 16. 7. Get a demonstrator to check your wiring, then switch on the base unit again. 8. The amplifier should now be functioning correctly, and could be used in this form as one stage of an audio amplifier. Write down the amplitudes of the signals in Channel 1 and Channel 2 of the oscilloscope, and sketch the waveforms. Note the voltage sensitivity (V/div) and timebase ( s/div) for each channel. Channel 1 actual value amplitude (V) Channel 2 actual amplitude Voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and the timebase setting (s/div) CH1 CH2 timebase /div /div /div

Question 4 Calculate the gain of the amplifier as:

ACvoltage gain of amplifier

Amplitude of AC signal output (Channel2) Amplitude of AC signal input (Channel1)

9. A distorted signal results if the signal input is too large or the amplifier voltage levels are incorrectly set (incorrect biasing).
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Part 3: Operational Amplifiers

The operational amplifier, or op-amp, is probably the most versatile component available to an electronic engineer. It provides high gain and predictable performance. Depending on the circuit configurations, many different functions can be achieved. You will examine two, the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. The symbol for the op-amp, which has two inputs and one output, is shown in Fig 17. It is a differential amplifier responding to the difference in the voltages applied to the two inputs. Normally an op-amp is used with external feedback networks, which determine the function of the circuit. The characteristics of an ideal op-amp are: +Vcc Voltage gain A = Output voltage vo = 0 when vp = vn Bandwidth = Input impedance Zi = Output impedance Zo = 0

vn vp
-Vcc
Fig 17

vo

Obviously these theoretical characteristics and cannot be achieved in practice. For example, the A741, introduced in 1968, is still available and is one of the most commonly used general purpose op-amps. It has an input resistance of 0.3M , an open loop gain of 25000, and a gain bandwidth of 250kHz. Some more recent devices, have values of 10M , 300000 and 10MHz respectively, and are much closer to the ideal values. For many non-critical applications, ideal characteristics are often assumed. You will be using the Digiac 3000 Op Amp Board, a development board with the resistors, capacitors and op-amps built in, and you will only be required to insert the wires.

Fig.18 Digiac 3000 Board

In addition to this development board you also have a signal generator, digital multimeter and oscilloscope. MAKE SURE THAT THE ADJUSTMENTS OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE ARE SET AT CALIBRATED.
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Experiment 3.1: Inverting amplifier (Additional equipments needed: Oscilloscope, one multimeter and signal generator)

Fig 19 1. Ensure the power is OFF and that there is no link between points 2.11 and 2.17. Use the multimeter to set (adjust) VR1 to 10k by setting the multimeter to a resistance setting and connecting it across VR1 (between points 2.17 and 2.19), then adjusting the VR1 knob until the meter reads 10k. 2. Disconnect the multimeter and connect the circuit and scope leads as shown in Fig 19, ensuring that YOU REINSERT THE LINK BETWEEN 2.11 AND 2.17 AND the probes are set to 1. The circuit you have set up is the one shown in Fig. 20. 3. Note the scope settings. 4. Turn the DC supply switch on the board ON. 5. Set the signal generator to 1 kHz and make sure the AMPL knob is not pulled out. 6. Use the oscilloscope (channel 1) to set Vin to 4V peak-to-peak (p-p). Measure the output voltage, Vo on channel 2. Record your results in the Table 4 and sketch the waveforms in grid provided. 7. Calculate the gain G = Vo/Vin and compare with theoretical gain G = -Rf / Rin 8. Switch off power and use multimeter to reset feedback resistor,VR1 to 40k. 9. Repeat steps (3) and (4). 10. Switch off power supply.

Fig 20
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Table 4 Channel 1 setting CH 1 probe setting 1 Channel 2 setting CH 2 probe setting 1 Timebase setting

Rf =VR1

Vin

Vo

Is output signal inverted?

Measured gain, G = Vo /Vin

Theoretical gain, G = -Rf /Rin

Voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and timebase setting (s/div) CH1 CH2 timebase /div /div /div

Voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and timebase setting (s/div) CH1 CH2 timebase /div /div /div

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Experiment 3.2: Operational amplifiers in practice; non-inverting amplifier (Additional equipments needed: Oscilloscope, one multimeter and signal generator) Operational amplifiers are not ideal in practice due to unavoidable mismatches of components within the op-amp. This manifests itself in a number of forms, including the input offset voltage. With an ideal op-amp, the output voltage is zero when the voltage between the two inputs is zero. In practice, there is usually an offset voltage. This can be nulled using the external null inputs. As shown in fig 21, a potentiometer is connected to pins 1 and 8 of the op-amp, and a -ve voltage (usually Vcc) is applied to the centre tap of the potentiometer. By adjusting the tap, the input offset voltage can be made zero.

Fig 21

Fig 22

To save time, the demonstrators will help to set the offset null adjustment of the experiment so that the output gives zero volts when there is no potential difference between the inputs. This maximises the range over which the output can vary between the positive and negative supply voltages, and serves roughly the same purpose as setting the bias of the transistor in experiment 2. Therefore, do not adjust the offset null control yourselves after it set(Fig. 22) as it should already be correctly set. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Connect the circuit and scope leads as shown in fig 23. Ensure that the probes are set to x1 Note scope settings and connect the signal generator to the board and turn it on. Turn on DC supply board. Use the oscilloscope (channel 1) to set Vin to 2V peak-to-peak (p-p) with time base of 0.2 ms/div. Measure the output voltage, Vo on channel 2. Record your results in Table 5 and sketch the waveforms in grid provided. Calculate the gain G = Vo/Vin and compare with theoretical gain G = (R9 + R10 ) / R10 Switch off power supply
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Fig 23 Table 5 Channel 1 setting CH 1 probe setting 1 Vo Channel 2 setting

Fig 24

CH 2 probe setting 1 Measured gain, G=Vo /Vin

Timebase setting

Vin

Is output signal inverted?

Theoretical gain, G=(R9 +R10 ) R10

Voltage settings for CH1 and CH2 (V/div) and timebase setting (s/div) CH1 CH2 timebase /div /div /div

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Questions to be answered after the laboratory is completed: Answer the following questions in a few sentences, in plain English (and in your own words) on a separate sheet of paper (you may word-process the answers if you wish, though a neatly written solution is perfectly acceptable): 5. 6. 7. 8. Explain the purpose of a diode. Explain the purpose of rectification Explain the process of smoothing when applied to a rectifier circuit. Describe how a transistor operates in terms of collector current and base current END

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