RICE BROWN PLANTHOPPER MIGRATION- A POSSIBLE THREAT TO FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA N.V.Krishnaiah*, V.Jhansi Lakshmi and G.R.

Katti Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030, INDIA. Email: nvkrishnaiah@yahoo.com Abstract Rice brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) has become a threat to sustainability to rice production and productivity in all major rice growing countries in south, south-east and east Asian countries. Long range migration of this insect from China to Japan and Korea stretching about 2000 km in bai-u season during april-may is well known for the past 40 years. In India the insect used to be confined to southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and A.P. prior to 1975. It later spread to Orissa, West Bengal, Aassam, by 1995, and to Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jarkhand, and U.P. by 2000. By 2005, BPH became an important pest of rice in U.P., Haryana and Punjab also. In view of extremely low winter temperatures in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and Bihar and absence of rice crop, the only known host plant of BPH, the insect can not survive during winters in these states. There fore migration of the insect from nearest eastern states of west Bengal, and Orissa in June-July along with the southwest monsoon winds to Punjab and Haryana appeared to be the most likely possibility. However, the above hypothesis needs to be confirmed through national level planning and experimentation. BPH prevalent in Indian subcontinent including, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka is distinctly different from the biotype prevalent in southeast and East Asian countries. As it has been observed in Bangladesh, boro rice in west Bengal, Bihar and Assam might be harbouring BPH towards harvest and there by aiding in long range migration of the insect from these states to Punjab and Haryana. As the contribution of Punjab and Haryana to central rice pool is nearly 45-50%, the importance of new threat posed by BPH to rice crop in these states and consequently to food security of India, hardly needs elaboration. In India, rice is the most important staple food crop and source of calories for 65% of the population. It is grown in 45 million hectares and produces about 105- 110 million tones of rice. Rice is grown mainly during kharif season (June to December) throughout India, followed by Rabi season (January to April-May) mainly in southern and eastern parts of the country. For the last 15 years, another season called boro (November-December to March-April) has also emerged as the most important in parts of West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Jarkhand, U.P. and Uttaranchal where assured irrigation particularly under tube wells is possible. The area under boro is increasing year after year due to high productivity and also encouragement by respective governments. Rice planthoppers, brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) (BPH) and whitebacked planthopper, Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) (WBPH) are the most economically important insect pests attacking rice crop. Both the nymphs and adults of these hoppers suck the sap from phloem and xylem resulting in wilting and drying up of the rice plant. Under field conditions, the damage by BPH and WBPH spreads in a circular fashion and is technically termed as hopper-burn. If timely control measures are not taken up, the entire field could be hopper burnt by the planthoppers in a span of 15-20 days. Between the two hoppers, BPH is far more important economically as

the area damaged every year as well as the intensity of damage are very high compared to WBPH. Biology and Morpho- forms in planthoppers: These hoppers are small insects. The adults measure about 4-6 mm in length and 3-4 mm in width. Females insert microscopic eggs into leaf sheaths of rice plants, which hatch into about 1mm nymphs. They moult 5 times, each time increasing in size and finally become adults. The egg period is 5-7 days while total nymphal period is 13-18 days depending on temperature. The nymphs and adults damage the crop by sucking the plant sap. In both the hoppers, two types of morphological forms are present. 1.Those with long or fully developed wings or macropterous adults 2. Those with short or half developed wings are technically called brachypterous adults. Both the forms are present in males as well as in females. Macropterous adults are capable of flying over long distances some times extending to hundreds or few thousands of kilometers. These are capable of withstanding starvation during the flight until they reach a suitable habitat, which is usually a freshly planted rice crop. However, the macropterous adults can lay substantially low number of eggs per female, usually in the range of 70-100. Thus, macropterous forms have evolved to withstand the harsh conditions for migration from fields or areas where the crop is harvested to new and more favourable areas. Majority of the nymphs emerging from the eggs laid by macropterous adults in the new habitat become brachypterous or short winged forms. These are robust and capable of laying 400- 600 eggs /female. Majority of the nymphs from these eggs also become brachypterous adults enabling very rapid increase in population. At the time of first settling of macropterous forms, the insects are very sparsely populated, usually 1-2 insects/10- 100 hills. Within 2-3 generations, the populations will raise to 40100 insects /hill which is far above the economic threshold level of 10-20 insects /hill and can cause hopper burn if no control measures are adopted. History and distribution of planthoppers in different states: Large-scale field damage of BPH was reported for the first time in India during 1972 from Kuttanad area of Kerala, although it was known as an insect associated with rice almost since 1900. From 1973 onwards, its occurrence and damage in vast areas in farmers fields was reported from Krishna-Godavari delta of A.P., Kaveri delta of Tamil Nadu, Tungabhadra delta of Karnataka, Mahanadi delta of Orissa and vast areas in west Bengal particularly Chinsurah region. Almost during the same period, WBPH was noticed in northwestern parts of the country, mainly Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. although the areas of occurrence and intensity of damage was low compared to BPH. The same situation continued almost for a decade or more. Meanwhile, efforts were intensified to evolve varieties resistant to BPH and were released for large-scale cultivation in endemic regions. These varieties were found favor with farmers initially and adopted in some endemic regions. This probably resulted in reduction of BPH damage in almost all endemic deltas. But simultaneously, WBPH started appearing along with BPH in all endemic areas of A.P., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal. WBPH however, continued to be important in Punjab, Haryana and western UP. This situation continued up to the year 2002-03. From 2005-06, there were sporadic but large-scale occurrence of BPH in

Bihar, Jarkhand, U.P., Haryana and Punjab. From 2007 -08 onwards, BPH has attained number one pest status in the entire Indo-Gangetic belt stretching from West Bengal, Bihar, Jarkhand, U.P., Haryana and Punjab although WBPH was present in low numbers. Microclimate in rice crop ecosystem a determining factor for BPH multiplication in India after 1972: The microclimate like optimum temperature (22 30 C), very high humidity (90%), and very low wind movement, together with favorable succulent food plant favored rapid multiplication of BPH settled in young crop in Japan. Japonica varieties cultivated there from the beginning of 20th century created the microclimate described above and this microclimate appeared to be the major factor responsible for BPH multiplication and damage there. Absence of such favorable ecological factors in case of tall indicas, which were solely under cultivation in India, before green revolution era appeared to have kept BPH under check. However, the microclimate at basal portion of rice plant in currently cultivated dwarf indicas similar to the one that existed in japonicas since 1920s in Japan appeared to be responsible for rapid spread, multiplication and damage of BPH in India since 1972. POSSIBLE REASONS FOR DISTINCTNESS OF INDIAN BPH: BPH present in Indian subcontinent including Sri Lanka is quite distinct from East Asian biotype present in China, Japan, Korea, The Philippines, Vietnam and Malaysia. The rice varieties viz., IR26 with Bph1 gene and IR36 with bph 2 gene released by IRRI for general cultivation in the Philippines and in several East Asian and South-East Asian countries were found to be resistant and promising in the entire East Asian region but was found to be susceptible in India. 1. As already pointed out, BPH was present in Indian subcontinent ever since rice cultivation was in vough in this country. i.e. possibly more than thousands of years ago. But BPH became notorious only after green revolution or cultivation of short statured, high N responsive, high tillering varieties providing suitable microclimate and consequent BPH flare-up. Therefore, the distinctness of Indian BPH must have its genetic origin much before green revolution era. 2. BPH in India must have undergone parallel evolution along with tropical indica rice in hot humid tropical climate present in South India, the region to which most of the Indian rice cultivation was confined. During these possible few thousands of years, the insect did not have any genetic interchange with the BPH present in East Asia and South East Asia. Therefore, it preserved its genetically controlled virulence to some resistant genes. 3. Many of the tall indicas cultivated in India appeared to have possessed genes with moderate to high level of resistance to BPH. This might be responsible for keeping BPH under silent suppression for such a long time until the onset of green revolution. These resistant cultivars might have possibly exerted pressure on the insect to preserve its high virulence. During this process, the insect must have acquired virulence to Bph1 and bph2 genes and also consolidated the virulence. 4. The main southwest monsoon and less important northeast monsoons prevalent in Indian subcontinent can never cross Himalayas and move further north to China. Therefore, Himalayas appeared to have acted as a natural barrier for preventing Indian BPH populations from moving to China.

5. Only for the last 5-10 years, there appears to be long distance migration of BPH either from Maharashtra side or from Orissa-west Bengal side towards Bihar, Jarkhand, U.P., Haryana and Punjab. Although the exact reason for this is not very clear, it is probably an exploratory exercise as a part of innate nature of this insect to move even to very far off places in search of food when ever weather conditions are favorable. Secondly cultivation of huge acreage under boro rice might also be aiding in exploiting the migratory nature of the insect. Major thrust on boro and large scale BPH epidemics in Indo-Gangetic belt. As already explained boro or summer rice is the broad term given for rice season from November-December to April-May in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Jarkhand and parts of Eastern U.P. under assured irrigation, particularly by taking advantage of ground water with tube wells. Low temperatures characterize this season during early stage of the crop followed by rapid rise in temperatures after winter. So cold tolerance during early stages of crop growth followed by ability to tolerate warm summer weather in later stages or at the maturity are the essential features required for varieties to perform well during boro season. As this boro season is characterized by very high productivity some times upto 8 tonnes /ha and also almost free from pests and diseases, barring blast in winter months, governments have encouraged the farmers to go in for rice in a large scale in these areas and harvesting rich dividends. In fact boro has become very important for boosting average rice productivity of the nation as a whole and become synonymous with rice security or food security. At the same time if we observe the pest situation, rice crop in boro is almost insect pest free during early period or up to 35-40 days after transplanting (DAT) during the cold period. Later, stem borer and leaf folders started damaging in late 90s and early part of this century. However, BPH has also become an important pest for the past 7-8 years as it occurred in Bangladesh. Very high levels of fertilizer doses, particularly of nitrogen and continuous standing water in the field, favorable microclimate with low wind velocity, together with mild temperatures (20-250 C) appeared to be the factors responsible for high BPH multiplication and consequent damage to the crop. Migration as a possible reason for spread of BPH to Punjab and Haryana: BPH is present almost throughout the year in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, A.P., Orissa. and parts of West Bengal. The pest however, can not survive the severe winters present in Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar, Jarkhand and northern parts of west Bengal from November to February as the temperatures are near freezing point or at times towards negative figures. BPH cannot over-winter in egg stage. Further, there are no alternate hosts for BPH where it can survive and complete its life cycle. Therefore, BPH must be migrating from southern or eastern parts of India during the months of May-June immediately after the harvest of rabi crop in these states. Southwest monsoon must be helping BPH migration: Southwest monsoon also starts almost during the same period i.e. beginning of June every year. However, it takes about a month or so for the full monsoon winds to be active throughout the country. The progress of south-west monsoon is all along the west coast from Kerala to Konkan region of Maharashtra, followed by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, then A.P. and Orissa, but can not cross the Vindhya and Sathpura mountain ranges present in M.P. Simultaneously South-west monsoon also starts in

Bay of Bengal and moves from coastal areas of West Bengal and Bangladesh and proceeds in north-westerly direction due to its inability to cross Himalayas. Both the halves of southwest monsoon meet somewhere in areas of Chattisgarh-Jarkhand-Bihar borders and moves in northwesterly direction. Thus, the movement of southwest monsoon winds is northwesterly in direction from west Bengal through Jarkhand, Bihar, U.P. and then finally reaching Haryana and Punjab. From 1972 upto early 90s, WBPH was the major problem in Punjab and Haryana probably because the macropterous adults of WBPH could move along the first southwest monsoon winds moving from west Bengal towards Punjab and Haryana in a northwesterly direction. It is well known that when compared to BPH, WBPH is more migratory and does not settle even if suitable host plant viz., rice crop is available. It easily moves forward along the winds even with slight macro-climatic disturbance due to winds. WBPH rarely settles to the extent that it can multiply to the population levels that can cause economic damage to rice crop. Hence, it could settle early in Punjab and Haryana, which are the final destination points of southwestern monsoon. Further, the quantum of damage to rice crop per insect due to WBPH is very less compared to BPH due to lower level of sap intake. That is why WBPH could not become a serious threat to rice production in Punjab and Haryana although it is present since 1972. On the contrary, BPH is more sedentary and does not move forward unless the situation demands in terms of exhaustion of food sources by way of harvest of the crop. Hence, BPH was confined only to eastern parts of India apart from its southern strong hold. However, with the large-scale cultivation of rice in boro season in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jarkhand and Eastern U.P., rice crop is available to BPH in these areas up to April- May. More favorable climate exists in these states for the multiplication of BPH from February to May. Hence, BPH might have become one of the pests for boro rice in these areas similar to Bangladesh. Further, boro rice in these states might be serving as a temporary shelter for BPH migrating from Orissa and coastal areas of west Bengal until up to the harvest of rice in April-May. Immediately after harvest of boro rice the time is also ripe for southwest monsoon, which can take BPH up to Punjab and Haryana quite early in the kharif season i.e. in June, or early parts of July. This allows sufficient time for completion of 2 or even 3 generations for BPH before the kharif rice is harvested in October end or first fortnight of November. Thus, boro rice might be helping for wide spread occurrence and damage by BPH in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. PROCESS OF BPH LONG DISTANCE MIGRATION: BPH can usually move few meters in the same field when disturbed. The insects can fly few hundreds of meters to few kilometers from one rice crop area nearing harvest to another area where young rice crop is available. This small distance movement or short range migration or technically termed as trivial migration involves the following steps. a.) The movement of BPH (macropterous males and females) from plant base to the tip of crop canopy either at dawn or at dusk when the wind speed is low (< 5m /second) b) Taking off into the blowing wind upto a few metres height (usually 5-15mts) c) Movement along the wind direction at this height for few meters to few kilometers d) Landing to the fresh sites by downward movement.

e) Establishing the population at the new site. However, long-range migration of BPH, which involves the movement of insects for few hundreds of kilometers up to even 2000 kilometers, is entirely different. In this case there will be mass movement of BPH usually in groups ranging few thousands to few lakhs at a time. The insects move to the tip of crop canopy either during dawn or dusk. The favorable time is again dependant on temperature. From canopy the insects make a slow upward movement until the insects reach up to a height of 750 to 2000 metres above ground level. Then BPH will be above the cloudforming zone of atmosphere or troposphere. At this height, the insects are carried by forward movement of frontal-zones of hot humid winds in southwest monsoon. The movement will occur at a wind speed of 5m-20m /sec. In this manner BPH can move for about 25 45 hours to reach a destination, which is about 800 to 2000 km away. What environmental, physiological and behavioral factors determine the exact landing of the migrating insects is not very clearly understood even today. The physiological factors like exhaustion of reserve body energy, or behavioral factors like oriented downward movement due to some environmental stimulus like humidity gradient or light source on the surface of the earth might be playing a role. CONSEQUENCE OF BPH MIGRATION ON ITS MANAGEMENT: From the above discussion, it is likely that the BPH populations present in southern states viz., Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and A.P. and those present in eastern states like Orissa, Chatthisgarh and West Bengal might be migrating to U.P., Punjab and Haryana. Consequently there is every likelihood for genetic mixing of BPH populations present through out the Indian subcontinent including Bangladesh and Pakistan. This has tremendous implications on the management of BPH through out Indian subcontinent. For varied and obvious reasons, insecticides are extensively used for BPH management throughout India as well as in other Asian countries where this pest is a major menace. In India, organophosphates like monocrotophos, acephate and carbamates like carbaryl and BPMC as sprays and carbofuran as granules have been recommended and extensively used ever since BPH became a major pest in 1972 till 1995. Later, other insecticides like ethofenprox (ether derivative) and neo-nicotinoids like imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin became very popular due to their extremely high effectiveness, low rate of active ingredient per hectare, relative safety to humans and lesser cost per treating unit area. Therefore, neo-nicotinoids became very popular in almost all BPH endemic rice tracts starting from Kaveri delta of Tamil Nadu, Kuttanad area of Kerala, Tungabhadra delta of Karnataka, Krishna-Godavari zone of A.P. and Mahanadi delta of Orissa as well as Chinsurah region of west Bengal. There are already reports that BPH and to some extent WBPH in all these areas have developed resistance to neo-nicotinoids particularly, imidacloprid even to the extent of 35-40 fold. The information from A.P. has already been published and similar reports from other regions are in the offing. Now, we can very clearly understand that once there is extensive genetic mixing of BPH from zones where there is already high level of neonicotinoid resistance with the populations in other zones, this becomes the problem for the whole country. Then, we have to search for other groups like buprofezin (an insect growth regulator cum chitin synthesis inhibitor), which is of course currently showing promise against neo-

nicotinoid resistant populations. But we cannot depend on a single molecule for a long time and sooner or later BPH may become resistant to buprofezin also. This finally leads to catastrophe of BPH menace throughout India. IMPORTANCE OF BPH MIGRATION FOR FOOD SECURITY OF INDIA. 1. Enhancing rice production and productivity in India for years to come is vital for sustaining food and nutritional security for teaming millions in the country, where 65% of the population still depend on rice for calories and nutrition. 2. For increasing average rice productivity of the nation, enhancing the area under boro rice in West Bengal, Bihar, Jarkhand, U.P. apart from Orissa and Assam is very important in view of already realized high productivity of boro as well as scope for further enhancement through varietal and management technologies. 3. BPH has become an important pest of rice in India and spread to non-traditional areas like Punjab and Haryana, which are major sources of central rice pool in the country. These two states alone contribute about 50% of rice to the central rice pool. 4. BPH cannot survive the winter temperatures in Punjab and Haryana that too in the absence of its only host plant rice. Thus, migration of BPH to Punjab and Haryana is a major factor for attaining an important pest status for BPH in these two states in particular, apart from other states. 5. Boro rice, on which average Indian rice productivity is dependant might be aiding BPH migration to Punjab and Haryana, which warrants a thorough investigation. This emphasizes the need for devising suitable long-term BPH management practices through out the country. Integrated pest management (IPM) based on varietal resistance, cultural practices, enhancing natural enemy activity and need based suitable insecticide application with least damage to rice ecosystem hardly needs any emphasis. BPH migration from China to Japan a guideline for Indian rice entomologists: Although BPH is relatively a new pest to India, it was a major threat to rice production in Japan since 1920s. Many epidemics have occurred there sometimes resulting in heavy damage. Similar to our northwestern parts of Punjab and Haryana rice is grown only during one season in Japan. Therefore, it was thought for a long time that BPH might be over wintering in egg stage during colder months in Japan. But it was never proved. Later, many experiments conducted at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, India, and China have shown that BPH cannot develop at temperatures lower than 50 C. And also, BPH cannot complete its life cycle on any other alternate host plants once rice is harvested. During 1969, large number of BPH, WBPH and other similar small insects were observed at lights in the ships boarded in East China Sea at southwestern tip of Japan. Later a general survey was conducted through out Japan, which confirmed that largescale migration of BPH and WBPH along with another similar species smaller brown planthopper (SBPH), Laodelphax striatellus occurs every year from main land China to Japan. LONG RANGE MIGRATION IN EAST ASIAN & SOUTH-EAST ASIAN BPH BIOTYPE: BPH in South East Asian countries like Malayan peninsula, Vietnam and The Philippines can breed and multiply through out the year as the temperatures are congenial and rice crops are grown through out the year. During the period from mid

April to early May, BPH from these countries can migrate to southern China province of Guangxi or Hainan islands, where rice crop is available through out the year and temperatures are also favorable for year round multiplication of BPH. In Guangxi, BPH can multiply for one or two generations. Then the insects move towards north or northeasterly direction and reach to central and eastern China provinces like Zhejiang, Nanjing, Anhui etc. and multiply there up to middle of June. From there some populations of BPH migrate to Korea via northern China, while some other populations can move to Japan. These migrations are carried by bai-u or southwest monsoon winds and approximate time is from early June to first half of July. Rice crop is available during June to Sept-Oct in Korea as well as in Japan. The insect completes 2-3 generations, multiply and causes very high damage if no control measures are taken up. Once, rice crop is harvested in October in Japan and Korea, the reverse autumn migration of BPH starts. The BPH migrate first. to central and eastern China carried by northeasterly winds. Later the insects are carried to southern tip of China or Guangxi province, their favorable habitat for year round multiplication. Simultaneously, some populations of BPH from eastern& central China move towards Vietnam, Malaya and The Philippines. Thus after 40 years of hard labor of rice entomologists, it is well established by now that BPH present in the entire Southeast Asian and East Asian countries is a single intermingling population. We can use many techniques for ground observations like light traps, yellow pan water traps, sticky traps, sweep nets, field monitoring by visual counting, toe-nets (1metre diameter and 2.5 meter deep) arranged at different heights like 5m, 10mts, 15mts and 20mts etc. The number of BPH actually observed in the above mentioned ground tools at different periods could be correlated with the weather charts obtained from meteorological department. Computer simulation models can then developed by using either two-way trajectory analysis or three dimensional trajectory models to enable to track back the actual source of BPH. Radar observations to track the mass migration of planthoppers can also be helpful. Air sucking machinery can be used while travelling by aeroplanes at a height of 1500 2000 mts to practically see the presence of BPH / WBPH at that height. Simultaneously some basic studies need to be conducted on biological features and abilities of BPH before and after migration. These include 1) factors that favor the development of macropters in BPH populations. 2) The starvation tolerance of macropterous BPH. 3) Mating behavior of macropterous BPH. 4) Establishing the basic processes in long-range migration like a) initial take off. b) Mass migration for long distance. c) Landing etc. 5) Weather parameters required for all these processes. 6) Genetics of macropterous character in BPH. 7) Correlating the BPH population characteristics at the site after migration to those at the possible source site with regard to the spectrum of insecticide resistance to a set of insecticides prevalent in BPH site after migration to those prevalent in BPH present in possible site of migration source. Summary: Rice brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) a notorious sucking pest of rice in India, Bangla Desh, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, The Philippines and other south and Southeast Asian countries. In India the insect used to be confined to four southern states viz., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

and A.P. prior to 1975. It later spread to Orissa, west Bengal, Assam, by 1995, and to Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jarkhand, and U.P. by 2000. By 2005, BPH became an important pest of rice in U.P. Delhi, Haryana and Punjab also. In view of extremely low winter temperatures in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and Bihar and absence of rice crop, the only known host plant of BPH, the insect can not survive during winters in these states. There fore migration of the insect from nearest eastern states of west Bengal, and Orissa or even Maharashtra in June July along with the southwest monsoon winds to Punjab and Haryana appeared to be the most likely possibility. Long-range migration of BPH from China to Japan and Korea stretching about 2000 km is well-established phenomenon for the last 40 years. Therefore, the above hypothesis is put forward. How ever this needs to be confirmed through national level planning and experimentation. From the point of view of host-plant resistance, BPH prevalent in Indian subcontinent including, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka is distinctly different from the biotype prevalent in southeast and East Asian countries. The main reason could be geographically isolated evolution of the insect. As it has been observed in Bangladesh, boro rice in west Bengal, Bihar and Assam might be harbouring BPH towards harvest and there by aiding in long range migration of the insect from these states to Punjab and Haryana. As the contribution of Punjab and Haryana to central rice pool is nearly 45-50%, the importance of new threat posed by BPH to rice crop in these states and consequently to food security of India, hardly needs further elaboration.

BPH OCCURRENCE IN INDIA IN 1975

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BPH OCCURRENCE IN INDIA IN 1995

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BPH OCCURRENCE IN INDIA IN 2000

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BPH OCCURRENCE IN INDIA IN 2005 & LATER

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