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A Few Concepts and Definitions

Human Resources (HR): In the narrow sense, human resources of an organisation refers just to the employees of an organisation. It consists of the people who work in an organisation. In a broad sense, human resources can be defined as the total knowledge, skills, talents, abilities, aptitudes, etc. of an organisations workforce. It also includes the values, attitudes, approaches, beliefs, etc. of the persons working in the organisation. Some of the other names for human resources in narrow sense are personnel, manpower, staff, employees, workforce.
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CHAPTI AN OVERVIEW

Features of H. R. Management
Meaning of Human Resource Management: H.R. management can be defined as creating and maintaining formal systems in an organisation in order to make sure that human talent is used efficiently and effectively to accomplish organisational goals. In other words, H.R. management is the process of managing the functions of employing, developing, and compensating human resources, with the aim of creating human relations that would contribute to organisational goals. The most common other name of H.R. management is personnel management. Some of the other names are labour management, labour relations, and personnel administration.

The most important features of H.R. Management are:

1. People-Oriented: HR management focuses on managing the employees (i.e. persons) in an organisation, both at the individual level and at the group level. 2. Comprehensive function: HR management deals with managing people at work. It is comprehensive in the sense that it deals with all levels of workers, from the lowest level to the highest. 3. Interdisciplinary field: HR management is an interdisciplinary field because it makes use of concepts and practices from different fields like psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, etc. to find ways of managing people better.
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Features of H. R. Management
4. Science and Art: H. R. management is both a science and an art. It is a science because it has a systematic body of knowledge. This knowledge can be used to face and solve people-related problems in an organisation. It is also an art because dealing with people is a complex activity, and H.R.-related concepts may sometimes not give ready solutions to problems. In such situations, an H.R. manager may have to apply the knowledge carefully and in an appropriate, and modified manner. 5. Pervasive function:
H.R. management is not confined to just business organisations. It pervades practically all areas of human activity. It is necessary and useful also in civilian government departments, in the military, law enforcement agencies, etc. In fact, it becomes necessary in any field in which people work together.
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Importance of H. R. Management
The main ways in which H.R. management is important are: 1. Helps to fulfill manpower needs: An important function of H R management is to satisfy the manpower needs of an organisation. Having the correct quantity and quality of manpower is vital for the successful working of an organisation. 2. Helps match workers with jobs: It is well known that not every person can perform every task. People have different talents, qualifications, and abilities. While one person may be good at the functional area of marketing, another may be good at human resource management, yet another may be suitable for production-related functions, and so on. H R management plays the important role of identifying the right persons for each functional area and placing them in suitable jobs and positions. 6

Importance of H. R. Management
3. Focuses on developing skills of workers: H R management is closely associated with developing the skills, talents, and abilities of the workforce. Developing workers skills and abilities is important for the growth of the organisation. Generally, improvement in the skills, talents, and abilities of the workers of an organisation will lead to higher growth of the organisation. 4. Focuses on providing incentives to employees: H R management understands that incentives play an important role in motivating employees to work hard. It knows that if employees realise that they will be rewarded for good performance, they will work hard in order to perform well and receive benefits. In turn, this will be good for the organisation.
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Importance of H. R. Management
5. Emphasises need for good human relations: H R management understands that for the success of an organisation, good professional relationships must exist among the persons who work in the organisation. Good professional relationships between two workers does not necessarily mean that they have to be friends; it just means that workers must do their duties, and behave with each other in a professional manner.

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Evolution of H R Management
H R management has gone through different stages In its development. In each stage, the way in which human resources was considered was different. That is, the conceptual approach to human resources was different in each stage. Some of the main stages are: 1. The Commodity Concept: This first stage in the evolution of H R management was born during the industrial revolution in Europe. Before this stage, the guild system was the arrangement that existed. A guild is an association of people who do the same job or have the same interests. In the guild system, the owner of a business firm was also the manager of the firm, production was on a small scale, and there was usually a close relationship between the ownermanager and the employees. During the industrial revolution, production levels became high, owners started appointing managers, and so the close relationship between owners and employees was broken. As a result, labour began to be considered as a commodity (i.e., a good) whose 9

services which could be purchased whenever needed, and sent away when it was no longer needed. 2. Factor of Production Concept: This was the 2nd stage. In this stage, employees were considered to be a factor of production. They were treated as a part of the production process, and nothing more. While the care given to workers was minimal, it was better than the previous stage, because now they got higher earnings and better working conditions. 3. Paternalistic Concept: In this stage, employees started forming groups to promote their interests. Governments also passed laws to protect the welfare of workers, due to democratic movements around the world. Due to these forces, employers started having paternalistic (i.e., fatherlike) behaviour towards their employees, and gave them better 10 salaries, better working conditions, pension plans, etc.

Employers and employees began to realise that in order to improve their own well being, they had to cooperate with each other. 4. Behavioural Human Resource Concept: This is the fourth stage. With the development of behavioural sciences, concepts like motivation, group dynamics, organisational climate, etc. became popular in H R management. More than the other concepts, this concept focuses on the mental attitude of employees. It says that to improve the performance of the business firm, the feelings of employees must be given importance. As far as possible, efforts must be made to achieve the organisations goals, and employees goals together. This approach gave importance to practices such as twoway communication between managers and workers, management by objective, role of informal groups, etc. 11

Evolution of H R Management
5. Emerging Concept: The latest trend in modern management is to consider employees as partners in the progress of the organisation. Employees in large companies are given stock options, which, in a way, makes them one of the owners of the company. Further, workers representatives are appointed to the board of directors, which makes the topmost decisions about the company. The aim is to make workers feel that the organisation is their own, so that they would give their best efforts, and both the organisation and the workers themselves can benefit.

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Objectives of H R Management
The main objectives of H R management are: 1. To help organisation to reach its goals: H R management aims to help an organisation reach its goals. It does this by managing the human resource aspect of an organisation. 2. To utilise human resource well: H R management aims to use human potential in a positive manner, effectively and efficiently. 3. To improve organisational- and employee well-being: H R management aims to improve the organisation and make it grow well. It tries to do this by providing good working conditions, training and development, and satisfaction to the 13 employees.

Objectives of H R Management
4. To reconcile organisations goals with employee goals: H R management fully understands that unhappy employees are harmful for an organisation. If employees are unable to reach their goals, they will become unhappy. Therefore, H R management tries to ensure that as much as possible, the goals of employees are achieved alongside the goals of the organisation. 5. To develop and maintain quality of work-life: H R management also strives to develop and maintain a high quality of work-life for employees. Quality of work-life refers to the overall feelings that a person gets by working in an organisation. A high quality of work-life will make working for 14 an organisation desirable.

CHAPTII H. R. MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENT

Meaning of H R Management Environment: The H R management environment refers to those forces which have an effect on the H R policies of an organisation and on the functioning of the H R department of an organisation. Classification of the forces: The forces that make up the environment can be broadly classified into two categories or types: I. External forces: External forces are forces outside an organisation, which have an effect on the H R policies and practices of the organisation. II. Internal forces: Internal forces are forces inside an organisation, which have an effect on the H R policies and 16 practices of the organisation.

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External Forces: The main external forces are 1. Political forces 2. Legal forces 3. Economic forces 4. Technological forces 5. Professional Bodies 1. Political forces: these refer to the overall political system in the country, which have an impact on the H R policies of a firm. For example, in many countries, trade unions ally themselves with political parties, and this gives the unions political 17 influence.

2. Legal forces: these are the rules and laws relating to the ways in which organisations conduct their H R policies and practices. For example, there may be laws which may make certain H R policies such as paying male and female workers in a business firm different salaries for the same kind of work illegal. 3. Economic forces: Economic forces are the conditions in the economy of the country and the world, which have an impact on the H R policies and practices of a firm. For example, usually, when there is a lot of economic growth, firms will hire more workers in order to increase production. (hiring employees is a duty of the H R department of a firm). The five main economic forces are suppliers, customers, 18 competitors, labour force in the economy, and globalisation.

4. Technological forces: these are those developments in technology that affect the H R policies and practices. For instance, due to the rapid advancement in internet technology, the H R department allows certain employees to work from their homes using the internet, and send their work results to their offices through the internet. 5. Professional Bodies: A professional body refers to an organisation which consists of practitioners, leaders, and experts of a particular field. The guidelines given by such bodies often have an impact on the H R management policies and practices of firms.
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Internal Forces: The main internal forces are 1. Unions 2. Organisational Culture 3. Organisational Conflict 1. Unions: A union is a group of workers who have banded together, so that they can further their own interests as a group. The other names of unions are labour unions and trade unions. A union can affect H R policies relating to pay, working conditions, recruitment, separation of employees, etc.
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2. Organisational Culture: Organisational culture refers to the overall psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values) of the persons in an organisation. The general overall culture that exists in an organisation will affect its H R policies and practices. 3. Organisational Conflict: This refers to the conflict or disagreement that may occur in an organisation due to the differences in the culture of an organisation and/or the attitude of one or more persons the organisation.

CHAPTIII JOB ANALYSIS, AND H. R. PLANNING

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Job Analysis: A few Concepts

Job: A job can be defined as an assignment of work which requires a set of duties, responsibilities, and conditions that are different from those of other work conditions. The concept of job is an abstract one, because the term job describes the contents of a task (i.e., the activities done in the task). It does not pertain to the location of the task. For example, two salesmen who have the same job content, but at different locations, are said to hold the same kind of job. Position: The word position refers to the kind or field of work being done by a person, and also includes the place (i.e., rank) of that person in the hierarchy of the organisation. It is also called job title, and designation. For instance, the position of General Manager-Human Resources in an organisation shows that the person holding that position is a general manager (place in the hierarchy) in the field of human resources management.
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Job Analysis: A few Concepts

Occupation: An occupation refers to a group of jobs that are similar, or that possess common features. The term occupation is generally used in a wide sense. For example, teaching is an occupation, though there are teachers in schools, colleges, and universities. All these teachers have some common features in their jobs, though they teach different kinds of students. Job Analysis: Job analysis is the process of determining and understanding the nature and contents of a job.

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Job Analysis
The analysis of a job seeks to get the following information about a job: 1. Tasks performedthat is, the tasks that have to be done in a job. 2. Job conditionsthis refers to the environment in which a job is performed. 3. Skills and capabilitiesthat is, the abilities and talents needed to perform a job.

Job Analysis
Steps in Job Analysis: 1. Identification of the Job(s): The jobs that are to be analysed must be clearly identified. There must be clear knowledge about which job is to be analysed. 2. Determination of methods: The methods that are to be used in collecting data about the job must be decided. 3. Collection of data: After the procedures have been determined, the next step is to actually put the methods to action and collect data about the job. 4. Review of data: The data that has been collected must be examined carefully. 5. Summarisation and documentation: The main aspects of the data collected must be written down and recorded in a 26 systematic manner.

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Job Analysis
Methods of Data Collection for Job Analysis: 1. Checking Organisations Records: By studying records kept by organisations about the functions and duties of their employees, data can be collected for job analysis. 2. Interviews: Another method to collect data for job analysis is by having interviews (i.e., face-to-face discussion) with the persons performing the job, and also with the supervisors and colleagues of those workers. 3. Observation of the job: Yet another method of collecting data for job analysis is to carefully watch the job being carried out. When this is done, the analyst may be able to get additional information on a firsthand basis. 27

4. Self-reporting by workers: Often, employees are required to write down and record details of the job they are performing. This may include information about the main aspects of the job, the steps in which the job is performed, difficulties faced in performing the job, etc. This information will help the analyst in getting data about aspects that may have been missed out otherwise. 5. Recording of jobs: Yet another method of data collection is the recording of workers actually carrying out the job. This can be useful because the tapes or CDs on which recording is made can be viewed several times in order to get an in-depth understanding of the job process. A disadvantage here is that workers may not like their working to be recorded and may not give their fullest cooperation to the 28 process.

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Job Analysis
Importance of Job Analysis: Job analysis is an important part of human resource management in an organisation. It has an important role to play in many different ways, such as: 1. Human Resource Planning: By analysing a job, the organisation can decide the number of persons needed to perform the job, and the skills and abilities needed to perform it. 2. Recruitment and Selection: Job analysis helps an organisation to select the right person for the right post. This means that when the firm knows the skills needed to do a job, it can choose the person who has the correct skills for the job. 3. Placement: Sometimes, there may be persons within the organisation who may be in jobs that are not the best suited for them. In such instances, job analysis can help locate jobs better suited for them, in which they can be placed. 29

Job Analysis
4. Training and Development: Clear understanding of a job, which can be obtained by analysing it, can be used to train workers to perform the job in a better manner. 5. Job Evaluation: Job analysis helps the firm to understand the value of the job to the firm. If a particular job turns out to be just duplication another job, then the firm may be able to eliminate such duplication, based on the job analysis. 6. Performance Appraisal: By analysing a job, a firm can establish clear-cut standards that must be met by those performing the job. Once the standards are established, the firm can evaluate the performance of the workers by checking whether they are performing according to those standards. 7. Employee Counseling: Job analysis provides in depth information about a job. Such information can be used to counsel and advice workers about related and/or subsidiary 30 jobs for which they may be better suited.

Job Analysis
8. Job Design: Through job analysis, industrial engineers may get vital information that can help them to redesign a job in such a way that it can be performed more efficiently and in a better manner. 9. Organisational Design: Job analysis can help a firm identify jobs that are very similar or closely related to one another. In such situations, the organisation may be able to improve its performance by removing jobs that are unnecessary duplicates. It may also reorganise the hierarchy in such a way that those employees doing related jobs can cooperate better with one another. 10. Safety and Health of Workers: Careful job analysis may reveal certain dangerous aspects of a job which may not be known otherwise. This can help the organisation protect the health of workers doing such jobs.
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H R Planning
Meaning of H R Planning: H R planning is the process by which the management of an organisation decides how the organisation should move from its current manpower position to its desired manpower position. The five Rs of H R planning: H R planning is concerned with five Rs: 1. Right number: having the right number of persons. This is the quantitative aspect. 2. Right kind: having the right kind of persons. That is, the persons working in the organisation must have right skills, attitude, etc. 3. Right places: having the persons at the right places. Here, right places means doing the work that they are suitable for. It does not mean right geographic location like right town or right city. 4. Right time: having the persons at the time when they are needed. 5. Right things: the persons should be doing the right things for the 32 benefit of the organisation.

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H R Planning
Importance of H R Planning: The main reasons for the importance of H R planning are-1. Helps procure required manpower: H R planning helps the organisation recruit the correct manpower needed, both qualitatively, and quantitatively. 2. Helps optimum investment in manpower: Through H R planning, the firm can decide on its current manpower needs, and also future manpower needs. This helps the firm allocate the most optimum (i.e., best possible) amount of money for its manpower requirements. 3. Helps cope with changing technology: Due to rapidly changing technology, the persons in an organisation must have the right skills to adapt and use the technology. H R planning helps a firm to make have employees who can use modern technology.
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H R Planning
4. Helps plan for future manpower needs: The very aim of H R planning is to help the firm have the best possible manpower as per its needs. Thus, it helps the organisation to plan in such a way that it has the right manpower. 5. Helps in expansion and/or diversification programmes: If a firm plans to expand and/or have diversified activities, it must be sure that it will have the manpower needed for its bigger size and/or diversified activities. H R planning helps to find out whether such manpower will be available or not. Thus, H R planning helps a firm decide on its growth plans and diversification plans.

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H R Planning
Factors affecting H R planning: The factors that affect H R planning can be broadly classified into internal factors and external factors. Internal factors that affect H R planning: 1.Firms recruitment policy: Different aspects of a firms recruitment policy, like source of recruitment, process of recruitment, selection methods, etc. affect H R planning in the firm. 2. Availability of funds: If the firm has a lot of money for H R, then the H R planners will have more freedom in their plans, and vice versa. 3. Firms activities: The kind of activities of the organisation will impact the H R policies of the firm. 35

H R Planning
4. Size of the organisation: The size of the organisation will affect its recruitment, retrenchment, retirement policies, etc. these have an effect on H R planning of the firm. 5. Labour Unions influence: The demands of labour unions, regarding pay, working hours, source of recruitment, etc. will have an effect on the H R planning of a firm. External factors that affect H R planning: 1. Government policies: The government may have policies about the retirement age, rules about working hours, etc. These will affect the H R planning of an organisation. 2. Manpower availability: Extent to which manpower is available in the labour market, both quantitatively and qualitatively, will have an impact on a firms HR planning. 3. Willingness of job seekers: Further, the H R planning of a firm will be affected by whether job seekers are willing or not willing to accept its terms and conditions. 36

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H R Planning
4. Trends and Expectations: The existing trend in the industry, and also expectations about the future of the industry and economy will affect H R planning. If growth and expansion of the industry is expected, the H R planning will be different from non-expectations of growth and expansion. 5. Technological developments: Often, changes in technology lead to changes in the quantity and quality of the manpower in an organisation. In many cases, improvement in technology means that human workers are replaced by machines. Therefore, changes in technology will have an impact on the H R planning of an organisation.

CHAPTIV RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

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Recruitment
Recruitment: Edwin Flippo defines recruitment as the process of searching for candidates for employment, and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organisation. Thus, it is a process of locating the sources from which the required human resource can be available, and attracting them towards the organisation. Labour Markets: Labour markets refers to the external supply pool of workers, from which organisations attract their employees. Labor Force Population: Labor Force Population refers to the set of all the persons who are available for selection, if all possible recruitment strategies and methods are used for recruitment. 39

Applicant Pool: The applicant pool is the set or group of persons which actually applies for selection to a job, and is evaluated. Employee Turnover: Employee turnover refers to the act or process of employees leaving an organisation. Employee Turnover Rate: is the number of permanent employees leaving an organisation in a particular period of time, as a percentage of the number of actual active permanent employees on the last day of that period. Employee Turnover Rate = (Number of permanent employees who leave during a period/ Number of permanent employees on last day of that period) * 100 A very high employee turnover is bad for an organisation. 40 However, there is no fixed value for the ideal rate of employee turnover.

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Recruitment
Main Features of Recruitment: 1. Recruitment is a process: That is, it consists of a number of steps that are undertaken one after another. 2. Linking activity: Recruitment is an activity that links the potential employees with the potential employer. 3. Two-way function: It is a two way function because one of the entities takes a step, and the other entity responds. Further, throughout the process of recruitment, the potential employer and the potential employee exchange ideas, opinions, and their own terms and conditions, etc. 4. Positive function: Recruitment is considered to be a positive function because it aims to add to the resources of a firm. 5. Pervasive: Recruiting is a pervasive activity because it exists in 41 all organisations.

Recruitment
Purpose of Recruitment: The main purposes or aims of recruitment are: 1. Identify candidates: Recruitment is done in order to find potential candidates for the firm. 2. Increase applicant pool: Recruitment aims to attract as many candidates as possible to apply for jobs. 3. Increase success rate of selection: Recruitment also aims to make the selection process of candidates more successful. 4. Maximise organisational effectiveness: One of the purposes of recruitment is to maximise organisational effectiveness by attracting and focusing on best candidates. 5. Reduce employee turnover: By getting the right type of employees, recruitment aims to reduce unnecessary employee 42 turnover.

Factors affecting Recruitment: Some of the important factors that affect recruitment by a firm are: 1. Firms reputation: Usually, if a firm has a good reputation, then more persons will want to work for it, so it will be relatively easy for the firm to recruit, and vice versa. 2. Monetary benefits: Generally, the more the salary and other monetary benefits like commissions, bonus, etc., that a firm offers, the easier it is for the firm to recruit, and vice versa. 3. Terms and conditions of service: Normally, if the firm offers good non-monetary benefits like more holidays, convenient working hours, good chances of promotion, etc., it will be easier to recruit more employees, and vice versa. 4. Nature of the job: By and large, vacancies for permanent positions are easier to recruit for, than vacancies for temporary jobs. 5. Size of labour market: A larger labour market makes recruitment easier for the firm, and vice versa. 43

Recruitment
Sources of recruitment: The sources for recruitment can be classified as I. Internal sources: that is, recruiting from within the organisation, from the existing employees. This does not bring new employees into the organisation. II. External sources: that is, bringing new employees into the organisation from outside the organisation. Internal Sources: The main methods used are 1. Transfer: in this method, an employee is moved from one job to another, and/or from one geographic location to another, and/or one department to another. 2. Promotion: in this method, an employee is moved from his/her current position to a higher position. 44

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Recruitment
3. Transfer and Promotion: This is a combination of both. For example, the Manager of ETC in Bale-Robe is sent to Addis Ababa as General Manager. External Sources: The main methods used are 1. Advertisements: The organisation announces publicly that certain jobs are available, and invites applications from suitable persons. 2. Employment Exchanges: Employment exchange is an office where unemployed persons can register their names and qualifications, so that when suitable jobs are available in various organisations, the exchange will inform them of the jobs.
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Recruitment
3. Unsolicited applications: Often, firms receive job-applications even when they are not specifically recruiting. Firms may sometimes scrutinise these applications when job vacancies arise. 4. Campus recruitments: In many places, organisations visit college and university campuses to recruit from among freshly graduating students. 5. Other firms: Sometimes, a firm may approach the employee of another firm with a job offer. Sometimes, this is done in unethical ways.

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Selection
Selection: Selection is described as the process of choosing the most desirable persons out of all the applicants. It is the process of dividing the applicants into two categories, namely those who can be considered for employment, and those who cannot be considered for employment. Selection immediately follows recruitment. Process of Selection: Generally, the steps in the selection process are 1. Receiving applications: This is the first step. Here, the firm collects completed applications from those applying for the job. Applications are generally received through postal service, or in person, or through the internet. 47

2. Scrutiny: Next, the firm will examine the applications to shortlist candidates who can be considered. 3. Preliminary interview: In this step, the short-listed candidates are interviewed to find out whether they have the basic mental and physical qualities needed for the job. Those found having those qualities will be called to the next step. 4. Tests: Here, the candidates are given different kinds of tests to check various aspects. Common tests include aptitude test, intelligence test, proficiency test, interest test, and personality test. Successful candidates will be called to the next stage. 5. Final Interview: In the final interview, which is usually conducted by experts (top level officials of the firm), the candidates are examined in more complete manner with regard to knowledge, skills, qualifications, etc. 6. Checking References: Candidates are usually asked to mention the names of 2 or 3 persons who can vouch for him/her. In48 this

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stage, the employer may contact those persons and enquire about the candidate. 7. Medical Examination: In many jobs, medical examinations are conducted. The firm may have specific doctors to check the candidate for physical and mental fitness for the job. 8. Appointment: A candidate who goes through all the previous steps successfully, is appointed by the firm for the job, and placed on probationary service. 9. Probation: A probationary period of service is a period during which the new employees performance is watched carefully by the employer. Unsatisfactory performance during such period may lead to immediate dismissal, unlike for confirmed employees. 10. Confirmation of Service: Upon completion of the probationary service the employee is given confirmation as a full-fledged employee. It must be noted that in some recruitment procedures, some of the steps may be missing, and in some other procedures, there may be additional steps. Thus, the number of steps is not fixed. 49

Orientation
Meaning of Orientation: Orientation is the process used within many organisations to welcome new employees to the firm, and prepare them for their new role by familiarising them with the role, with other employees, and with the organisation as a whole. Orientation is also called induction, and preliminary training. Orientation comes immediately after selection. Purpose (i.e., objectives or goals) of Orientation: The main purposes of orientation are 1. Build new employees confidence: By welcoming the new employee and giving him/her an idea of his/her role and the new environment, orientation can make him/her feel more secure and confident.
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Orientation
2. Promote loyalty: Another aim is to make the new employee feel a sense of belongingness and loyalty towards the firm. This will encourage him/her to work better. 3. Create good impression: Orientation also aims to create a good impression about the firm in the mind of the new worker. 4. Provide information: By giving orientation, the firm also aims to provide the new employee with information about day-today working of the firm. 5. Foster relationships: Orientation programmes also aim at creating good professional relationships between new workers and the workers already present in the firm.

CHAPTV TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

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Training
Meaning of Training: According to Edwin Filippo, Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee to do a particular job. Dale Beach defines it as, the organised procedure by which people gain knowledge and/or skill for a definite purpose.

Training
Objectives of Training: The important objectives of training are 1. To impart new skills: Through training, the trainee is taught new skills. 2. To improve existing skills: Often, advanced training is given in order to improve upon the skills already possessed. 3. To improve efficiency: Training is also given in order to make the trainees more efficient in their work, and to reduce wastage of resources 4. Prepare workers for higher jobs: Training may also be given in order to prepare employees for higher positions that have more responsibilities. 5. Improve organisations performance: This is perhaps the ultimate objective of training. If workers are better skilled, more efficient, etc., their improved performance will lead to improvement in the organisations performance. 54

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Advantages of Training to Employees: Employees who undergo training can derive several benefits from it. The most important benefits to them are 1. Confidence: Training can give employees greater confidence to do their jobs successfully. 2. Chance of Promotions: Through training, employees can learn new skills and improve their existing skills. This will lead to their having greater chances of promotions in their career. 3. Chance of Higher Earnings: Training can help employees become more efficient in their work and improve productivity, which can lead them to earn more money. 4. Increased safety: Training, especially when given to workers who do hazardous jobs, can greatly increase the safety of the workers. 5. Adaptability: Training can make workers more adaptable to 55 new work methods and technologies.

Advantages of Training to Employers: Training of employees is beneficial to employers (i.e, the organisation) in different ways. The most important benefits to them are 1. Higher Productivity: Well-trained employees can do their work well. This leads to higher productivity for workers and the firm. 2. Standardisation: Through training, standardisation can be achieved. So, all workers who do the same kind of work will do it in the same manner. This will lead to uniform quality of products, which will be good for the firm in the market. 3. Less Supervision Needed: When employees do their job well, the employer need not be supervising their work day-to-day. This is beneficial to the employer 4. Better Management: When employees need less supervision, the higher level managers can spend more time on crucial managerial functions like strategy-making. 5. Greater profitability: Training can make workers more efficient. This will lead to lower costs and higher profits for the 56 firm.

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Training
Process of Training: The training process has five important steps 1. Identifying the training needs: The first step is to clearly identify and understand the training needs of the employees. Only after this is done, can the next step be taken. The training needs will depend on different factors such as kind of job, kind of training, whether the employee is new or already in the firm, the skills of the trainee, etc. 2. Establishment of training goal: The management must have clear idea about what it wants to achieve, as this will affect the type of training given. Usually, short-term goal of training is to improve the efficiency of the employees, in order to achieve higher production and sales. Generally, the long term goal is to build a strong team of talented and dedicated staff for the 57 future growth of the firm.

3. Selecting the training method: The third step is to select the suitable training method. Training methods can be broadly classified as on-the-job methods, off-the-job methods, and vestibule methods. The kind of training chosen depends upon the needs of the employees and also on the needs of the organisation. Both these needs are equally important when selecting the training method. 4. Implementing the training: Once the training method has been decided, the next step is to actually give the training. This may be done either in house (i.e., within the organisation), or in a training centre. 5. Evaluating the training effectiveness: Finally, the training given has to be evaluated. The usefulness of the training can me found out by examining and comparing the pre-training performance and post-training performance of the persons 58 trained.

Career Development
Career: The Oxford English Dictionary defines career as as a "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion of life). In day to day use, it refers only to the course of work done in return for payment like salary, wages, etc. Career Path: Career path refers to the series of positions in an organisations specific occupational fields, ranked from lowest to highest in the hierarchal structure. For example, in any field in a large business firm, the career path of a person may be: trainee, executive, assistant manager, manager, general manager, vice president, president.
Career paths often vary from person to person, and from firm to59 firm.

Career Development
Career Goals: Career goals are goals or objectives that a person sets in his/her career path. Career goals are rarely the same for different persons. Even for the same person, career goals may change as time passes. Career Development: Career development is an organised planning method used to strike a balance between and the needs of a business firm and the career goals of employees.

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Performance Appraisal
Meaning of Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal is the process of assessing the performance and progress of the employees in an organisation. Performance appraisal is also called performance evaluation.

CHAPTVI PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

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Features of Performance Appraisal: 1. A Process: Performance appraisal is a process which consists of many steps. 2. Careful Examination: It is process of carefully examining the strengths, weaknesses, and performance of employees. 3. Objective Study: Performance appraisal is an objective study in which same or similar criteria are used to evaluate similar workers. 4. Ongoing process: Though the actual evaluation may be done during a specific period of time, the data and information62

Performance Appraisal
required are recorded through the assessment period. 5. Important Activity: Performance appraisal is very important for the person who is being evaluated, because his/her career can be affected by it. It is also very important for the firm as it has to decide which employees are best at their jobs.

Performance Appraisal
Purpose of Performance Appraisal: The main purposes (i.e., aims) of doing a performance appraisal are as follows 1. Deciding Salary: Performance appraisal plays a very important role in deciding the salaries of employees. Workers who perform well are usually given increases in their salaries, while those whose performance is low may not receive increase in salary. 2. Deciding Promotions: The results of a performance appraisal have a major impact when the firm decides which employees must be given promotions. 3. Training and Development: Through performance appraisal, the firm can find out whether employees need further training and development in order to improve their performance in their jobs. Performance appraisal helps to 64 identify workers who need more training.

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Performance Appraisal
4. Feedback: Performance appraisal is an important method by which employees receive feedback about their performance. Further, it is also a tool by which employees give feedback to the employer about their (employees) performance, explanations, and their expectations. Thus, the feedback flows in both directions in performance appraisal. 5. Pressure: One of the aims of performance appraisal is to create pressure on employees to do their job well. If there is no evaluation of their performance, some employees may not make efforts to do their jobs properly.

Steps in Performance Appraisal: Each organisation may have different processes of evaluating employees. Further, the steps followed for different levels of employees and different kinds of employees can be different. However, some basic steps will be followed commonly in all performance appraisals. These steps are as follows 1. Establishing and Communicating Standards: Firstly, the standards of performance that are to be achieved must be clearly described, and must be told very clearly to the employees. This is important because if this is not done, then there may be serious issues later.
2. Collecting information: This step usually goes on throughout the time period for which the employee is evaluated, even though the actual evaluation will be done at the end of that time 66 period.

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Performance Appraisal
3. Comparing Actual Performance with Expected Performance: In this step, the actual performance of the employee is compared with the performance that he/she is expected to show. 4. Discussing the appraisal: After the comparison has been made, the employees superior official will discuss it with the employee. If the performance is below the standards, the employee will usually be given a chance to explain the reason. Also, the employee may be given chances to improve. This step is not necessarily a step in which the employee is punished for poor performance by the superior. 5. Deciding follow-up action: Through discussions, the steps that must be taken by the employee in order to improve the performance are decided. 67

Performance Appraisal
Problems in Doing Performance Appraisal: The process of doing a performance appraisal is not simple or easy. There are several problems associated with the task. Some of the common problems are: 1. Lack of Consensus: Often, the persons evaluating the employees may not have agreement on which factors must be given more importance and which must be given less importance. This lack of consensus can create problems because different evaluators may end up evaluating the same employee in very different ways. 2. Different Strictness Levels: Some evaluators may be very strict in evaluating the employees, while other evaluators may be quite lenient. This also creates complications as the same employee may get very different evaluation points from different evaluators.
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Performance Appraisal
3. Personal Preferences: Sometimes, the evaluator may not carry out the evaluation in an objective manner. He/she may have personal problems with an employee which may not be related to the work, but due to this, the employer may give less evaluation points to the employee. 4. Wide variety of Methods: There are many different methods that can be used to do a performance appraisal. Not all the methods can be used for all kinds of work, and for all kinds of workers. Therefore, the evaluator has to be very careful while choosing the method to be used. This is also a problem because an unsuitable method can give very wrong results. 5. Qualitative factors: Certain important qualitative factors in a worker, like attitude, loyalty to the firm, reliability, etc. cannot be easily taken into account. 69

Performance Appraisal
360Performance Appraisal Technique Meaning: The 360appraisal is a method of performance appraisal in which the performance of a person in an organisation is done by all those who are connected in some way with the work done by that person. It is called 360appraisal because the appraisal is done by all the main persons around that person. The main components (i.e., parts) of this method are: 1. Self-appraisal: Self-appraisal means that the person evaluates his or her own performance. He examines his own work to check how he has performed. In well established 360 appraisal systems, self-appraisal is generally done in an 70 honest manner.

Performance Appraisal
2. Appraisal by superior: This is the appraisal done by the persons immediate superior. By and large, this is the single most important part of the appraisal system. This is a chance for the superior official to evaluate the workers performance, and to give honest and sincere feedback to the worker. 3. Appraisal by subordinates: This is the evaluation of a persons work, done by the subordinates of that person. This part will help to show whether the person is a good and effective boss or not, and can help determine whther the person is suitable for supervisory roles or not. 4. Appraisal by peers: This refers to the appraisal of a persons performance, done by the other workers who are at the same level in the hierarchy as the person being evaluated. This aspect of the 360 evaluation can help to show whether the 71

Performance Appraisal
person cooperates with co-workers in the work, and whether the person is a team-player. 5. Appraisal by outsiders: This appraisal is usually done by persons who are not closely related to the work done by the person. The outsiders may be consultants, or workers in other departments of the organisation, etc.

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Compensation
White-collar worker: A white-collar worker can mean either a professional worker, or an educated worker who performs semi-professional office, administrative, and sales coordination tasks.

CHAPTVII COMPENSATION

Blue-collar Worker: A blue-collar worker generally refers to a person who does manual labour. Manual labour means work which requires more of physical efforts and less of mental efforts. Compensation: Compensation refers to the payment that an employee gets from the employer, in return for working for the employer. Compensation may be monetary (i.e., in terms of money), or nonmonetary (i.e., in ways other than money), or a combination of both. 74

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Compensation
Salary:
A salary is a fixed amount of money which is paid to an employee during a specific period of time. The salary paid for that period of time does not depend upon the amount of time that the person has actually worked during that period. It also does not depend upon the amount of work done during that period. Salary is usually paid to white-collar workers. Wage: A wage is monetary compensation which depends upon the amount of work that the worker has done, or upon the amount of time the worker has worked. Wage is usually paid to blue-collar workers.

Compensation
Factors affecting Compensation: There are many factors that affect compensation. The most important factors are 1. Capability of the worker: This is a very important factor. Generally, workers with greater capability to do the work will get more compensation, and vice versa. 2. Educational Qualifications: In general, jobs that require higher qualifications from the worker will offer higher compensation, and vice versa. 3. Responsibilities involved: The amount of responsibilities involved in a job is a very important factor that affects the compensation in that job. Jobs that involve more responsibilities will offer more compensation, and vice versa.
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Compensation
4. Skills required: The skills, qualifications, etc. needed for a job affect the compensation paid for that job. The greater the skills and/or qualifications needed, the higher the compensation, and vice versa. 5. Profits of the firm: If a firm earns more profits, the compensation paid to workers may go up. On the other hand, if the profits are low, or if there are losses, the compensation will remain unchanged, or may even go down.

Compensation
Incentive: An incentive can be defined as payment offered to an employee as compensation for work that is done over and above the work that expected to be done. For example, commission offered by the firm to its sales persons if they sell more than what they are expected to sell. The objective of incentive is to motivate workers to improve their performance. Types of incentives: Incentives can be broadly classified into two types: I. Financial incentives. II. Non-financial incentives.
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Compensation
I. Financial Incentives: The incentives that involve higher monetary commitments directly or indirectly, on the part of the employer, are called financial incentives. In other words, they lead to higher expenditure for the employer. The main forms of financial incentives given to employees are 1. Performance bonus 2. Higher rate of commission 3. Profit-sharing 4. Better work environment 5. Promotions

Compensation
II. Non-financial incentives: Incentives which do not involve monetary commitments on the part of the employer are called non-financial incentives. Some of the important forms of non-financial incentives given to employees are 1. More interesting work 2. More prestigious designation 3. Participation in decision-making 4. Recognition 5. Greater freedom

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Compensation
Fringe Benefits: Fringe benefits are the benefits given to employees in addition to their salaries and wages. Fringe benefits are non-monetary in nature, though they may help the employee to save money. Fringe benefits are not linked to the quality of work done by the worker. There are innumerable examples of fringe benefits in real life. Some important examples are: 1. Free accommodation 2. Leave with pay 3. Subsidised food 4. Free transportation from home to work and back 5. Free or subsidised medical facilities 6. Reimbursement of holiday travel expenditure 81 7. Free or subsidised education for employees children, etc.

CHAPTVIII INTEGRATION AND MAINTENANCE

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Employee Discipline
Discipline: The word discipline can be used in different ways. The meaning changes, depending on the way in which it is used. Meaning as a concept: As a concept, discipline refers to the attitude of employees towards the rules and regulations of the organisation in which they work. Good and Bad Discipline: Discipline in an organisation is said to be good if employees follow those rules willingly. If employees break the rules, or if they follow the rules unwillingly, discipline is said to be bad. 83 Bad discipline is also called indiscipline.

Employee Discipline
Meaning as a verb or action: The action that an organisation takes in order to ensure good discipline among employees is called disciplining. Positive Disciplining and Negative Disciplining: Positive disciplining is the process of creating an environment in the workplace, by which employees feel happy to follow the rules. This is also called constructive disciplining. The most important measures used in positive disciplining are 1. fair salaries and wages; 2. job security; 3. suitable incentives; 4. adequate chances for career growth; 5. good working environment. 84 Positive disciplining is a carrot approach to disciplining.

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Employee Discipline
Negative disciplining involves the use of fear of punishments in order to ensure that employees follow the rules. It is also called enforced discipline. The most important methods used in negative disciplining are 1. Fines 2. Demotionsthis is reduction in an employees position within the organisations hierarchy. It is the opposite of promotion. 3. Transfers to unsuitable place 4. Suspensionthe worker is kept away from work for a temporary period of time. 5. Dismissalthe worker is sent away from work permanently. Negative disciplining is a stick approach to disciplining.
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Collective Bargaining
Meaning of Collective Bargaining: Collective bargaining is a process of discussion and negotiation between two parties, wherein, either one or both parties is a group of persons who are acting in consent. In business administration, it refers to the negotiations between the employer(s) on the one hand, and the employees on the other hand, regarding aspects related to work and compensation. Features of collective bargaining: The main features are 1. Group activity: it involves participation by groups of workers and the employers. 2. Dynamic process: the discussions can lead to many changes in the organisation, both for employers and employees. 86

Collective Bargaining
3. Enables worker-participation in decision making: it enables workers to have a say in the management process, as it allows them to voice their views. 4. Promotes greater understanding: by discussing with each other, both the employers and the workers can get a better understanding of the other partys problems and opinions. 5. Ongoing process: it is an ongoing process, in the sense that whenever there is a major problem, the parties concerned can get together and discuss the issue. Objectives of Collective Bargaining: the main objectives are to 1. Promote democratic approach 2. Eliminate third-party intervention 87 3. Promote better employer-employee relations

Collective Bargaining
4. Prevent unilateral action by either party: unilateral action means action by one party without involvement of the other party. 5. Reach a mutually beneficial solution. Importance of Collective Bargaining: 1. Empowers workers: Usually, workers have less power than the employers in the decision-making. The practice of collective bargaining gives workers some power in this regard. 2. Promotes fairness: It facilitates greater fairness in the sctivities of the organisation, as both parties are able to explain their problems and opinions. 3. Reduces chance of domination: By discussing with each other, the possibility of domination by any one party in the operations of the firm is reduced.
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Collective Bargaining
4. Ensures Accountability: Collective bargaining ensures that decisions are taken with the official agreement of both parties. So it makes both parties more accountable, as they cannot refuse the accept the decision at a later date. 5. Promotes well-being of the firm: Collective bargaining tries to ensure the ensure that both employers and employees cooperate with each other in the functioning of the firm. This, in turn, will help the firm perform better.

Grievance
Meaning of Grievance: In H R management, a grievance is a feeling of discontent or feeling of unfairness in connection with ones employment situation, specially against a person who has authority. A grievance may be expressed or unexpressed by the employee, may be genuine or invalid. A grievance is generally more formal than a complaint. Features of grievance: The main features are 1. Reflects dissatisfaction: A grievance shows that there is a feeling of unhappiness in the employee who feels it. 2. Relates to Work: The feeling must be related to work. If it is about anything not related to work, it is not a grievance in H R.
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Grievance
3. Explicit or Implied: A grievance can be expressed openly (i.e., it is explicit), or it may be indicated through indirect means like improper behaviour or actions (i.e., it is implied). It can even be a combination of both. 4. Factual or Imaginary: The grievance may be factual (i.e., happening when legitimate expectations of the employee are not fulfilled by the employer), or it may be imaginary (i.e., happening when the employee has unfulfilled expectations which the employer need not satisfy). 5. Affects Work: A grievance that an employee has almost always affects the work efficiency of that employee. Usually, the work is affected adversely (i.e., the grievance has a negative effect on the employees work).
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Grievance
Methods of Understanding Employees Grievances: There are many methods of knowing the grievances of employees. The five main methods are 1. Complaints Box: In many organisations, there are complaints boxes, in which an aggrieved employee can drop a sheet of paper on which he/she has written why he/she feels a grievance, along with name and signature. It is not an anonymous method of showing grievance. 2. Gripe Box: A gripe box is a box in which an employee can drop a sheet of paper on which he/she has written why he/she feels a grievance, but without name and signature. It is an anonymous method of showing grievance. 3. Opinion surveys: In this method, the management of the organisation will give out questionnaires to employees, and ask them to give their opinions about various aspects of their work 92 and about the organisation.

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Grievance
4. Open Door policy: In this method, the top level managers keep an open door. This does not mean that the door of the office of the top level managers is actually kept open. Instead, it means that the top level managers are easily accessible to the employees in order to let them know of their grievances. 5. Exit interviews: Exit interview is an interview conducted with an employee who is leaving the organisation. This is done mostly for employees who are very good at their job, in order to find out why they are leaving. It is not done much if the employee is only ordinary or poor at the job.

Grievance
Model Grievance Procedure: The Model Grievance Procedure is considered to be an ideal method of addressing grievances of the employees in an organisation. The Model Grievance Procedure consists of five steps, and each step is time-bound (i.e., must be completed in a specified period of time). This model is usually applicable in large organisations. It is not easy to use in small firms. The five steps are: 1. Presentation of grievance to designated official: This is the first step, in which the aggrieved employee must verbally inform the official of the organisation who has been designated to receive such complaints. That officer must reply to the employee within two days of receiving the complaint.
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Grievance
2. Informing Departmental Head: If the employee does not get reply from the designated official in two days, or if he is not satisfied with the reply, he can inform the head of his department about the grievance. This must be in writing. The head must then reply in three days to the employee. 3. Grievance Committee Stage: If the head does not reply in three days, or if the employee is not satisfied with the reply, he can convey the grievance to the Grievance Committee in writing. The committee must examine the grievance and give reply to the employee within ten days.

Grievance
4. Approaching Top Management: If the committee does not reply in the specified time, or if the employee is not satisfied with the reply, he can write to the top level managers, who are supposed to give their reply within one week. 5. External Arbitration: If the employee is still not satisfied, the management and the union can approach an outside entity to solve the problem. This is called external arbitration. The external arbiter may be an official appointed by the government to look into such matters, or may the court. The decision of the arbiter is binding on both the aggrieved employee, and on the management of the organisation.
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Transfer
Transfer: A transfer is a change in the place of work within the same organisation, where the new job is very similar to the old job in terms of pay, status, and responsibilities. There may be small changes in pay, status, and responsibilities. The main occasions when a transfer takes place are when an employee is shifted from: 1. One department to another (eg: finance to marketing) 2. One branch to another (eg: from Main Branch in Addis Ababa to Piasa Branch in Addis Ababa) 3. One town to another (eg: from Bale Robe to Goba) 4. One state/region to another (eg: from Tigray to Oromia) 5. One country to another (eg: from Ethiopa to U.K.) A transfer can also include any combination of the above. 98

CHAPTIX TRANSFER, PROMOTION, SEPARATION

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Transfer
Reason for Transfers: There are many reasons for transferring an employee. The most important reasons are 1. To meet organisations needs: An organisation may transfer an employee because his/her services may be needed at another part of the organisation. 2. To meet employees needs: Sometimes, an employee may request a transfer due to personal reasons. In such cases, the organisation may transfer him/her. 3. To punish employees: At times, the organisation may transfer an employee to an unfavourable location in order to punish him/her. 4. To increase employees versatility: Sometimes, the organisation may transfer an employee to different departments or locations in order to make him/her adaptable 99 to different work conditions.

Transfer
5. To provide relief: A organisation may also transfer an employee from a difficult job or difficult location in order to give some relief to him/her. Benefits of Transfers: Generally, transfer provide the following benefits 1. Remedy faulty placements: In some situations, the firm may make the mistake of allocating an employee to a job or location which is not suited to his/her skills. This can be remedied by a transfer of the employee. 2. Improve employee skills: By learning to work in different departments and locations, the employee learns new skills and becomes more adaptable. 3. Overcome employee shortage: If an organisation faces a specific shortage or workers at a specific department or location, it can overcome this by transferring employees.
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Transfer
4. Prepare employees for promotions: By transferring an employee to a location that may be difficult, the firm may actually be preparing him/her for a promotion to a position with greater responsibilities. 5. Greater job satisfaction: Transfers can give more job satisfaction to an employee. This is more likely when the employee has asked for the transfer.

Promotion
Promotion: Promotion can be defined as the movement of an employee to a higher position, which has more responsibilities, higher status, and more compensation. It is the movement of an employee to a higher place in the hierarchy. Upgradation: An upgradation is the movement of the employee to higher compensation and more responsibilities, but without change in the position. Dry Promotion: A dry promotion is the movement of an employee to a higher position with more responsibilites and higher status, but with 102 no change or very little change in compensation.

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Need for Promotions: Promotions can be used to fulfill the following main objectives 1. Fill Vacancies: When job vacancies arise in a firm the existing employees can be promoted to fill those vacancies. 2. Reward Employees: Promotions are also given as rewards to employees who perform well and/or have attained the level of experience in the firm. 3. Improve Employees Performance: Promotions can be used as a tool to motivate employees to do their job well so that they can get promotion as a reward for good performance. 4. Keep Morale High: Promotion can be useful to keep the morale of employees high because they can look forward to getting promotion if they work well. 5. Retain Good Employees: Promotions are also used as a tool to retain good employees in the firm, as such employees may103 leave if they feel they are not being rewarded well enough.

Promotion
Promotion cum Transfer: A promotion and a transfer given to an employee can be combined in such a way that both the things happen to the employee at the same time. In such a situation, not only with the employee move to a higher job position, but will also move to another location or department in the organisation. For example, the Manager of Commercial Bank of Ethiopia in Sof Umer Branch in Bale Robe may move to the position of General Manager at a branch in Addis Ababa. Criteria for Promotion: There are two criteria used for promotions I. Seniority II. Merit
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Promotion
Seniority-based promotion: This criterion uses the amount of time that an employee has worked for an organisation as the basis for promotion. Seniority depends on the amount of time an employee has spent working in an organisation. If the employee has also spent some time working in other organisations, that is also considered when deciding seniority. The longer the period of time spent working, the more senior an employee is, and vice versa. In seniority-based promotions, senior employees are given priority for promotions.

Promotion
Merit-based promotion: This criterion uses the work-related performance of an employee as the basis for promotion. Weightage is also given to the academic qualifications and achievements. In such promotion, the amount of time spent by the employee is given lesser importance. If the workers performance is better, the greater the merit, and vice versa. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. In real life, most organisations use a method of promotions that combines both the criteria. 106

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Separation
Separation: As the word indicates, separation is the process or act of separating that happens between an organisation and its employee(s). It means that the employee is no longer in the employment of the employer. That is, the person (employee) does not work for the organisation (employer) anymore. Types of Separation: Based on the cause of the separation, separation can be classified into five main types: 1. Resignation: In this type, the employee voluntarily leaves the organisation. He/she informs the appropriate person in the firm that he/she will be leaving the organisation on a particular date in the future. Thus, in resignation, the separation is started by the employee. 107 2. Dismissal: Here, an employee is informed by the employer that

he/she is being removed from working for the firm. Usually, this is done due to some major indiscipline by the employee. Here, the employer takes the first step in separation. 3. Layoff: In this type, the employee is kept away from work due to problems faced by the employer, but beyond the control of the employer. Usually, this is temporary, and once the problem is solved, the employer can return to work. However, the layoff period may also be indefinite. 4. Retrenchment: Retrenchment means that the employee is removed from the service of the employer due to financial issues faced by the firm. It can happen due to excessive number of employees in the organisation. It is a permanent separation. 5. Retirement: Retirement means the act of an employee leaving an organisation permanently, because he/she has reached an age beyond which the firm does not keep its employees. This is the most common form of separation. The age of retirement is usually different in different organisations.
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CHAPTX EMERGING TRENDS IN H. R. MANAGEMENT

Equal Employment Opportunity: Equal Employment Opportunity is a concept which states that all the persons who have the ability and qualifications needed to work in a job must have the chance to apply for the job. In other words, the qualifications and the ability to do a job must be the only criteria or conditions used to select a person for a job. Other things like the persons gender, nationality, race, religion, native language, etc. must not be used to decide whether or not a person is suitable for a job. If any of these criteria are used to deny a person a job, it is said to be discrimination. Of course, sometimes these things may affect the ability of a person to do the job. For example, generally, it is more difficult for women to work as soldiers in a war when compared to men.
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So, many armies in the world do not recruit women as soldiers to fight in wars. This is generally not considered as discrimination. Often, discrimination is not easy to prove. Workforce Diversity: Workforce diversity refers to the similarities and differences among employees in terms of age, native language, physical abilities and disabilities, race, religion, gender, etc. The more the differences, the more the workforce diversity, and vice versa. Workforce Diversity Management: Workforce Diversity Management is the practice of having suitable policies in an organisation, so that employees of diverse backgrounds can work together smoothly. Generally, it is 111

the duty of the H R department to create such policies and to make sure that they are followed in an organisation. Employee Empowerment: Employee empowerment means enabling the employee to do the work well by himself or herself. In practice, it is the process by which a higher official shares authority with a subordinate in order to enable him or her to do the work well by himself or herself. Employee empowerment is also known as workforce empowerment.

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Approaches to Workforce Empowerment: Approaches to workforce empowerment simply refers to the different methods by which employees can be empowered. The five main approaches are: 1. Giving job-related help: This can be done by giving training, guidance, coaching, etc. in the job. 2. Allowing more control: This means giving employees more freedom in their day-to-day work activities, and holding them responsible for the results of their activities. 3. Providing role models: That is, letting workers watch, interact with, and learn from others who have been successful in jobs similar to their own jobs. 4. Using social reinforcement: This means praising workers, giving them encouragement and motivation, etc. in their 113 work.

5. Giving emotional support: Workers can also be empowered by providing them emotional support through counselling, stress-management programmes, etc. Sometimes, these may be given even for personal problems which are not directly related to the work. Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment is the harassment of a person by another person in a sex-related manner. In other words, it is the process of giving trouble to a person in order to get sexual favours from the person. The main aspect of sexual harassment is that the person from whom sexual favours are demanded does not like it. If the person likes it, or does not think of it as a problem, then 114

it cannot be considered as sexual harassment. In the work-related environment, when sexual harassment happens, it is usually done by a superior official to a subordinate official. Sexual harassment can happen with both a carrot approach and a stick approach. Carrot approach means that the superior official may give rewards like increase in salary, better work conditions, promotions, etc. to the subordinate in return for sexual favours. Stick approach means that the superior official may give punishments like poor performance evaluation points, unfairly heavy workload, etc. to the subordinate if the subordinate does not do sexual favours. 115

An important point to remember is that often it is assumed that only men engage in sexual harassment. However, this is not true, and higher level women officials may also engage in sexually harassing their subordinate officials. Sexual harassment is illegal in most countries. Work-related effects of sexual harassment on the victim: 1. Fear of coming to work 2. Reduced interest/lack of interest in the work 3. Reduction in performance in the work 4. Reduced cooperation with other workers 5. Loss of trust in the organisation and/or other employees.
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Effects of sexual harassment on the organisation: 1. Reduced productivity of the worker(s) 2. Absenteeism by employees 3. Potential loss of workers 4. Fall in reputation 5. Possibility of legal problems Role of H R department in sexual harassment: All organisations are generally expected to take steps to prevent sexual harassment. Moreover, the H R department of large organisations is expected to have clear policies and rules for all employees in this regard. HR department is also expected to give great importance to complaints of sexual harassment.
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