Discussions ELECTRICAL DEVICES FOR MEASUREMENTS (EXPERIMENT NO.

2)
RESISTORS Resistor Color Coding Scheme There are three types of resistor color coding. They have different number of color bands and hence provide different information.

MULTITESTER A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronicmeasuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on amicroammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. DC VOLTMETER An instrument for the measurement of the electric potential difference between two conductors. Many different 12 kinds of instruments are available to suit different purposes. Voltages of the order of picovolts (10 V) to 6 megavolts (10 V) can be measured. Frequencies from zero (dc) to many megahertz and accuracies in the range from a fraction of part per million (ppm) to a few percent may be covered. DC AMMETER An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters ormicroammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems.

OHMS LAW (EXPERIMENT NO.3)

Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (E) voltage, (I) current, and (R) resistance. One ohm is the resistance value through which one volt will maintain a current of one ampere. ( I ) Current is what flows on a wire or conductor like water flowing down a river. Current flows from negative to positive on the surface of a conductor. Current is measured in (A) amperes or amps. ( E ) Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit. It's the push or pressure behind current flow through a circuit, and is measured in (V) volts. ( R ) Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltage and current levels. A very high resistance allows a small amount of current to flow. A very low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Resistance is measured in ohms. ( P ) Power is the amount of current times the voltage level at a given point measured in wattage or watts.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ( EXPERIMENT NO.5)

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

For most materials, there is a simple relationship between the potential difference applied across two points and the current generated. An Ohmic material is one for which the potential difference and current are related as below: Voltage vs. current for an Ohmic material

For such materials the voltage and current are proportional - doubling the potential difference doubles the current. The constant of proportionality is called the resistance, which is defined through Ohm's law: VOLTAGE = CURRENT X RESISTANCE The units of resistance are Volts / Ampres, or Ohms ( ). Thus, for a given potential difference, materials with a high resistance will allow a small current relative to a material with a low resistance. In analogy with heat resistance and conductivity, one can define an electrical conductivity as being proportional to the inverse of the resistance. Thus, good electrical conductors, such as copper, have a low resistance, and poor electrical conductors, such as concrete, have a high resistance. At the atomic level, currents are pictured as the flow of the outer electrons of atoms through the material. Resistance then results from collisions of electrons with other electrons and with atoms. From this we would expect that raising the temperature of a material would increase the resistance, as the added heat energy would cause the electrons to move faster and hence collide more often. This is indeed what is generally observed.

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it:

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors. Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance.