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X/;Coulomb's law:Pioneer or Given by:This law was given by a French scientist Charles Augustine de Coulomb in 1875 A.D. History:Coulomb performed a number of experiments to measure the force between two electric charges. The apparatus used by coulomb was known as Torsion Balance shown in fig

Coulomb stated his experimental observations in the form of a statement known as Coulomb law. Statement:This law states that the magnitude of electrostatic force between two stationary point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and this force acts along the line joining the charges. Mathematical form:Let us suppose there are two electric point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r, then electrostatic force Fe between the charges according to Coulomb law is given as Fe = k q1q2 r2 Vector Form of Coulomb's law:Let r^ is the unit vector in the direction of the force, then force in vector form is given as Made by Asad Ali Awan For any queries and concepts related to Physics , Exam assistance etc.

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Fe = F . r^ 1 Where Fe = k q1q2 r2 Putting this value of Fe in equation 1, we get Fe = k q1q2 r ^ r2 This equation gives vector form of coulomb's law. Where Fe is the electrostatic force, k is the constant of proportionality, q1 and q2 are charges, r is the distance between charges and r^ is the unit vector along a line joining the two charges. Derivation of mathematical form:According to the definition of Coulomb law, we know that Fe q1q2 . 1 And Fe 1 / r2 . 2 Now combining 1 and 2 we get, Fe q1q2 / r2 Replacing proportionality sign with constant of proportionality, we get, Fe = k q1q2 / r 2 This equation gives mathematical form of Coulomb law. In vector form is written as Fe = k q1q2 r^ r2 where r^ is the unit vector along the line joining the charges. If q1 is considered the source charge, then the force is positive and directed from q1 to q2 and if q2 is considered as source charge, then force is negative and directed from q2 to q1.

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Explanation:As we know that force is a vector quantity, therefore, we will explain coulomb's force or law in to two parts:Magnitude of force:The magnitude of coulomb's force depends on two factors:1. Depends directly on the product of the magnitude of charges F q 1 x q2 This means that if we make q1 or q2 double, the force will become double. And if we make both of them double, the force will increase four times. 2. Depends inversely on the square of the distance between the two charges. F 1 / r2 This means that if we double the distance, the force will become one fourth and if we half the distance, the force will increase four times. Direction of force:In electrostatic, a charge that is exerting a force is called a source charge. And a charge on which a force is exerted is called a field charge. The direction of force is determined with respect to the source charge. To explain this, let us consider an example of tow similar charges (either both are positive or both negative), as shown in fig below. If q1 is considered as a source charge, then the direction of force (r^) is directed from q1 to q2, and if q 2 is considered as source charge, then the direction of force is from q2 to q1. In the second case, force is attractive. If q1 is considered source charge, then force is directed towards it and if q2 is considered source charge, then force is directed towards q2. There is a convention that a repulsive force is represented by +ive and an attractive force is represented by ive sign. For like charges, the product q1q2 is positive. This means that the force is repulsive. In such a case, the force is directed away from the source. For unlike charges, the product q1q2 is negative. This means Made by Asad Ali Awan For any queries and concepts related to Physics , Exam assistance etc.

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that the force is attractive and the force is directed towards the source charge. Constant of proportionality KThe constant of proportionality K depends on system of units used and the properties of the medium around the charges. In SI units and free space and for our easiness, we write the constant K as K = 1 / 4 pie o N m 2 / C2 The constant o is called the permittivity of free space. Its value is measured experimentally and is found to be o = 8.85418 x 10-12 C2 / N . m2/ If we put, this value of o, we get K = 9 x 109 N m2 / C2 In SI units, and for charges placed in vacuum (or free space), coulombs law in equation 1 can be written as F = 1 / 4 pie o . q1q2 / r2 . r^ .. 1 Coulomb's law in material media:As the constant K depend on the medium surrounding the charges. Therefore, if the charges are placed in a medium of permittivity E, the Coulomb force is given by Fmed = 1 / 4 pie . q1q2 / r2. r^ . A From equation A, force is inversely proportional to the permittivity of the medium. The permittivity of any medium is higher than the permittivity of the vacuum. Therefore, the force in a certain medium is less than the force in vacuum. For air, air is only slightly greater than Eo and for most purposes is taken equal to o. To make the force more simplified, a term relative permittivity r is introduced. This is defined as "The ratio of the permittivity of a medium to the permittivity of vacuum." i.e. r = / o = r . o B By putting equation B in equation A , the coulomb's force becomes, Fmed'= 1 / 4 pie r . o . q1q2 / r2 . r^ .. C Force in medium is always less than Force in Free space:To find the relation ship between force in medium and force in a vacuum, we divide equation 6 by equation 2 and we get, Made by Asad Ali Awan For any queries and concepts related to Physics , Exam assistance etc.

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Fmed/ Fe= 1 / r Fe = r . Fmed This result shows that Fmed will be equal to Fe or F, when it is multiplied by r. So it proves that F or Fe is always greater than Fmed. Where r is the dimensionless constant of the medium and it is also called the dielectric constant of the medium. Its value is always greater than one. Limitations:Coulomb's law is strictly valid for point charges. However, if the size of the charge bodies is very small compared with the distance between them, then coulomb's law can be considered valid. Moreover if the charge is distributed uniformly over the surface of a sphere, then it can be considered as a point charge. Then the charge taken in to account is placed in the centre of sphere. Coulomb's law and Newton's 3rd law:Let us consider tow point charges q1 and q2 which are placed at distance r, from each other. Let us consider F21 is the force exerted by charge q1 on the charge q2 and this force is given as F21 = 1 / 4 pie o . q1q2 / r2 . r21 C Let us consider F12 is the force exerted by charge q2 on q1 and this force is given as F12 = 1 / 4 pie o . q1q2 / r2 . (-r12) or - F12 = 1 / 4 pie o . q1q2 / r2 . (r12) .. D Comparing C and D, we get, F 21 = - F12 Or F 12 = - F21 This equation shows that two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction which is called Newton's 3rd law. Coulomb:The SI unit of charge is coulomb. Definition:One coulomb is the amount of charge that flows through a give cross section of a conductor in one second, if there is a steady current of one ampere in the wire. i.e. I C = 1 A x 1 sec Made by Asad Ali Awan For any queries and concepts related to Physics , Exam assistance etc.

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OR When two charges of same magnitude are placed at distance of one meter and they attract or repel each other with a force of 9 x 10 9 N, then the magnitude of charge on both the charges is one coulomb. Prove:As we know that F = k q1q2 / r2 Here r = 1 m, q1 = q2 = 1 coulomb, and k = 9 x 109 N m2 / C2, So F = 9 x 109 . 1.1 / 12 F = 9 x 10 9 N. So it is proved that when ever two charges of same magnitude are placed at distance of one meter and they attract or repel each other with a force of 9 x 10 9 N, the magnitude of charge on both the charges is 1 Coulomb. Multiples and submultiples:Some of the important submultiples of coulomb are micro coulomb, nano coulomb, and pico coulomb etc. 1 u C = 10-6 C 1 n C = 10 -9 C 1 p C = 10 -12C Dimension of charge:Dimensional formula [Q] = [AT]

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