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Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................2
About This Series ...........................................................................................2
About This Book .............................................................................................2
Supporting Material ........................................................................................3
Mechanics, Mechanisms and Machines ................................................................4
What is Multi-Body Dynamics? ........................................................................5
Learning MBD - Different Approaches ..............................................................6
Putting It All Together ....................................................................................6
Typical Design Issues.........................................................................................8
Product Liability..............................................................................................8
Some Application Areas ..................................................................................9
The MBD Modeling Philosophy ...................................................................... 13
Summary ..................................................................................................... 16
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced.............................................................. 17
Theory … ..................................................................................................... 18
… and Practice ............................................................................................. 30
The Virtuous Circle ....................................................................................... 31
Working with MBD Models................................................................................ 33
Different Strokes for Different Folks............................................................... 33
Basic Building Blocks .................................................................................... 34
Solution Control ........................................................................................... 37
Results - Verification and Validation............................................................... 38
Optimization ................................................................................................ 39
MBD Simulation with HyperWorks ..................................................................... 41
The Simulation Process................................................................................. 41
The Anatomy of a Model............................................................................... 43
Solution and Results ..................................................................................... 45
Integration with HyperWorks ........................................................................ 47
Advanced Topics ............................................................................................. 48
Flexibility ..................................................................................................... 48
Contact........................................................................................................ 50
Control Systems ........................................................................................... 52
Cams, Gears and other Higher Pairs .............................................................. 54
Glossary And References.................................................................................. 58
References................................................................................................... 58
Other Resources........................................................................................... 58
Types of Analyses ........................................................................................ 58
Formulae for the Moments of Inertia ............................................................. 59
Common Coefficients of Friction .................................................................... 61
1
Introduction CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Introduction
About This Series
To make the most of this series you should be an engineering student, in
your third or final year of Mechanical Engineering. You should have access
to licenses of HyperWorks, to the Altair website, and to an instructor who
can guide you through your chosen projects or assignments.
If product design is your area of interest, you will find the companion
volumes, CAE And Design Optimization – Basics and CAE And Design
Optimization – Advanced useful. The techniques outlined in this book are
usually applied at the very early stage in product design, to be followed up
at a later stage in the design cycle with detailed analyses and optimization,
both to improve peak performance and to introduce robustness.
While it’s not essential, a good grasp of the basic principles of vector
mathematics will help you tremendously. Several essential aspects are
covered in this book, although in a qualitative fashion. You may want to
treat the chapter titled Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced as a
reference. If you choose to adopt this approach, at least a cursory reading
of this chapter is strongly recommended.
2
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Introduction
The various references cited in the book will probably be most useful after
you have worked through your project and are interpreting the results.
Supporting Material
Your instructor will have the Instructor’s Manual that accompanies these
volumes – it should certainly be made use of. Further reading and
references are indicated both in this book and in the Instructor’s Manual.
If you find the material interesting, you should also look up the HyperWorks
On-line Help System. The Altair website, www.altair.com, is also likely to be
of interest to you, both for an insight into the evolving technology and to
help you present your project better.
Isaac Asimov
3
Mechanics, Mechanisms and Machines CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
1
Short for Computer Aided Engineering – a term that usually covers design, analysis,
3D modeling, and testing in the course of product-design.
4
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Mechanics, Mechanisms and Machines
While the scale of movements, the sizes of the bodies and the forces
involved vary widely between these applications, in all these cases designers
need to understand how the forces affect the movement of the body, and
vice versa. And, of course, there are multiple bodies involved.
This aspect, together with advances in software technology over the recent
past has, in fact, led to the widespread adoption of the title Multi-body
Dynamics2 in the place of phrases like “Rigid Body Mechanics” and
“Mechanism Design”.
MBD finds applications in almost any field where there are moving
mechanical components: machine tools, packaging equipment, conveyor
belts, engines, road vehicles, elevators, railways, stereos, washing
machines, aircraft, spacecraft, pumps, robotics – the list can go on almost
indefinitely. One application that’s sometimes dismissed as trivial but throws
up several exquisite applications of this remarkable science is the design of
2
Often abbreviated to “MBD”
5
Mechanics, Mechanisms and Machines CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
toys, as can be attested to by anyone who has puzzled over the internal
workings of Rubik’s Cube.
The problems that designers grapple with are introduced in the next
chapter, but common to all of them is the need to deal with one or more of
the forces, displacements, velocities and accelerations of different parts of
the system. Some designers analyze mechanisms: that is, they find out the
values of parameters of interest under different operating conditions. Still
others synthesize mechanisms: they come up with designs that will provide
required movement.
6
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Mechanics, Mechanisms and Machines
Our goal, then, is easy to state and vast in it’s coverage: we expect to be
able to design any mechanical system with moving parts!
The secret of getting ahead is getting started. The secret of getting started is
breaking your complex overwhelming tasks into small manageable tasks, and
then starting on the first one.
Mark Twain
7
Typical Design Issues CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Of course, this potential criticism of CAE tools applies to all the tools covered
in this series of books. What’s special about MBD? Why should we pay
special attention to this aspect when studying MBD?
Product Liability
The lot of a product designer is often stressful, and not just because of
pressures on time, cost and quality. Laws in several countries are extremely
demanding, and the trend is towards stronger legal safeguards against
faulty products. In a review of the impact of legislative reforms on product-
liability risks in the Asia-Pacific region3,
3
Kellam, J and Nottage, L: "Report on Clayton Utz Asia-Pacific Product Liability
Survey" (2006) 17 (9) APLR 121, published in the Australian Product Liability
Reporter.
8
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Typical Design Issues
Failures that can cause loss of life or grievous harm are often identified and
publicized voluntarily by the manufacturers themselves. Such product recalls
can be expensive both in terms of actual expenditure to fix the flaws and in
terms of the damage to the reputation of the company involved.
Legal protection for consumers mean that designers need to be alert even to
failures that are potentially less exacting, as illustrated in the extracts from
US Consumer Product Safety Commission’s recall notice reproduced below4:
4
The complete recall notice can be found at http://www.cpsc.gov
9
Typical Design Issues CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
From a designer’s point of view, models that can calculate and predict
forces, loci of various points, and times of motion are particularly critical.
Packaging Machinery
The term itself usually covers machines that can do one or more of
wrapping, palletizing, taping, capping, filling, labeling and printing. If you
consider that almost any goods – from toothpaste to automobiles – need to
be packed, the size of the industry is extremely large. Environmental
concerns are prompting changes in the materials used, prompting designers
to exercise their ingenuity.
This means the design approach can often afford to sacrifice versatility of
motion for economy and precision – in a sense, this is similar to the design
approach that underlies Special Purpose Machines. And since the scale of
production of the goods being packaged is very large, a lot of design focus is
on the time of motion. A design that can reduce the filling time by 1 second
can be much more attractive if the filling time per package is of the order of
seconds!
Engines
Most mechanical engineers are familiar with, if not extremely comfortable
with the working of, IC engines. What we sometimes fail to remember is
10
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Typical Design Issues
that engines themselves can vary tremendously: from the enormous diesel
engines to the rotary-piston Wankel engine. The picture shows engineers
installing the thin-shell bearings for the Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C
turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine – an engine with a stroke of over 8
feet. The technicians shown in the picture show its size!
11
Typical Design Issues CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Car designers, for example, pay attention to the “toe curve”, since it is a
critical measure of drive quality of the vehicle. Modern designs have seen a
steady increase in the amount of “on board” electronics used to help steer
the vehicle safely. Many road vehicles, for instance, come with anti-lock
brakes, where a control system senses the motion and automatically adjusts
the brake pressure to prevent a skid.
Robotics
In his book “Inside the Robot Kingdom”, F.L.Schodt paints an impressive
picture of the Fanuc factory in Japan, where, under Mount Fiji, robots work
unattended at night – making other robots! The point, of course, is that
robots are not just inhabitants of Science-Fiction worlds. They are very much
here to stay.
5
See http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2006/09/nhtsa_stability.html, for
example.
12
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Typical Design Issues
MBD methods are reduced order models that are best applied at the
“Product” and “Assembly” stages7.
6
Courtesy of Prof. Bert Bras, George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0405, USA.
7
The Finite Element Method, covered in A Designr’s Guide to FEA, is most relevant at
the “Component” and “Assembly” stages.
13
Typical Design Issues CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Simulation of system level behavior is best done using the MBD approach.
Obviously, one benefit is that the forces calculated from an MBD analysis
can be used to provide data for a Finite Element analysis. However, there
are other reasons that make this a natural way to address several complex
design issues.
For one, MBD models take a ”lumped” approach. That is, the behavior of an
arbitrarily complex component or assembly is abstracted as a single
element. The abstraction may represent a single rigid link, the suspension
assembly of an automobile, or the undercarriage of an aircraft. In all these
cases, some accuracy is traded for speed of analysis. Where a Finite Element
analysis frequently requires minutes, if not hours or days of CPU time, an
MBD analysis is often complete in seconds.
Next, simple MBD models are used to build more complex models. In an
approach that follows the engineering practice of using simple tools to build
more complex tools, this provides the capability to quickly build complex
models that yield useful results without taking an inordinate amount of time.
Take, for example, a bearing that supports a rotating shaft. Both theory and
practice tell us that there are losses within the shaft, but it is well near
impossible to get an accurate model that can predict the losses in a
production-quality bearing within reasonable times and at reasonable
expense. The MBD approach is quite practical, yielding a usable model while
taking into account the absence of detailed mechanics8:
8
From Design And Analysis Of A Modified Power Split Continuously Variable
Transmission, A.J.Fox, West Virginia University
14
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Typical Design Issues
Tloss,n = Fndµ
Note how simple the equation is. The simplicity is justified because there is
no complete theory of the specific mechanics that also lends itself to quick
calculations. Actual usage of this bearing module would only require that the
coefficient of friction be fed in, since the forces are calculated using the
equations of equilibrium. The model is not only simple, it is effective, since
several of these bearing modules can be employed in the model of the
overall transmission.
9
An Orc’s Tale – Animation of a Virtual World, Aalborg University, Copenhagen
15
Typical Design Issues CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Summary
Engineers working on CAE have several sources of worry, ranging from
potential legal complications to essential product performance. To make
things worse, the expectations change almost continuously during any
product-design project. Almost invariably, the quality of results expected
from the designers tends to get raised as the project progresses.
One benefit, however, is that early in the design cycle the analyses need not
be very precise. Later, when the detailed-design phases is undertaken,
results need to be more accurate – but at the early stage, quick results are
often of more value than accurate results.
The MBD approach is tailor-made for this. And if it can be coupled with
detailed-design tools such as Finite Element Analysis and Design
Optimization, the design engineer really can’t ask for very much more.
The fact that the man who gave the world electric light, motion pictures,
talking machines, and the Edison storage battery was responsible for this
utterly useless device should encourage inventors whose first attempts have
failed.
George Lee Dowd Jr
in Popular Science Monthly,1930, on Edison’s unsuccessful Helicopter
16
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
This does not mean, of course, that the software can be used without a
good grasp of the underlying theory. The previous chapter outlined the
importance of focusing on the requirements of design and on the
importance of proper abstraction of behavior. Using software without an
understanding of the fundamentals is an invitation to disaster, not to
mention being a waste of time, effort and money!
While MBD tools have not been adopted as widely by the industry as CAD
tools, for a variety of reasons, the fact is that MBD tools today are both
capable and robust. The benefits are clear, the applications are clear, and
the tools are available.
To use MBD tools effectively, of course, you should make sure that you pay
attention to detail. When you work through the assignments that accompany
this book, you may want to turn back either to this chapter or to the
17
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
references listed at the end of this book to make sure that you are correctly
correlating the software’s features with the theoretical underpinnings.
Finally, classroom studies are often limited to problems that can be solved
using trigonometry and vector algebra. Usually, this means the coverage is
restricted to Cams, Gears and 4-bar linkages. Non-linear equations, complex
numbers and mechanisms with more links are often omitted simply because
they are not tractable enough for hand-calculations. MBD software makes
such problems tractable, thereby making it easy for meaningful problems to
be modeled and analyzed even at the learning level.
Theory …
Basic Definitions
Statics, Kinetics, Kinematics and Dynamics
Mechanics (or, more correctly, Solid Mechanics10) has three branches:
Statics, Kinetics and Kinematics. Statics covers the effects of forces on
bodies in the absence of motion. Kinetics is the study of the action of forces
on bodies in motion. Kinematics is the study of the relative motion between
bodies. Kinetics and kinematics together are often referred to as dynamics.
Often designers use kinematics to determine the initial design to achieve the
required motion. Kinetics is then applied to investigate and improve weight,
stability, cost, control, etc. Kinematics is sometimes called the geometry of
pure motion – because there is no reference to mass or forces. Most CAD
packages use this approach to animate assemblies. Kinematics, for example,
can be used to calculate the motion required for a robot to pick up an
object, while dynamics can tell you the forces required for this.
10
The kinematics of fluids is normally not called kinematics, and is considerably more
complicated than that of solids.
18
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
Mechanisms
Engineering Mechanics differentiates between a structure and a mechanism
by calculating the mobility of the assembly. If the assembly is such that no
movement is possible, it is a structure. A good example is a simple plane
truss, where the dimensions of the links define the only relative position that
can be achieved.
Machines
There is no clear-cut difference between a mechanism and a machine. Some
define a machine as a mechanism that does useful work, but that distinction
is not relevant to our study. One of the dictionary meanings for “machine”
is, not surprisingly, “mechanism”.
19
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
package. See the Glossary and References section for more details on
Moments of Inertia.
Links
A link is a body that is a part of a mechanism. Some definitions of links
require that they be treated as rigid bodies (i.e. those that cannot deform
under the action of forces) but MBD removes this necessity.
Nodes
A node is the point at which one link is attached to another in a kinematic
drawing. (Do not confuse this with a node in a Finite Element model!). A
binary link has 2 nodes, a ternary link has 3, and a quaternary link has 4.
Degrees of Freedom
The DOFs (which is how the phrase degrees of freedom is usually
abbreviated) of a link is the number of independent inputs required to
determine its position with respect to the ground. The DOFs of a mechanism
are the number of independent inputs required to determine the positions of
all links (with respect to the ground) that make up the mechanism.
Constraints
A constraint is a condition that removes one or more DOFs. In MBD, a
constraint is usually imposed by defining a joint.
For instance, if a system consists of 2 links that are not connected to each
other, the system has 12 dofs (6 for each link). If they are connected by a
20
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
joint, however, the dofs will be less than 12. Which dofs are eliminated by
the joint is often a source of confusion to a beginner.
If the number of constraints is more than the dofs of the system, the system
is described as over-constrained. An over-constrained system cannot be
analyzed using MBD. If presented with an over-constrained system, many
programs arbitrarily discard as many constraints as necessary. A designer
should beware of such situations! It is far better to correct the joint
definitions yourself than to leave it to the software.
Joints
From a mathematical perspective, a joint is just a constraint – it relates the
motion between one or more DOFs of one or more bodies. In the context of
MBD modeling, a joint is usually defined using a physical equivalent.
Most joints eliminate one or more DOFs. However if the joint is redundant, it
does not affect the dofs of the system. Redundant constraints are also called
passive constraints: their presence or absence does not make any difference
to the behavior of the mechanism11.
There are only 6 lower pairs, while there are infinite types of higher pairs.
The 6 lower pairs are revolute (or pin-joint), prismatic (or slider joint), helical
(as in a nut-and-screw), cylindrical (as a shaft in a collar), spherical (or ball
joint) and planar12.
Cams, gears, belt-drives, etc. are higher pairs. Higher pairs normally need
additional equations, such as the gear-ratio, to fully-define them. Higher
pairs are also more susceptible to drawbacks such as backlash, slip, creep
and friction losses. Of course, manufacturing tolerances can introduce error
into lower pairs too.
11
Passive constraints can cause trouble when manufacturing tolerances are taken
into account.
12
Planar, Revolute and Prismatic pairs can be treated as special cases of helical
pairs. A zero lead makes it a revolute joint, an infinite lead makes it a prismatic joint.
Moving the center of the helical pair to infinity gives a planar joint.
21
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Closure
Some joints ensure contacts between the links by means of the elements
themselves – a revolute joint is a good example. Such joints have form
closure. Other joints, such as cams, require external forces to maintain
contact, and have force closure. The external force can be supplied via a
spring, or by gravity, etc.
Chains
A chain is a series of pairs connected together, without a grounded link. A
chain is called a mechanism only if at least one link is grounded. This is
because force-transmission makes sense only if the “ground” provides the
support for the reactions that Newton’s Third Law guarantees. A chain can
be either closed or open. Two binary links connected by a joint are called a
dyad.
Inversion
The behavior of some mechanisms can change dramatically depending on
which links in the chain are fixed and which are left free to move. An
excellent example of this is the epicyclic gear train.
F = 3(n − 1) − 2l − h
Be careful when using the formula – it is not foolproof in the sense that it
cannot be applied blindly, but needs some judgment. The mechanism shown
below has 1 DOF although Gruebler’s equation would say it has none!13
13
n = 5 since there are 5 links including the ground, l = 6 since there are 6 lower
pairs. The formula fails due to redundancy: removal of the middle link has no affect
on the mechanism. The correct values of n and l should be 4 and 4, respectively,
which gives 1 dof.
22
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
The DOFs of a mechanism are also called its mobility. This term is used
when we want to count the number of input parameters that must be
controlled independently to achieve a particular motion or position. The
Kutzbach Criterion, which is used to calculate the mobility allows for the
elimination of partial DOFs by a joint.
14
For details on the 3D form, see page 551 of Advanced Mechanism Design, Volume
2, Erdman and Sandor.
23
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Essential Theory
Analysis vs. Synthesis Computational complexity theory is
Analysis involves calculating items of interest for a the study of the complexity of
given mechanism or system. Synthesis, on the problems - that is, the difficulty of
other hand, involves finding a mechanism that solving them. Some problems are
provides a required behavior. difficult to solve, while others are
easy. Take the traveling salesman
Synthesis can be extremely challenging, since it problem, for example. If the network
of cities grows by 1, the time needed
means choosing both the types and dimensions of
to solve the problem - that is,
links and joints – called type synthesis and construct the shortest route that
dimensional synthesis. Type synthesis is visits every city exactly once - is
sometimes referred to as number synthesis since multiplied by a factor of c, hence the
it determines the number of links in the time needed to find the route grows
mechanism. exponentially.
15
See, for example, page 612 of Advanced Mechanism Design, Volume 2, Erdman
and Sandor.
24
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
this. Motion generation involves guiding the entire body (or link) through a
prescribed sequence of motion. Consider the movement of the bucket of a
tipper machine. Not only must the bucket follow a particular path, the
rotation of the bucket must also be controlled.
Types of Analysis
Depending on the scenario being investigated, the analysis is classified as
one of the following:
• Kinematic – used if there are zero dofs in the system. That is,
all possible movements are specified either by joints or by
input motion.
The data required to construct the model, the methods used to solve the
problem, and the type of results that can be computed vary according to the
type of the analysis. The last chapter of this book, Glossary and References,
contains a table that summarizes these.
16
Eigenvalues are not discussed in this book. See the companion volume A
Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis for more details on how and why we
calculate eigenvalues.
25
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Quaternions and Euler Angles
Any spatial movement can be expressed as a combination of rotations and
translations along 3 axes. Rotations, unfortunately, are not commutative –
that is, the final configuration depends on the order of the rotations about
different axes.
Damping Coefficient
Vibrating bodies experience damping, a force that retards movement. While
this is sometimes an adverse affect, in other cases it can be useful – as in
the case of shock-absorbers on a car. Damping coefficients are hard to
characterize. Testing is frequently used to establish reliable values.
Numerical Integration
The differential equation of motion is
ma + cv + ku = p
17
Discovered, invented or defined by W.R.Hamilton in 1843. The utility of the
quaternion has been a subject of lively debate since then, but most engineers
encounter H, the set of all quaternions, named for the illustrious mathematician.
26
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
m&x& + cx& + kx = f (t )
du ∆u u j − ui
v= = =
dt ∆t t j − ti
Related Topics
Most mechanical components are relatively easy to deal with. You can touch,
see and feel the components, and what you see is at least an indicator of
what you will get. Electricity is less tangible18.
18
From an article by William J. Beaty. See http://amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html
27
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Understanding electrical systems is not essential for MBD, but can help when
working with the control of mechanisms. Electricity is a common means of
transmission of power, so in this section we’ll briefly review a few salient
aspects related to electrical actuation and control.
Transfer Function
A transfer function is simply an equation linking input and output of a
system. It is probably more common in electrical engineering than in
mechanical, but the principle is applicable to any system modeling.
For MBD systems, transfer functions are commonly used to represent the
effect of controllers – sensors and actuators, for example – which are often
electrical in nature.
The inner workings of motors are beyond the scope of our discussion, but it
is useful to be familiar with the characteristics of the most common types of
electrical motors. For example, you may need to calculate the time taken for
a motor to reach operating speed, to define the force-time variation in your
MBD model.
linked to the voltage and current. The disadvantage is that the brushes wear
out with usage. Brushless DC Motors (BLDCs) address this, but are even
more expensive.
Both these motors are less than ideal if position control is important. For
accurate position control, Servo or Stepper Motors are better choices. The
position of the armature of a servo motor is controlled by the electrical
input. They are widely used in robotics and radio-controlled toys. Stepper
motors are often used in open-loop systems.
Sensors
Applications in which precision is important usually use closed-loop control
systems. That is, the output values of parameters of interest are used to
decide the input signal. A sensor is a device that monitors the parameters of
interest.
Sensors often, but not always, use electrical signals. Gyrocompasses, for
instance, are mechanical devises that provide visual feedback.
Sampling Frequency
Sensors measure the parameters of interest. If the parameters vary with
time, the Nyquist criterion dictates the minimum sampling rate that should
be used. That is, if the interval between measurements is not small enough,
the sensed values will be unreliable.
PID Control
After acquiring the signal from a sensor, how should the input signal be
corrected? If we define the error as the difference between the sensed value
of the parameter and the desired value, positive feedback means input
signal is increased in proportion to the error while negative feedback means
the input signal is decreased in proportion to the error. This is called
Proportional control.
In some cases, the cumulative value of the error and the rate of change of
the error are also important. In this case, simple proportional control is not
enough. We also use Integral and Derivative control – that is, the input
signal is modified based on the integral of the error (thereby taking into
29
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
account the cumulative error) and the derivative of the error (which is
nothing but the rate of change of the error).
Closed loop systems often come with PID Controllers. These incorporate all
three elements – proportional, integral and derivative – and need to be
tuned. Depending on the actual situation, the gain for each measure of error
is chosen or adjusted.
… and Practice
Remember that MBD models are models of
physical systems. Their value lies in their ability
to represent the behavior of systems in the real “Conventional aerodynamics seemed to
suggest that the insect should not generate
world. The models, however, are built using
enough lift to fly. The bees stayed resolutely
theory, and as we know theory is always built airborne and the sums caused
on some assumptions19. As the bumble-bee consternation.
paradox illustrates, our knowledge of theory,
The underlying problem turned out to be
while powerful and useful, is far from complete.
treating a wing as if it was fixed, like in an
aeroplane and, thanks to studies over the
It’s important, therefore, to keep in mind the past few years, including the construction of
reasons that a model of the physical world can robotic bees, this "bumble-bee paradox" has
been solved: extra lift comes when flexible
differ from actual behavior.
insect wings slice through the air at a high
angle of attack, creating a large swirling
Precision Points vortex at their leading edge.
Consider, for instance, function generation. In this way, insect wings produce the
That is, you have to correlate the motion of vortices – spinning masses of air – which
input and output links. A 4-bar mechanism is generate lift and help them move. Today,
Prof Ismet Gursul of the University of Bath
often chosen because it can be synthesized
will describe another step on the way for
easily (relative to linkages with more links, that engineers to make air vehicles smaller than
is!), and is often easy to construct. a human hand that can be used for
Unfortunately, a 4-bar mechanism is not detecting chemicals leaks and
reconnaissance.”
capable of error-free generation of arbitrary
curves. Roger Highfield,
Science Editor
As an acceptable solution, we settle for The Telegraph
correlation at a selected set of points. These
points are called the precision points. The
location and spacing of these points can be
19
See Godel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid by D.R.Hofstadter for an
entertaining, challenging and comprehensive discussion of the Incompleteness
Theorem.
30
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced
Remember to keep this in mind when working with either the synthesis of a
mechanism or the verification of a proposed mechanism. Since a linkage
only has finite significant dimensions, there can only be a finite number of
precision points.
Designers, like the rest of the human race, have to live in a world that is less
than perfect. Data is not always available at the right time. It may be
insufficient. It may be unreliable. And so on.
To deal with this, one approach is to look for robust designs. In this
approach, we look for a design that will produce the required output even if
the specified inputs vary. Obviously, this is not always possible. This is
particularly true if we are looking for an optimum design – one that provides
the best possible performance at the least possible cost.
One approach in particular is very useful for MBD modeling: the method
called parameter identification21. This refers to the extraction of information
about a system using measured input-and-output data. It is particularly
useful when the transfer-function approach is used, or if a high degree of
abstraction is involved.
20
See Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis by G.N.Sandor and
A.G.Erdman for an excellent discussion.
21
Covered in the companion volume CAE and Design Optimization - Advanced
31
Theory: Basic, Essential and Advanced CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
32
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Working with MBD Models
MBD too falls under the umbrella of MCAE, particularly when the approach
or goal is to design a mechanism.
It’s only natural, then, for a designer to expect to follow the same approach:
to expect to use the 3D model as the starting point for MBD modeling and
analysis.
As we have seen in the previous chapter, solid models are indeed useful
when it comes to tasks like the calculation of the mass moments of inertia of
geometrically complex objects. But as we have also seen, a lot of
mechanisms-theory uses kinematic representations to perform various
calculations. In this approach, the detailed shape of the body is immaterial.
You only need to specify the locations of the nodes and the moments of
inertia of each of the links22.
22
Those familiar with FEM will recognize the parallel with beam elements.
33
Working with MBD Models CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
for many scenarios can be built without using any 3D graphics (of the
“shaded” variety) whatsoever.
A Control-System Approach
There are some elements, however, particularly those representing electrical
systems such as motors, where 3D graphics hurts more than it helps. It
makes little sense to take the effort of building even a representative model
of a motor when the only data to be visualized is the rotation of a shaft!
34
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Working with MBD Models
Once you understand the data required for the “primitives”, it is easy to
work forwards. Pay attention, therefore, not only to the building blocks
required, but also to the data that is required for these.
Bodies
A body is the same as a link. Graphics can be associated with a body if
required, but it’s not essential. The mass properties of the body are
essential. These properties consist of the mass and the 6 mass moments of
inertia and the coordinates of the center of gravity of the body.
Further, for a dynamic analysis, the initial velocity of the body must be
specified. The initial position is defined by the joints, while the accelerations
are computed as a part of the solution.
In some cases, the body may have no appreciable moment of inertia. This
occurs when the mass is so closely concentrated at the center of gravity
compared to the overall dimensions involved in the model.
Constraints or Joints
A joint represents a constraint on the bodies that are connected to it. A
revolute joint, for example, only leaves 1 dof free – the bodies can only
rotate with respect to each other about the axis of rotation of the joint.
The 6 lower pairs are essential for modeling. Higher pairs are not essential,
since they do not form a finite set. In the absence of available elements,
they can sometimes be constructed using combinations of other building
blocks.
Forces
A concentrated force, at its most basic, can de defined as a vector: the
magnitude, orientation and point of application are enough to completely
specify the force. Other forces, require more general definitions, since not all
forces can be modeled as point forces.
23
This aspect is covered in more detail subsequently.
35
Working with MBD Models CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
For modeling of physical systems, for instance, one force that is widely
required is gravity. In mechanics, gravity is called a body force since it acts
at all points in the body, and the force experienced by the body depends on
the distribution of mass within the body.
From a numerical-calculation point of view, the “smoother” the force is, the
easier it is to calculate the solution. The smoothness of a function is usually
measured by its continuity: a function with n derivates that exist is smoother
than one that has n-1 derivatives that exist.
Motions
A prescribed motion, strictly speaking, is a constraint: it removes the
necessity to calculate one or more dofs. Since the motion dictates how the
dofs move, the dofs are no longer “free”. Usually specified for a joint,
prescribed motion can be arbitrarily complex both in space and in time.
Sensors
In several situations the forces acting on the body depend on how it
responds to the force applied initially. It is not always reasonable to expect
the statement of the problem to specify the values of forces against time:
what the statement should include is what forces will be applied if certain
events taken place.
24
Strictly speaking, the derivative at these points is the Dirac Delta function, which
defines the integral of the derivative – not the derivative itself.
36
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Working with MBD Models
Controllers
Control systems are usually defined by transfer functions. The transfer
function can be quite complex, but broadly fall into two categories: SISO
and MIMO. The former is short for Single-Input-Single-Output, while the
latter stands for Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output.
Reference Entities
Coordinate systems are critical in MBD analyses. Displacements of bodies
are almost always large, so bodies may change orientation during the period
of interest. We know that properties like the moments of inertia are strongly
dependent on the coordinate system used.
User routines
While not essential, user routines are often useful, particularly if the
behavior of a design-entity needs to be protected from external scrutiny. If a
user-routine is used, it is often saved as a Dynamic Link Library (or DLL)
that is called by the MBD solver at each time step.
Other Entities
Design-chains nowadays consist of an Original Equipment Manufacturer
(OEM) and several levels of suppliers, often called Tier-1 suppliers, Tier-2
suppliers, and so on in decreasing order of design complexity, with
component suppliers at the end of the chain.
Solution Control
The first part of the MBD-Simulation cycle involves building the model. The
second part, which we have largely taken for granted in our discussion,
relates to the methods used to solve the equations of motion. A complete
discussion of the various methodologies employed is beyond the scope of
this book, but one aspect is worth discussing.
37
Working with MBD Models CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Stability and accuracy are a little harder both to understand and to measure.
A stable method need not be accurate, while a method can be unstable and
still yield accurate results at particular combinations of circumstances. To
understand this, reflect for a moment on which you would rather have – a
watch that has stopped or a watch that loses 5 seconds a day? The former
is 100% accurate twice a day, but you have no idea when. The latter gets
more and more inaccurate as time passes, but you can always tell how
inaccurate it is, and therefore correct accordingly.
25
Monotonic convergence of series is a related topic.
38
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Working with MBD Models
Validation consists of asking whether the right equations have been solved.
Data like the coefficient of restitution or the coefficients of friction should not
be taken for granted. It is always sensible to check the design for
performance over a range of values, rather than for single values of data.
The answer, of course, lies in a judicious mix of theory and practice. A test
can suggest values, but tests are rarely repeatable. A wise designer would
first check the theory underlying the model used in the solver, then “tune”
the model by selecting a value that does a good job of reproducing the test
results without violating the assumptions implicit in the theory. System
Identification and Design Of Experiment are techniques well suited to this
task26.
Optimization
The Monaco Grand Prix, an annual event that is one of
the more celebrated races on the Formula 1 circuit, puts
drivers and their racers on the streets of Monaco. Normal
traffic is off the roads, of course, while the drivers attain
speeds that are breathtaking even to the casual observer.
For engineers on the design teams, they represent a
formidable challenge.
MBD tools help calculate critical parameters such as the lateral forces on the
tires, of course, but it’s not enough to just predict the values. What the
Formula 1 driver, who’s pitting his or her life against equally skilled and
competitive drivers, needs is an optimum design. Stories of losing drivers
26
Both are discussed in the companion volume CAE and Design Optimization -
Advanced
39
Working with MBD Models CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Fortunately for the health of design engineers, not all MBD designs are so
demanding. But in a competitive marketplace, the struggle to design better
products cheaper and faster is never ending. Techniques to achieve such
designs are discussed in the other books27 in this series.
27
See CAE and Design Optimization – Basics and CAE and Design Optimization –
Advanced
40
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics MBD Simulation with HyperWorks
With this background, let’s look at the problem from a HyperWorks point of
view.
28
See A Designer’s Guide to Finite Element Analysis – Student Project Summaries for
an example of how HyperMesh can be used for the analysis of flexible MBD systems.
41
MBD Simulation with HyperWorks CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Since our goal is to see how MBD theory and MBD practice come together,
we will restrict our attention to MotionSolve. If you’re comfortable with Finite
Element Analysis, the companion volumes in this series discuss the use of
OptiStruct for MBD problems.
42
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics MBD Simulation with HyperWorks
29
MDL files can be encrypted, to protect their contents.
43
MBD Simulation with HyperWorks CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
In the MDL syntax, the name is used by other MDL statements, while the
label is used in the interactive-editor. For example, in the annotated MDL
file, the name of the point defined on line 3 (p_pendu_cm) is used in the
link definition on line 4. In MotionView, you would see it referred to by its
label (that is, as Pendulum CM).
You will see that there are two types of statements for each entity. The first
names it, the second assigns data to it. The definition statement must
always precede the assignation statement, of course. It is customary, but
not essential, to group all definition statements followed by all assignment
statements. It is also customary, but not essential, that names follow a
pattern. This makes it easier to read an MDL file, as you will have to from
time to time. In the annotated example, the first letter of the variable name
indicates its type – p for points, b for bodies, and so on.
Note that the “ball” of the pendulum is not modeled as a link at all from a
kinematic point of view. To make the graphic display realistic, however,
graphic primitives are assigned to the link. In general, graphics can be
assigned either from predefined primitives (such as the cylinder and sphere
used in the example) or by importing graphics from files. The latter is
common for complex geometry, and ways to do this are covered in the
accompanying projects.
44
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics MBD Simulation with HyperWorks
A complete list of the entities and their properties is contained in the online
documentation. The table below summarizes some of the more commonly
used entities.
Several more entities – joints, bodies, forces, etc. – are supported. See the
online documentation for details.
30
These are called PTSF and PTCV constraints, respectively.
45
MBD Simulation with HyperWorks CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
MotionSolve does not read MDL or MVW files. Instead, MotionView creates
an XML file that is used as input by MotionSolve. Several different output
files can be generated. The important ones are:
Familiarity with the mathematics is, of course, essential for proper choice of
these settings. The online documentation and the references listed at the
end of this book are a good place to cover these topics.
One warning, however, is that the default settings work well for a wide
range of physically realistic problems. That is, for problems where the
properties of various entities in the system are realistic. Entering
meaningless values, or neglecting to check for consistency in units are the
first things to check for if MotionSolve fails to converge.
Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make
mistakes.
Mahatma Gandhi
47
Advanced Topics CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Advanced Topics
Modeling physical systems can be extremely satisfying, but it is quite a
challenging task. As Tom Clancy put it31, “The difference between fiction and
reality? Fiction has to make sense.”
Flexibility
When asked “Is light a particle or a wave?”, Einstein is supposed to have
answered, wholly seriously, “Yes”. Wondering whether a body is rigid or
flexible is a similar question, and deserves the same answer.
The sheer complexity of including the effects of the elasticity of links has led
to the widely used assumption of rigid links but that is not always accurate
enough.
Compliant Joints
The pin-joint in a link can be a major source of error, as any designer who
has analyzed tolerance stackup can attest. As we have seen, designers
usually try to reduce the number of links in a chain. In some applications
such as the “scissor linkage” or in several open loop mechanisms, however,
the number of links is deliberately large. In cases like these, or in case
where precision is extremely important, including the compliance of a joint
in the model can make a significant difference.
31
In a similar vein, Mark Twain observed that “It's no wonder that truth is stranger
than fiction. Fiction has to make sense.”
48
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Advanced Topics
Compliant Links
An interest in high precision makes it preferable that the deflection of the
links because of elastic deformation be included in the model. In
mechanisms that involve bodies of different materials, some materials may
be much less stiff than others – which means the stiffer ones can be
considered rigid, while the more flexible ones should, preferably, be
compliant.
One challenge, of course, is that the very approaches of FEM and MBD are
different. One uses a distributed model while the other uses a lumped
model. The first results in partial differential equations while the latter yields
ordinary differential equations.
But there is one approach, used even in “pure” FEA to reduce the size of the
problem, that allows us to elegantly mix the two methods. Called
Component Mode Synthesis (CMS), it involves representing a set of
elements as a black-box. That is, the set of elements is reduced to a matrix,
the size of which is defined by the number of modes that are employed in
the abstraction. A complete discussion of the theory of the method is
beyond the scope of this book. An excellent description that is both
complete and very comprehensible can be found in Structural Dynamics, by
R.R.Craig32.
32
The Craig-Bampton and Craig-Chang methods, the most widely used CMS
methods, both bear his name.
49
Advanced Topics CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Contact
The very nature of MBD means that in many cases bodies move through
large distances during the periods of interest. The movement may cause
contact to occur between different bodies, or between different surfaces of
the same body. In turn, the contacts give rise to forces.
The problem, then, is for the simulation tool to figure out whether contact
has been made or contact has been broken. This necessarily complicates the
MBD modeling approach, since such a calculation is based on a knowledge
of where one body ends and another begins. In other words, the definitions
of the surfaces that make up the outer volumes of the bodies are essential.
This is quite a departure from the approach we have seen so far, where the
surface definitions of the body are dispensable for the calculations. In the
absence of contact, the inclusion of the surfaces is mainly to aid
visualization.
There’s another bit of data that makes a larger difference to the solution
than the COR. And unfortunately, is even harder to characterize. This is the
coefficient of friction.
50
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Advanced Topics
F = µ • RN
where µ is the coefficient of friction, and RN is the normal reaction at the
point or surface of contact.
33
In the journal Nature (413, 285-288, 20 September 2001)
51
Advanced Topics CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Control Systems
In 196os, several spacecraft, the Ranger series, were
dispatched to explore the surface of the moon. The craft
were supposed to rough-land on the moon, so needed some
way to stabilize and control their descent from second-stage
ejection till the lunar landing. Signals from Earth were used to
control the system, but one of the problems34 in particular is
relevant to our discussion.
34
Described here in simplified terms
52
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Advanced Topics
m&x& + cx& + kx = f (t )
x& = v
( m)x − (b m)v
v& = f (t ) − k
Here, x and v are the state variables, and the set of equations involves only
first derivatives of the state variables. (The second equation is obtained from
the equilibrium equation by simple substitution for x& and &x& , followed by
rearrangement of terms to leave only v& on the left hand side).
Laplace Transforms
The Laplace transform of a function is defined by the equation
∞
Y ( s ) = L( y (t )) = ∫ y (τ )e − sτ dτ
0
53
Advanced Topics CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
L[r (t ) + s (t )] = L[r (t )] + L( s (t )}
Block Diagrams
The Laplace transform of the transfer functions of the various elements of a
control-loop are usually represented by a block diagram, such as that shown
below:
With MotionView and MotionSolve, you can include control systems in your
model, though not as a block diagram. Look up the online documentation for
MotionSolve for details on how to build MBD models that include Single-
Input-Single-Output (SISO) and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
systems using the Laplace transform and state-space representations.
Two higher-pairs that are extremely common are cams and gears.
Cams
A cam rotates about an axis and pushes a follower. The cam usually rotates
at a uniform speed, and the profile of the cam is chosen so as to deliver the
required motion to the follower. There are various classifications of both
cams and followers, most of which reflect the topology or shape of the
respective elements36. The follower is usually spring loaded to ensure that it
stays in contact with the cam all through the rotation cycle.
1. the profile the cam should have to achieve a required motion – the rise,
dwell and return
2. the velocities and accelerations of the follower, and the resulting forces
on the various components in the assembly
The first is usually the more interesting problem, but the second is no less
challenging. Sometimes the cam profile is determined to match a specified
follower-motion, but such cams can be expensive to manufacture. Often a
predetermined cam profile is chosen and the follower of the motion is to be
determined so that the design of the rest of the assembly can be tailored
accordingly. In 4-stroke IC engines, for instance, designers need to
determine the forces on the tappet.
Positive Return Cam,
from the KMODDL
The joint between the cam and its follower is maintained by contact. General
contact can be used, but this approach is subject to the difficulties discussed
above, in the section on Contact. It is usually more computationally efficient
to use point-to-curve (PTCV) or point-to-surface (PTSF) constraints. This
approach does sacrifice some of the generality offered by a full-fledged
contact model. For instance, the PTCV constraint does not allow for contact
to be broken. But at the concept design stage, the analysis is usually a
kinematic analysis, since the goal is to derive the required profile of the cam.
Once this is done constraints like the PTCV can be used to verify that there
35
MotionView provides support both for bushes and for programmatic control. See
the companion volume Managing the CAE Process – Basics.
36
Details can be found in any undergraduate-text on Machine Design.
55
Advanced Topics CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
has been no loss of contact. If there is indeed loss of contact, full fledged
contact modeling is essential.
Contact between the cam and follower can break if the spring-load is not
enough to compensate for the inertial forces (that is, forces due to the
accelerations the bodies experience). In engine-design this commonly called
valve float, because cams are mainly used in the engine to control the valve-
timing of four-stroke engines. The term lift-off is also used in several
applications.
Gears
There are two distinct problems posed by gears, which serve to transmit
torque between different axes of rotation.
The other main class of problems deals with the design of the gear train
itself. Gear trains range from the aptly named simple gear trains to the
amazingly complex epicyclic gear trains. In these cases, analyzing the
motion of the output shaft and calculating the ratio of input and output
torques are the main areas of interest. An excellent range of models and
animations at the KMODDL shows how complex the motion of gear trains
can be. The images of a 4-bar mechanism with two gears, taken from an
animation at the KMODDL, illustrate how complex the motion can be.
Designers of planetary gear trains need to calculate the loads on each gear.
Several gearboxes allow for multiple inversions of the gear train – that is,
different gears are held “fixed” to generate different motion. MBD models go
a long way towards eliminating the tedium and error in this demanding task.
MBD models also make it easier to estimate the efficiency of the gear train.
A detailed discussion of this aspect is beyond the scope of this book37.
37
See, for instance, Gear Handbook: The Design, Manufacture, and Application of
Gears by Dudley, D
56
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Advanced Topics
Epicyclic gears are over 300 years old, and are widely used today in a
variety of applications, ranging from almost all propeller and turbine driven
aircraft to lawn-mowers. While they are more challenging to design, the
present a host of advantages, principally a lower weight and volume.
Calculating the efficiency of the gear train is an important but tedious task
even for gears whose axes of rotation are fixed, like the worm-driven helical-
rack-and-pinion shown alongside38.
If everything seems under control, you're just not going fast enough
Mario Andretti
38
This image too, is from a model at the KMODDL.
57
Glossary and References CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
Other Resources
www.altair-india.com/edu, which is periodically updated, contains case
studies of actual usage. It also carries tips on software usage.
Types of Analyses
The table below39, is a convenient way to summarize the types of analyses,
the data required for each, the principles involved in finding the solutions,
and the types of results that can be calculated.
Method
Statics Kinetostatics Dynamics
39
From Advanced Mechanism Design, Erdman and Sandor
58
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Glossary and References
Weight of links
Masses / may be required
Required Required
Inertias but the inertia is
not
Specified in
Input
terms of
Information Specified at
Loading Specified position,
and each position
velocity, and /
assumptions
or time
Position,
Positions velocity and
Motion Unknown
specified acceleration
specified
Position,
Force required to Force required velocity and
balance load, to sustain acceleration of
mechanical assumed each member
Output Information
advantage at motion, as a function
each position, reactions in of time – that
reactions in joints joints is, the actual
motion
D’Alembert’s
Differential
Statics, Linear principle,
Required analytical tools equations of
Algebra statics, linear
motion
algebra
However this reliance on CAD calculations often leads to mistakes which can
critically affect the analysis. The most common mistake is to forget that the
Moments of Inertia are strongly orientation dependent. A moment’s
reflection will remind you that this is only to be expected, since Mass
Moments of Inertia are related to angular acceleration by40
T = Iα
40
Similar to F = ma for linear acceleration. Look up Euler’s Equations of Motion for a
more complete treatment of the variables involved.
59
Glossary and References CAE and Multi Body Dynamics
I xx = ∫∫∫ ( y 2 + z 2 )dm
I yy = ∫∫∫ ( x 2 + z 2 )dm
I zz = ∫∫∫ ( y 2 + x 2 )dm
I xy = ∫∫∫ z 2 dm
I xz = ∫∫∫ y 2 dm
I yz = ∫∫∫ x 2 dm
Ix
rx =
mass
When you build a model, it’s useful to run a first analysis with approximate
bodies – cylinders, boxes, etc. – both to reduce computation time and to
verify that the range that the properties lie in is acceptable to the Solver’s
default settings.
The Moments of Inertia of some “primitives” are listed below. All the values
are about the center of gravity. Refer to any text on Statics for details – see,
for example, Theoretical Mechanics by P.F.Smith and W.R.Longley. Note that
the units are mass*length2. In SI units, therefore, the mass moment of
inertia would be in kg-m2.
Mass moments of inertia should not be confused with the area moments of
inertia, used for example in the formulae for beam bending. The area
moment of inertia uses a different formula, and has the units m4.
60
CAE and Multi Body Dynamics Glossary and References
Cylinder with open ends
The z axis is along the axis of the cylinder. The x and y axes are any
diameters.
1
Iz = m(r1 + r2 )
2 2
2
1
I x = I y = m(3r1 + 3r2 + h 2 )
2 2
12
where m is the mass, r1 is the inner diameter, r2 is the outer diameter, and h
is the height.
Solid Sphere
2mr 2
I=
5
Cuboid
1
Ih = m( w 2 + d 2 )
12
1
I d = m( w 2 + h 2 )
12
1
I w = m( h 2 + d 2 )
12
where m is the mass, and h, d and w are the dimensions along the 3
principal directions. The origin of the 3 axes is at the center of mass of the
cuboid.
Coefficient Of Friction
Material 1 Material 2 Dry Greasy
Static Sliding St at ic Sliding
Aluminum Aluminum 1.05- 1.4 0.3
Aluminum Mild Steel 0.61 0.47
Brake Material Cast Iron 0.4
Brake Material Cast Iron (Wet) 0.2
Bronze Cast Iron 0.22
Bronze Steel 0.16
Cadmium Cadmium 0.5 0.05
Cadmium Mild Steel 0.46
Cast Iron Cast Iron 1.1 0.15 0.07
Chromium Chromium 0.41 0.34
Copper Cast Iron 1.05 0.29
Copper Copper 1.0 0.08
Copper Mild Steel 0.53 0.36 0.18
Copper Steel 0.8
Copper Steel (304 stainless) 0.23 0.21
Copper-Lead Alloy Steel 0.22 -
Glass Glass 0.9 - 1.0 0.4 0.1 - 0.09-
Glass Metal 0.5 - 0.7 0.2 -
Glass Nickel 0.78 0.56
Graphite Steel 0.1 0.1
Plexiglas Plexiglas 0.8 0.8
Plexiglas Steel 0.4 - 0.5 0.4 -
Polystyrene Polystyrene 0.5 0.5
Steel Brass 0.35 0.19
Steel Cast Iron 0.4 0.21
Steel Phos Bros 0.35
Steel(Hard) Polystyrene 0.3-0.35 0.3-
Steel (Mild) Steel (Mild) 0.74 0.57 0.09-
Steel(Hard) Steel (Hard) 0.78 0.42 0.05 - 0.029-
Teflon Steel 0.04 0.04 0.04
Teflon Teflon 0.04 0.04 0.04
62