VOLTAGE SAGS MITIGATION TECHNIQUES ANALYSIS

NORSHAFINASH BINTI SAUDIN

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Electrical Power)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

JUNE 2007

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Electrical Power)

Signature Name Date

: : :

... Dr. Ahmad Safawi Bin Mokhtar 18 June 2007

ii

I declare that this thesis entitled Voltage Sags Mitigation Techniques Analysis is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature Name Date

: : :

. Norshafinash Binti Saudin 18 June 2007

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To my beloved husband

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to Allah S.W.T. for giving me the opportunity to complete this Masters Project. I am deeply indebted to individuals who, directly or indirectly, are responsible for this project.

I am most grateful to the most kindheartedness supervisor Dr Ahmad Safawi bin Mokhtar for his guidance in this project and to panel of seminar presentation, PM. Dr. Mohd Wazir bin Mustafa and PM. Md. Shah Majid, with their superior guidance, information and ideas for this project become abundance.

My admiration falls upon En. Saudin bin Mat, my father, and especially to my mother, Pn. Siah binti Taharin for them to bear with me my absence in the family. Your encouragement, pray and support are very much appreciated.

I would also like to express my sincere thanks to my entire friend for their support and ideas during the development of the project.

And last but not the least, to my husband, thanks.

ABSTRACT

For some decades, power quality did not cause any problem, because it had no effect on most of the loads connected to the electric distribution system. When an induction motor is subjected to voltage sag, the motor still operates but with a lower output until the sag ends. With the increased use of sophisticated electronics, high efficiency variable speed drive, and power electronic controller, power quality has become an increasing concern to utilities and customers. Voltage sags is the most common type of power quality disturbance in the distribution system. It can be caused by fault in the electrical network or by the starting of a large induction motor. Although the electric utilities have made a substantial amount of investment to improve the reliability of the network, they cannot control the external factor that causes the fault, such as lightning or accumulation of salt at a transmission tower located near to sea. This project intends to investigate mitigation technique that is suitable for different type of voltage sags source with different type of loads. The simulation will be using PSCAD/EMTDC software. The mitigation techniques that will be studied are such as Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) and Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS). All the mitigation techniques will be tested on different type of faults. The analysis will focus on the effectiveness of these techniques in mitigating the voltage sags. The study will also investigate the effects of using the techniques to phase shift. At the end of the project it is expected that a few suggestions can be made on the suitability of the techniques.

vi

ABSTRAK

Beberapa dekad yang lalu, kualiti kuasa tidak menjadi permasalahan kerana ia tidak memberi kesan yang sangat nyata kepada beban yang bersambung dengan sistem pengagihan. Apabila motor aruhan mengalami voltan lendut, motor tersebut masih berfungsi tetapi dengan keluaran yang lebih rendah sehingga kejatuhan voltan tamat. Walau bagaimanapun, dengan peningkatan penggunaan peralatan elektronik yang maju, pemacu pelbagai halaju berkecekapan tinggi, dan pengawal elektronik kuasa, kualiti kuasa mula menjadi perhatian kepada utiliti dan pelanggan. Di mana, voltan lendut adalah gangguan kualiti kuasa yang seringkali terjadi terhadap sistem pengagihan yang disebabkan oleh kerosakan pada rangkaian elektrik dan pemulaan yang besar untuk motor aruhan. Walaupun utiliti telah membuat pelaburan untuk memperbaiki keboleharapan rangkaian, faktor luaran yang menyebabkan kerosakan masih tidak dapat dikawal, contohnya kilat dan pengumpulan garam pada menara penghantaraan yang terletak berhampiran dengan laut. Oleh itu, projek ini bertujuan mengkaji kesesuaian teknik mitigasi untuk pelbagai punca voltan lendut pada beban yang berbeza di mana perisian PSCAD/EMTDC digunakan sebagai bantuan untuk simulasi. Teknik - teknik mitigasi yang dikaji adalah seperti Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM), dan Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS). Teknik - teknik ini akan diuji dengan pelbagai kerosakan yang menyebabkan voltan lendut. Tumpuan akan diberikan kepada keberkesanan teknik-teknik tersebut untuk mengatasi voltan lendut dan kesannya terhadap anjakan fasa. Di akhir projek ini, beberapa cadangan akan diutarakan berkenaan kesesuaian teknik - teknik tersebut digunakan untuk mengatasai voltan lendut.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF APPENDICES

ii iii iv v vi vii xi xii xv xvi

INTRODUCTION

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Introduction Problem Statement Project Objectives Project Scope

1 3 6 6

viii

II

VOLTAGE SAGS

2.1 2.2 2.3

Introduction Definition of Voltage Sags Standards Associated with Voltage Sags 2.3.1 IEEE Standard 2.3.2 Industry Standard 2.3.2.1 SEMI 2.3.2.2 CBEMA (ITI) Curve

7 8 9 10 12 12 14 15 15 17 18

2.4

General Causes and Effects of Voltage Sags 2.4.1 Voltage Sags due to Faults 2.4.2 Voltage Sags due to Motor Starting 2.4.3 Voltage Sags due to Transformer Energizing

III

PSCAD/EMTDC SOFTWARE

19

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Introduction Characteristics of Software Example of Circuit Conclusion

19 20 22 25

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IV

VOLTAGE SAG MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

26

4.1 4.2

Introduction Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) 4.2.1 Principles of DVR Operation

26 28 28 30

4.3

Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) 4.2.1 Basic Configuration and Function of DSTATCOM

31 34 35

4.4

Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS) 4.4.1 Basic Configuration and Function of SSTS

MITIGATION TECNIQUES REALIZATION

39

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Sinusoidal PWM-Based Control Scheme Test System Dynamic Voltage Restorer Distribution Static Compensator Solid State Transfer Switch

39 42 43 45 47

VI

SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

49

6.1 6.2

Test case Single line to ground fault 6.2.1 Phase A to ground 6.2.2 Phase B to ground 6.2.3 Phase C to ground

49 50 50 56 59 62 62 67 70 73

6.3

Double lines to ground fault 6.3.1 Phase A and B to ground 6.3.2 Phase A and C to ground 6.3.3 Phase B and C to ground

6.4

Conclusion

VII

CONCLUSION

74

7.1 7.2

Conclusion Suggestion

74 77

REFERENCES Appendices A-C

78 81-85

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

1.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Cause of TNB network disruption. (a) Test results for line A to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result. (a) Test results for line B to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result. (a) Test results for line C to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result. (a) Test results for line AB to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result. (a) Test results for line AC to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result. (a) Test results for line BC to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result.

4 5 8 1 6 9 2

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

1.1

Demarcation of the various power quality issues defined by IEEE Std. 1159-1995 2 9

2.1 2.2

Depiction of voltage sag Immunity curve for semiconductor manufacturing equipment according to SEMI F47

13 14 16 17 18 23 24

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 4.1

Revised CBEMA curve, ITIC curve, 1996 Voltage sag due to a cleared line-ground fault Voltage sag due to motor starting Voltage sag due to transformer energizing DVR with main components in PSCAD The Wye-Connected DVR in PSCAD Different protection options for improving performance during power quality variation.

27

4.2

Principle of DVR with a response time of less than one millisecond 29

4.3

Schematic diagram of the DSTATCOM as a custom power controller 30 32 33

4.4 4.5

Building blocks of DSTATCOM Operation modes of a DSTATCOM

xiii 4.6 4.7 4.8 Schematic representations of the SSTS as a custom power device. 34 Solid State Transfer Switch systems Thyristors of the SSTS conducting in the positive and negative half cycle of the preferred source. 4.9 Thyristors on the alternate supply are turned ON on sensing a disturbance on the preferred source. 5.1 Control scheme for the test system implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC to carry out the DSTATCOM and DVR simulations. 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 The test system implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC One line diagram of the DVR test system Schematic diagram of the DVR Schematic diagram of the test system with DVR connected to the system. 5.6 5.7 One line diagram of the DSTATCOM test system. Schematic diagram of the test system with DSTATCOM connected to the system. 5.8 5.9 5.10 One line diagram of the SSTS test system. SSTS switches implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC Schematic diagram of the test system with SSTS connected to the system. 6.1 (a) Phase shift for line A to the ground fault (b) Rms voltage drop 6.2 (a) Corrected phase with DVR (b) Compensated voltage sag with DVR 6.3 (a) Corrected phase using DSTATCOM (b) Compensated voltage sag using DSTATCOM 6.4 (a) Corrected phase using SSTS (b) Compensated voltage sag using SSTS 6.5 Phase shift of line B to the ground fault. 54 56 53 51 50 48 46 47 48 44 45 40 42 43 44 38 37 35

xiv

6.6

(a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line B to the ground fault. 57 59

6.7 6.8

Phase shift of line B to the ground fault. (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line C to the ground fault.

60

6.9

(a) Phase shift for line A and B to the ground fault (b) Rms voltage drop 63

6.10

(a) Phase correction using DVR, (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line A and B to the ground fault. 64

6.11

(a) Compensated voltage sag using DVR (b) Compensated voltage sag using DSTATCOM; Line A and B to the ground fault. 65 67

6.12 6.13

Phase shift for line A and C to the ground fault (a) Phase correction using DVR, (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line A and C to the ground fault.

68 70

6.14 6.15

Phase shift for line B and C to the ground fault. (a) Phase correction using DVR, (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line B and C to the ground fault.

71

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CBEMA

Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association Distribution Static Compensator Dynamic Voltage Restorer Electromagnetic Transient Program with DC Analysis Electronic Restart Modules Hertz International Electrotechnical Commission Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Information Technology Industry Council kilovolt megavolt ampere mega volt amps reactive megawatt per unit point of common coupling Power System Aided Design Pulse Width Modulation root mean square Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International Solid State Transfer Switch Tenaga Nasional Berhad transient recovery voltage

DSTATCOM DVR EMTDC ERM Hz IEC IEEE ITIC kV MVA MVAR MW p.u. PCC PSCAD PWM RMS SEMI SSTS TNB TRV -

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

A B C

Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for DSTATCOM Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for DVR Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for SSTS

81 83 85

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

Both electric utilities and end users of electrical power are becoming increasingly concerned about the quality of electric power. The term power quality has become one of the most prolific buzzword in the power industry since the late 1980s [1]. The issue in electricity power sector delivery is not confined to only energy efficiency and environment but more importantly on quality and continuity of supply or power quality and supply quality. Electrical Power quality is the degree of any deviation from the nominal values of the voltage magnitude and frequency. Power quality may also be defined as the degree to which both the utilization and delivery of electric power affects the performance of electrical equipment [2]. From a customer perspective, a power quality problem is defined as any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in power failure or disoperation of customer of equipment [3].

2 Power quality problems concerning frequency deviation are the presence of harmonics and other departures from the intended frequency of the alternating supply voltage. On the other hand, power quality problems concerning voltage magnitude deviations can be in the form of voltage fluctuations, especially those causing flicker. Other voltage problems are the voltage sags, short interruptions and transient over voltages. Transient over voltage has some of the characteristics of high-frequency phenomena. In a three-phase system unbalanced voltages also is a power quality problem [2]. Among them, two power quality problems have been identified to be of major concern to the customers are voltage sags and harmonics, but this project will be focusing on voltage sags.

Figures 1.1 describe the demarcation of the various power quality issues defined by IEEE Std. 1159-1995. [4]

Figure 1.1

Demarcation of the various power quality issues defined by IEEE Std. 1159-1995[4]

Three factors that are driving interest and serious concerns in power quality are [1]:

i.

Increased load sensitivity and production automation. The focus on power quality is therefore more of voltage quality as the momentary drop in voltage disrupts automated manufacturing processes.

ii.

Automation and efficiency relies on digital components which requires dc supply. As public utilities supply ac power, dc power supplies powered by ac are needed by the dc loads.

iii.

As more dc power supply are needed the converters that convert ac to dc cause harmonics to be injected into the system and hence reduce wave form quality

1.2

Problem Statement

With the increased use of sophisticated electronics, high efficiency variable speed drive, and power electronic controller, power quality has become an increasing concern to utilities and customers. Voltage sags is the most common type of power quality disturbance in the distribution system. It can be caused by fault in the electrical network or by the starting of a large induction motor. Although the electric utilities have made a substantial amount of investment to improve the reliability of the network, they cannot control the external factor that causes the fault, such as lightning or accumulation of salt at a transmission tower located near to sea.

4 Meanwhile during short circuits, bus voltages throughout the supply network are depressed, severities of which are dependent of the distance from each bus to point where the short circuit occurs. After clearance of the fault by the protective system the voltages return to their new steady state values. Part of the circuit that is cleared will suffer supply disruption or blackout. Thus in general a short circuit will cause voltage sags throughout the system but cause blackout to a small portion of the network [1].

A comprehensive study on the cost of losses due to power quality problem has not been carried out yet. However, it has been reported that a petrochemical based industries customer in the Tenaga Nasional Berhad, Malaysia system can lose up to RM164,000 (US$43,000) per incident related to power quality problem due to voltage sag. Another semiconductor-based industry in the Klang Valley has estimated the loss of RM5million for the year 2000. Other types of industries such the cement and garment industries in Malaysia have also reported huge losses due power quality problems. One cement plant has reported an average loss of RM300, 000 per incident [2].

Table 1.1

Cause of TNB network disruption [2]

In general, voltage sags can causes:

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.

Motor load to stall/stop Digital devices to reset causing loss of data Equipment damage and/or failure Materials Spoilage Lost production due to downtime Additional costs Product reworks Product quality impacts Impacts on customer relations such as late delivery and lost of sales Cost of investigations into problem

Therefore, this project intends to investigate mitigation technique that is suitable for different type of voltage sags source with different type of loads.

6 1.3 Project Objectives

The objectives of this project are:

i.

To investigate suitable mitigation techniques for different type of voltage sags source that connected to linear and non-linear load.

ii. iii.

To simulate and analyze the techniques using PSCAD/EMTDC software. To observe the effect on the characteristic of voltage sag such as the magnitude and phase shift for each techniques.

iv.

To make a few suggestions on the suitability of such techniques used for both type of loads.

1.4

Project Scope

The scopes for the project are:

i.

Mitigation techniques that will be studied a. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), b. Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM), c. Solid State Transfers Switch (SSTS), and

ii. iii.

All techniques will be tested on different type of loads. Analysis will focus on effectiveness of each techniques in mitigating the voltage sags

CHAPTER II

VOLTAGE SAGS

2.1

Introduction

Voltage sags are huge problems for many industries, and it is probably the most pressing power quality problem today. Voltage sags may cause tripping and large torque peaks in electrical machines. Tripping is caused by under voltage protection or over current protection. These two protections operate independently. Large torque peaks may cause damage to the shaft or equipment connected to the shaft. Some common reason for voltage sags are lightning strikes in power lines, equipment failures, accidental contact power lines, and electrical machine starts. Despite being a short duration between 10 milliseconds to 1 second event during which a reduction in the RMS voltage magnitude takes place, a small reduction in the system voltage can cause serious consequences [5].

8 2.2 Definition of Voltage Sags

The definition of voltage sags is often set based on two parameters, magnitude or depth and duration. However, these parameters are interpreted differently by various sources. Other important parameters that describe voltage sags are:

i. ii.

the point-on-wave where the voltage sags occurs, and how the phase angle changes during the voltage sag. A phase angle jump during a fault is due to the change of the X/R-ratio. The phase angle jump is a problem especially for power electronics using phase or zero-crossing switching.

The voltage sags as defined by IEEE Standard 1159, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality, is a decrease in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute, reported as the remaining voltage. Typical values are between 0.1 p.u. and 0.9 p.u., and typical fault clearing times range from three to thirty cycles depending on the fault current magnitude and the type of over current detection and interruption [4].

Terminology used to describe the magnitude of voltage sag is often confusing. The recommended terminology according to IEEE Std. 1159 is the sag to 20%, which means that line voltage is reduced to 20% of normal value. Another definition as given in IEEE Std. 1159, 3.1.73 is A variation of the RMS value of the voltage from nominal voltage for a time greater than 0.5 cycles of the power frequency but less than or equal to 1 minute. Usually further described using a modifier indicating the magnitude of a voltage variation (e.g. sag, swell, or interruption) and possibly a modifier indicating the duration of the variation (e.g., instantaneous, momentary, or temporary). Figure 2.1 shows the rectangular depiction of the voltage sag.

Figure 2.1

Depiction of voltage sag

2.3

Standards Associated with Voltage Sags

Standards associated with voltage sags are intended to be used as reference documents describing single components and systems in a power system. Both the manufacturers and the buyers use these standards to meet better power quality requirements. Manufactures develop products meeting the requirements of a standard, and buyers demand from the manufactures that the product comply with the standard [2].

The most common standards dealing with power quality are the ones issued by IEEE, IEC, CBEMA, and SEMI. A brief description of each of the standards is provided in next subtopic.

10 2.3.1 IEEE Standard

The Technical Committees of the IEEE societies and the Standards Coordinating Committees of IEEE Standards Board develop IEEE standards. The IEEE standards associated with voltage sags are given below [4].

IEEE 446-1995, IEEE recommended practice for emergency and standby power systems for industrial and commercial applications range of sensibility loads

The standard discusses the effect of voltage sags on sensitive equipment, motor starting, etc. It shows principles and examples on how systems shall be designed to avoid voltage sags and other power quality problems when backup system operates.

IEEE 493-1990, Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and commercial power systems

The standard proposes different techniques to predict voltage sag characteristics, magnitude, duration and frequency. There are mainly three areas of interest for voltage sags. The different areas can be summarized as follows [4]:

i.

Calculating voltage sag magnitude by calculating voltage drop at critical load with knowledge of the network impedance, fault impedance and location of fault.

ii.

By studying protection equipment and fault clearing time it is possible to estimate the duration of the voltage sag.

11 iii. Based on reliable data for the neighborhood and knowledge of the system parameters an estimation of frequency of occurrence can be made.

IEEE 1100-1999, IEEE recommended practice for powering and grounding electronic equipment

This standard presents different monitoring criteria for voltage sags and has a chapter explaining the basics of voltage sags. It also explains the background and application of the CBEMA (ITI) curves. It is in some parts very similar to Std. 1159 but not as specific in defining different types of disturbances.

IEEE 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality

The purpose of this standard is to describe how to interpret and monitor electromagnetic phenomena properly. It provides unique definitions for each type of disturbance.

IEEE 1250-1995, IEEE guide for service to equipment sensitive to momentary voltage disturbances

This standard describes the effect of voltage sags on computers and sensitive equipment using solid-state power conversion. The primary purpose is to help identify potential problems. It also aims to suggest methods for voltage sag sensitive devices to operate safely during disturbances. It tries to categorize the voltage-related problems that can be fixed by the utility and those which have to be addressed by the user or

12 equipment designer. The second goal is to help designers of equipment to better understand the environment in which their devices will operate. The standard explains different causes of sags, lists of examples of sensitive loads, and offers solutions to the problems [4].

2.3.2 Industry Standard

2.3.2.1 SEMI

The SEMI International Standards Program is a service offered by Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI). Its purpose is to provide the semiconductor and flat panel display industries with standards and recommendations to improve productivity and business. SEMI standards are written documents in the form of specifications, guides, test methods, terminology, and practices. The standards are voluntary technical agreements between equipment manufacturer and end-user. The standards ensure compatibility and interoperability of goods and services. Considering voltage sags, two standards address the problem for the equipment [6].

SEMI F47-0200, Specification for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity

The standard addresses specifications for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity. It only specifies voltage sags with duration from 50ms up to 1s. It

13 is also limited to phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltage incidents, and presents a voltage-duration graph, shown in Figure 2.2. SEMI F42-0999, Test method for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag immunity

This standard defines a test methodology used to determine the susceptibility of semiconductor processing equipment and how to qualify it against the specifications. It further describes test apparatus, test set-up, test procedure to determine the susceptibility of semiconductor processing equipment, and finally how to report and interpret the results [6].

Figure 2.2

Immunity curve for semiconductor manufacturing equipment according to SEMI F47 [6]

14 2.3.2.2 CBEMA (ITI) Curve

Information Technology Industry (ITI, formally known as the Computer & Business Equipment Manufactures Association, CBEMA) is an organization with members in the IT industry. Within the organization, the Technical Committee 3 (TC3) has published the ITI (CBEMA) curve application note [7]. The note describes an AC input voltage that typically can be tolerated by most information technology equipment. The note is not intended to be a design specification (although it is often used by many designers for that purpose), but a description of behavior for most IT equipment. The curve assumes a nominal voltage of 120VAC RMS and 60Hz and is intended for singlephase information technology equipment [IEEE 1100 1999].

The voltage-time curve in Figure 2.3 describes the border of an area. Above the border the equipment shall work properly and below it shall shutdown in a controlled way.

Figure 2.3

Revised CBEMA curve, ITIC curve, 1996 [7]

15 This chapter has described the term voltage sags and provided a foundation for the following chapters. The definitions provided by IEEE standards are the ones that are used universally. The characterization of voltage sags has also been discussed. This complies with the industry concerns related to the problem of power quality.

2.4

General Causes and Effects of Voltage Sags

There are various causes of voltage sags in a power system. Voltage sags can caused by faults (more than 70% are weather related such as lightning) on the transmission or distribution system or by switching of loads with large amounts of initial starting or inrush current such as motors, transformers, and large dc power supply [3].

2.4.1 Voltage Sags due to Faults

Voltage sags due to faults can be critical to the operation of a power plant, and hence, are of major concern. Depending on the nature of the fault such as symmetrical or unsymmetrical, the magnitudes of voltage sags can be equal in each phase or unequal respectively.

For a fault in the transmission system, customers do not experience interruption, since transmission systems are looped or networked. Figure 2.4 shows voltage sag on all three phases due to a cleared line-ground fault.

16

Figure 2.4

Voltage sag due to a cleared line-ground fault

Factors affecting the sag magnitude due to faults at a certain point in the system are:

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Distance to the fault Fault impedance Type of fault Pre-sag voltage level System configuration a. System impedance b. Transformer connections

The type of protective device used determines sag duration.

17 2.4.2 Voltage Sags due to Motor Starting

Since induction motors are balanced 3 phase loads, voltage sags due to their starting are symmetrical. Each phase draws approximately the same in-rush current. The magnitude of voltage sag depends on:

i. ii.

Characteristics of the induction motor Strength of the system at the point where motor is connected.

Figure 2.5 represents the shape of the voltage sag on the three phases (A, B, and C) due to voltage sags.

Figure 2.5

Voltage sag due to motor starting

18 2.4.3 Voltage Sags due to Transformer Energizing

The causes for voltage sags due to transformer energizing are:

i.

Normal system operation, which includes manual energizing of a transformer.

ii.

Reclosing actions

Figure 2.6

Voltage sag due to transformer energizing

The voltage sags are unsymmetrical in nature, often depicted as a sudden drop in system voltage followed by a slow recovery. The main reason for transformer energizing is the over-fluxing of the transformer core which leads to saturation. Sometimes, for long duration voltage sags, more transformers are driven into saturation. This is called Sympathetic Interaction. Figure 2.6 show the voltage sag due to transformer energizing.

CHAPTER III

PSCAD/EMTDC SOFTWARE

3.1

Introduction

In this project, all the mitigation technique, PSCAD/EMTDC software will be used to simulate and analyze the techniques. Power System Aided Design (PSCAD) was first conceptualized in 1988 and began its evolution as a tool to generate data files for the Electromagnetic Transient Program with DC Analysis (EMTDC) simulation program. In its early form, Version was largely experimental. Nevertheless, it represented a great leap forward in speed and productivity, since users of EMTDC could now draw their systems, rather than creating text listings. PSCAD was first introduced as a commercial product as Version 2 targeted for UNIX platform in 1994. Version 3 comes in 1994 bringing new usability by fully integrating the drafting and runtime systems of its predecessors. This integration produced an intuitive environment for both design and simulation [15].

20 PSCAD Version 4 represents the latest developments in power system simulation software. With much of the simulation engine being fully mature form many years, the new challenges lie in the advancement of the design tools for the user. Version 4 retains the strong simulation models of it predecessors, while bringing the table an updated and fresh new look and feel to its windowing and plotting

3.2

Characteristics of Software

PSCAD is a powerful and flexible graphical user interface to the worldrenowned, EMTDC solution engine. PSCAD enables the user to schematically construct a circuit, run a simulation, analyze the results, and manage the data in a completely integrated, graphical environment. Online plotting function, controls and meters are also included, so that the user can alter system parameters during a simulation run, and view the results directly [15].

PSCAD comes complete with a library of pre-programmed and tested models, ranging from simple passive elements and control functions, to more complex models, such as electric machines, FACTS devices, transmission lines and cables. If a particular model does not exist, PSCAD provides the flexibility of building custom models, either by assembling them graphically using existing models, or by utilizing an intuitively Design Editor.

21

The following are some common models found in systems studied using PSCAD:

i. ii. iii.

Resistors, inductors, capacitors Mutually coupled windings, such as transformers Frequency dependent transmission lines and cables (including the most accurate time domain line model in the world)

iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii.

Current and voltage sources Switches and breakers Protection and relaying Diodes, thyristors and GTOs Analog and digital control functions AC and DC machines, exciters, governors, stabilizers and initial models Meters and measuring functions Generic DC and AC controls HVDC, SVC and other FACTS controllers Wind source, turbine and governors

PSCAD Version 4 has some major features that have been included prior to its predecessors for users convenience in modeling and analysis of custom power system, such as:

i.

Windowing Interface PSCAD V4 boasts a completely new windowing interface, which includes full MFC (Microsoft Foundation Class) compatibility, docking window support and a new integrated design editor.

22 ii. Drawing Interface the drawing interface has been enhanced to provide uniform messaging and core support, as well as a full double-buffered display. iii. On-Line Plotting Tools the online plotting facilities in PSCAD V4 have been completely redesigned and are now more powerful. The new advanced graphs come complete with full features, including: full zoom and panning support, marker control, Polymeter and XY plotting capabilities. iv. Off-Line Plotting Facilities with the inclusion of Livewire, the best data visualization and analysis software package available today, PSCAD output come to life. v. Single-Line Diagram Input PSCAD now includes the ability to construct a circuits in a convenient and space saving single-line format. This new feature includes fully adaptive three-phase electrical components in the Master Library can be adjusted easily to display a single-line equivalent view. vi. MATLAB/SIMULINK Interface now interface PSCAD to both MATLAB and/or SIMULINK files.

3.3

Example of Circuit

A typical DVR built in PSCAD and installed into a simple power system to protect a sensitive load in a large radial distribution system [4] is presented in Figure 3.1. The coupling transformer with either a delta or wye connection on the DVR side is installed on the line in front of the protected load. Filters can be installed at the coupling transformer to block high frequency harmonics caused by DC to AC conversion to reduce distortion in the output. The DC voltage source is an external source supplying

23 DC voltage to the inverter to convert to AC voltage. The optimization of the DC source can be determined during simulation with various scenarios of control schemes, DVR configurations, performance requirements, and voltage sags experienced at the point DVR is installed.

Figure 3.1

DVR with main components in PSCAD

The inverter is a six-pulse gate turn off (GTO) thyristor controlled bridge. Currents will follow in different directions at outputs depending on the control scheme, eventually supplying AC output power to the critical load during power disturbances. The control of this bridge is indeed the control of thyristor firing angles. Time to open

24 and close gates will be determined by the control system. There are several methods for controlling the inverter. To model a DVR protecting a sensitive load against only balanced voltage sags, a simple method of using the measurement of three-phase rms output voltage for controlling signals can be applied. Amplitude modulation (AM) is then used. In addition, to provide appropriate firing angles to thyristor gates the switching control using pulse width modulation (PWM) technique and interpolation firing is employed.

Figure 3.2

The Wye-Connected DVR in PSCAD

25 In Figure 3.2 the transformer is wye-connected with a common connection to the midpoint of the DC source. This allows that current will pump into each phase through each pair of GTO and then return without affecting the other two phases. It is noted that to maintain an equal injecting voltage to each phase, the same value of DC voltage at each half of the source would be required.

3.4

Conclusion

PSCAD Version 4 is a powerful tools to simulate and analysis custom power systems. With all the benefits, designing a systems is as simple as using a drawing board and a pencil in our hands. Many new models have been added to the PSCAD Master Library since the last release of PSCAD V3 thus improving capability of designing. Navigating the software is now has been made easy with the multi-window tab feature and toolbars. Common components were made available and easy to drag-and-drop it to the drawing board.

All those features were shadowed over with the limitation due to its commercial value. It has been described in the manual as Dimension Limits. Those limits are divided into two major groups which are Edition Specific Limits and Compiler Specific Limits. As for this project those limitations be of less interest because only one subsystem that will be analysis for each mitigation technique.

CHAPTER IV

VOLTAGE SAG MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

4.1

Introduction

Different power quality problems would require different solution. It would be very costly to decide on mitigate measure that do not or partially solve the problem. These costs include lost productivity, labor costs for clean up and restart, damaged product, reduced product quality, delays in delivery and reduced customer satisfaction.

Voltage sag can be classified in power quality problem. Hence, when a customer or installation suffers from voltage sag, there is a number of mitigation methods are available to solve the problem. These responsibilities are divided to three parts that involves utility, customer and equipment manufacturer. Figure 4.1 shows the different protection options for improving performance during power quality variation [1].

27

Figure 4.1

Different protection options for improving performance during power quality variation. [1]

This project intends to investigate mitigation technique that is suitable for different type of voltage sags source with different type of loads. The simulation will be using PSCAD/EMTDC software. The mitigation techniques that will be studied such as using dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM), and solid state transfer switch (SSTS).

28 4.2 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

Voltage magnitude is one of the major factors that determine the quality of power supply. Loads at distribution level are usually subject to frequent voltage sags due to various reasons. Voltage sags are highly undesirable for some sensitive loads, especially in high-tech industries. It is a challenging task to correct the voltage sag so that the desired load voltage magnitude can be maintained during the voltage disturbances [8].

The effect of voltage sag can be very expensive for the customer because it may lead to production downtime and damage. Voltage sag can be mitigated by voltage and power injections into the distribution system using power electronics based devices, which are also known as custom power device [9]. Different approaches have been proposed to limit the cost causes by voltage sag. One approach to address the voltage sag problem is dynamic voltage restorer (DVR). It can be used to correct the voltage sag at distribution level.

4.4.1 Principles of DVR Operation

A DVR is a solid state power electronics switching device consisting of either GTO or IGBT, a capacitor bank as an energy storage device and injection transformers. It is connected in series between a distribution system and a load that shown in Figure 4.2. The basic idea of the DVR is to inject a controlled voltage generated by a forced commuted converter in a series to the bus voltage by means of an injecting transformer. A DC capacitor bank which acts as an energy storage device, provides a regulated dc

29 voltage source. A DC to Ac inverter regulates this voltage by sinusoidal PWM technique.

During normal operating condition, the DVR injects only a small voltage to compensate for the voltage drop of the injection transformer and device losses. However, when voltage sag occurs in the distribution system, the DVR control system calculates and synthesizes the voltage required to maintain output voltage to the load by injecting a controlled voltage with a certain magnitude and phase angle into the distribution system to the critical load [9].

Figure 4.2

Principle of DVR with a response time of less than one millisecond

Note that the DVR capable of generating or absorbing reactive power but the active power injection of the device must be provided by an external energy source or energy storage system. The response time of DVD is very short and is limited by the power electronics devices and the voltage sag detection time. The expected response time is about 25 milliseconds, and which is much less than some of the traditional methods of voltage correction such as tap-changing transformers [8].

30 4.3 Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)

In its most basic function, the DSTATCOM configuration consist of a two level voltage source converter (VSC), a dc energy storage device, a coupling transformer connected in shunt with the ac system, and associated control circuit [10, 11] as shown in Figure 4.3. More sophisticated configurations use multipulse and/or multilevel configurations as discussed in [12]. The VSC converts the dc voltage across the storage device into a set of three phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and coupled with the ac system through the reactance of the coupling transformer. Suitable adjustment of the phase and magnitude of the DSTATCOM output voltages allows effective control of active and reactive power exchanges between the DSTATCOM and the ac system.

Figure 4.3

Schematic diagram of the DSTATCOM as a custom power controller

31 The VSC connected in shunt with the ac system provides a multifunctional topology which can be used for up to three quite distinct purposes [13]:

i. ii. iii.

Voltage regulation and compensation of reactive power; Correction of power factor; Elimination of current harmonics.

The design approach of the control system determines the priorities and functions developed in each case. In this case, DSTATCOM is used to regulate voltage at the point of connection. The control is based on sinusoidal PWM and only requires the measurement of the rms voltage at the load point.

4.4.1 Basic Configuration and Function of DSTATCOM

The DSTATCOM is a three phase and shunt connected power electronics based device. It is connected near the load at the distribution systems. The major components of the DSTATCOM are shown in Figure 4.4 below. It consists of a dc capacitor, three phase inverter module such as IGBT or thyristor, ac filter, coupling transformer and a control strategy. The basic electronic block of the DSTATCOM is the voltage sourced converter that converts an input dc voltage into three phase output voltage at fundamental frequency.

32

Figure 4.4

Building blocks of DSTATCOM

Referring to Figure 4.4, the controller of the DSTATCOM is used to operate the inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that the DSTATCOM generates or absorbs the desired VAR at the point of connection. The phase of the output voltage of the thyristor based converter, Vi, is controlled in the same way as the distribution system voltage, Vs. Figure 4.5 shows the three basic operation modes of the DSTATCOM output current, I, which varies depending upon Vi.

For instance, if Vi is equal to Vs, the reactive power is zero and the DSTATCOM does not generate or absorb reactive power. When Vi is greater than Vs, the DSTATCOM sees an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. Hence, the system sees the DSTATCOM as a capacitive reactance. The current, I, flows through the transformer reactance from the DSTATCOM to the ac system, and the device generates capacitive reactive power. Furthermore, if Vs is greater than Vi, the system sees and inductive reactance connected at its terminal and the DSTATCOM sees the system as a capacitive reactance, then the current flows from the ac system to the DSTATCOM, resulting in the device absorbing inductive reactive power.

33

Figure 4.5

Operation modes of a DSTATCOM

34 4.4 Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS)

The SSTS can be used very effectively to protect sensitive loads against voltage sags, swells and other electrical disturbance [14]. The SSTS ensures continuous high quality power supply to sensitive loads by transferring, within a time scale of milliseconds, the load from a faulted bus to a healthy one.

The basic configuration of this device consists of two three phase solid state switches, one for main feeder and one for the backup feeder. These switches have an arrangement of back-to-back connected thyristors, as illustrated in Figure 4.6

Figure 4.6

Schematic representations of the SSTS as a custom power device.

35 Each time a fault condition is detected in the main feeder, the control system swaps the firing signals to the thyristor in both switches, in example, Switch 1 in the main feeder is deactivated and Switch 2 in the backup feeder is activated. The control system measures the peak value of the voltage waveform at every half cycle and checks whether or not it is within a prespecified range. If it is outside limits, an abnormal condition is detected and the firing signals of the thyristors are changed to transfer the load to the healthy feeder.

4.4.1 Basic Configuration and Function of SSTS

The SSTS as shown in Figure 4.7 is a high speed, open transition switch which enables the transfer of electrical loads from one ac power source to another within a few milliseconds.

Figure 4.7

Solid State Transfer Switch system

36 The open-transition property of the SSTS means that the switch break contact with one source before it makes contact with the other source. The advantage of this transfer scheme over the closed-transition mechanical switch is that the electrical sources are never cross-connected unintentionally. The cross connection of independent ac sources, with the alternate source switching on to a faulted system is discouraged by electric utilities.

The solid state transfer switch consists of two three phase ac thyristor switches. The thyristor, operating in its two modes, forms the key component of the SSTS. In the ON-state mode, low impedance forward conduction of current takes place. In the OFFstate mode, an open circuit with almost infinite impedance occurs in the thyristor.

The basic ON-state and OFF-state properties of the thyristor are used to form an intelligent switch which can choose between two upstream power sources providing the better quality of supply available to the electrical load downstream. The basic configuration is based on anti-parallel thyristor group on preferred and alternate sides of the switch. A thyristor allows conduction only in forward direction. Figure 4.8 illustrate how the thyristors of transfer switch 1 can conduct either in the positive or the negative half cycle of the ac sinusoid and the supply path is indicated by the bold line.

37

Figure 4.8

Thyristors of the SSTS conducting in the positive and negative half cycle of the preferred source.

During normal operation, thyristors associated with the preferred source are in the ON-state normally closed (NC) position, while those associated with the alternate source are in the OFF-state normally open (NO) position.

Current sensing circuits constantly monitor the states of the preferred and alternate sources and feed the information to the monitoring high speed controller. Upon detecting the loss of the preferred source or voltage that is not within the preset range, the controller blocks the firing impulse signals to the gate-driven thyristors of transfer switch 1 and instructs the thyristors of transfer switch 2 to turn ON with a fail-safe interlocking mechanism. Power then flows via the path as indicated by the bold line in Figure 4.9.

38

Figure 4.9

Thyristors on the alternate supply are turned ON on a sensing a disturbance on the preferred source.

The mechanical bypass equipment provides conventional transfer switch functionality when the SSTS is in a thermal overload condition or is out of service for testing or maintenance.

CHAPTER V

MITIGATION TECNIQUES REALIZATION

5.1

Sinusoidal PWM-Based Control Scheme

In order to mitigate the simulated voltage sags in the test system of each mitigation technique, also to mitigate voltage sags in practical application, a sinusoidal PWM-based control scheme is implemented, with reference to the DSTATCOM. The control scheme for the DVR follows the same principle. The aim of the control scheme is to maintain a constant voltage magnitude at the point where sensitive load is connected, under the system disturbance.

The control system only measures the rms voltage at load point [10], in example, no reactive power measurements is required [17]. The VSC switching strategy is based on a sinusoidal PWM technique which offers simplicity and good response. Since custom power is a relatively low-power application, PWM methods offer a more flexible option than the fundamental frequency switching (FFS) methods favored in FACTS applications. Besides, high switching frequencies can be used to improve the efficiency

40 of the converter, without incurring significant switching losses. Figure 5.1 shows the DSTATCOM controller scheme implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. The DSTATCOM control system exerts voltage angle control as follows: an error signal is obtained by comparing the reference voltage with the rms voltage measured at the load point. The PI controller processes the error signal and generates the required angle to drive the error to zero, in example, the load rms voltage is brought back to the reference voltage. In the PWM generators, the sinusoidal signal, vcontrol, is phase modulated by means of the angle or delta as nominated in the Figure 5.1. The modulated signal, vcontrol, is compared against a triangular signal (carrier) in order to generate the switching signals of the VSC valves.

Figure 5.1

Control scheme for the test system implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC to carry out the DSTATCOM and DVR simulations.

41 The main parameters of the sinusoidal PWM scheme are the amplitude modulation index, ma, of signal vcontrol, and the frequency modulation index, mf, of the triangular signal. The vcontrol in the Figure 5.1 are nominated as CtrlA, CtrlB and CtrlC. The amplitude index ma is kept fixed at 1 pu, in order to obtain the highest fundamental voltage component at the controller output [13, 18]. The switching frequency mf is set at 450 Hz, mf = 9. It should be noted that, an assumption of balanced network and operating conditions are made.

The modulating angle or delta is applied to the PWM generators in phase A, whereas the angles for phase B and C are shifted by 240 or -120 and 120 respectively. It can be seen in Figure 5.1 that the control implementation is kept very simple by using only voltage measurements as feedback variable in the control scheme. The speed of response and robustness of the control scheme are clearly shown in the test results.

42 5.2 Test System

Figure 5.2

The test system implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC

Figure 5.2 depict the test system implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC to carry out the simulations for the aforementioned mitigation techniques. The test system comprises of a 230 kilovolt, 50 Hertz transmission system, represented in Thevenin equivalent, feeding into the primary side of a 2-winding transformer. The load is connected to the 11 kilovolt secondary side of the transformer. Another 3-winding transformer will be used to replace the 2-winding transformer to accommodate the implantation of the two-level DSTATCOM and it will be connected in the tertiary winding of the transformer to provide instantaneous voltage support at the load point. The transformer employ a leakage reactance of 10% or 0.1 per unit with a unity turns ratio and no booster capabilities exist.

43 5.3 Dynamic Voltage Restorer

The DVR is a powerful controller that is commonly used for voltage sags mitigation at the point of connection. The DVR employs the same block as the DSTATCOM, but in this application the coupling transformer is connected in series with the ac system, as illustrated in Figure 5.3. The VSC generates a three-phase ac output voltage which is controllable in phase and magnitude. These voltages are injected into the ac system in order to maintain the load voltage at the desired voltage reference. The main features of the DVR control scheme have been explained in section 5.1.

Figure 5.3

One line diagram of the DVR test system

The DVR that have been used to test the system in section 5.1 is shown in Figure 5.4. The DVR is basically the same as DSTATCOM but instead of using a capacitor, DVR employs 5 kilovolt dc storage supply. The DVR is then connected in series using transformers in delta to the lines. Figure 5.5 will show the full test system to realize the effectiveness of the DVR control.

44

Figure 5.4

Schematic diagram of the DVR

Figure 5.5

Schematic diagram of the test system with DVR connected to the system.

45 5.4 Distribution Static Compensator

The test system employed to carry out the simulations concerning the DSTATCOM actuation is shown in Figure 2.9, which is the same system presented in [16]. A two-level DSTATCOM is connected to the 11 kV tertiary winding to provide instantaneous voltage support at the load point. A 750 F capacitor on the dc side provides the DSTATCOM energy storage capabilities.

The transformer of the test system has been changed to a 3-winding transformer to accommodate DSTATCOM. The purpose of including the transformer is to protect and provide isolation between the IGBT legs. This prevents the dc storage capacitor from being shorted through switches in different IGBT. Figure 5.6 shows the build of the DSTATCOM in PSCAD/EMTDC which is the two-level voltage source converter and the realization of the test system being employed shown in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.6

One line diagram of the DSTATCOM test system.

46

Figure 5.7

Schematic diagram of the test system with DSTATCOM connected to the system.

47 5.5 Solid State Transfer Switch

In the test to carry out the SSTS simulations, the system comprises with two identical feeders from section 5.1 and a sensitive load connected to the bus bar. Figure 5.8 shows the system that is employed.

Figure 5.8

One line diagram of the SSTS test system.

Simulations were carried out to assess the effectiveness of the simple control scheme that has been employed in the system proposed earlier. Figure 5.9 shows the SSTS system that being employed for the test in PSCAD/EMTDC. It comprises of two sets of switches which is switch group 1 and switch group 2 that alternately turns ON and OFF corresponds to the fault detector signals. The full system application to test the SSTS is shown in Figure 5.10.

48

Figure 5.9

SSTS switches implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC

Figure 5.10

Schematic diagram of the test system with SSTS connected to the system.

CHAPTER VI

SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

6.1

Test case

This section contains the results of the simulations to assess the capability of each technique to mitigate various fault sources. In order to make a fair assessment, the simulations only use one test system as proposed in section 5.1. The test were divide into the most common faults which are

6.1.1 Single line to ground fault, and 6.1.2 Double line to ground fault

The most common fault is the single line to ground faults which covers 70% of total faults. There are many situations that can make the occurrence of single line to ground faults possible. The low impedance faults are referred to as bolted faults indicating that the faulted conductors are effectively bolted together to create a line to

50 line faults which cover 10% of the total faults or double line to fault for the total of 15%. A much more common effect is where the fault has some finite impedance. When a line falls on sandy soil or there is a significant distance for an arc to jump, then the characteristic may have a constant voltage characteristic. The remaining 5% of the faults are three phase faults.

6.2

Single line to ground fault

6.2.1 Phase A to ground

Using the faults generator, Figure 6.1a clearly shows a phase shift of line A after the fault has been applied. The angle of the line shifted as much as 88.44 from the reference angle for line A of -1.94. For the rms value of the line, we can refer to Figure 6.1b which clearly shows the voltage sag. The value of the rms has been normalized and for the phase A to the ground fault, the rms drops to 0.685 or nearly 31% from the reference value

51

(a)

(b) Figure 6.1 (a) Phase shift for line A to the ground fault (b) Rms voltage drop

The simulations have two parts which have been run separately. This first part involves simulating the test system on different fault as mention above. The second part involves simulating the mitigation techniques with the test system so that each of the technique can be assessed on their performance in mitigating voltage sags.

52

(a)

(b) Figure 6.2 (a) Corrected phase with DVR (b) Compensated voltage sag with DVR

The first technique that has been used is the DVR. Figure 6.2a shows the capability of the technique to balance the phase shift while Figure 6.2b shows how the technique compensates the voltage drop. DVR recover almost 96% of the reference voltage.

53 The second technique that has been used in mitigating the voltage sags and phase shift is the DSTATCOM. Figure 6.3a shows the phase balance of the system and Figure 6.3b shows the recovery of the voltage sags. DSTATCOM manage to recover nearly 94% of the voltage with respect to the reference voltage.

(a)

(b) Figure 6.3 (a) Corrected phase using DSTATCOM (b) Compensated voltage sag using DSTATCOM

54 The third technique that has been used is SSTS. In SSTS, whenever the fault detector control scheme detects a faulty line, it changes the firing angle of the switches that are connected to the line thus change the feed from the main feeder to the alternative or backup feed. Figure 6.4a and Figure 6.4b clearly shows that no interruption can be noticed since the backup feeder is healthy.

(a)

(b) Figure 6.4 (a) Corrected phase using SSTS (b) Compensated voltage sag using SSTS

55 Since SSTS switch the faulty feeder with the healthy one whenever faults occur, as long as the back up feeder is healthy, the result produced by this technique will always be the same. Hence, the result of the SSTS will be omitted hereafter with the assumption that the backup feeder is always healthy.

Table 6.1

(a) Test results for line A to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result
TEST 1: PHASE A TO GROUND PHASE() VRMS(pu) C 118.06 98.32 142.4 118.11 min 0.685 0.923 0.948 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 1.011 0.989

TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -90.38 0.75 1.28 -1.89 B -121.94 -98.93 -147.87 -121.89

(a)
TEST 1: PHASE A TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 89.63 89.1 88.49 B 23.01 25.93 0.05 C 19.74 24.34 0.05 GAIN 95.85 93.77 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

56 From table 6.1a and 6.1b, we can see that SSTS has the best recovery rate since it doesnt involve compensating technique either to absorb or inject power to the system. The rms value of the system is always constant. It is different than the other two techniques which require them to inject or absorb power to and from the system. DVR has better recovery in mitigating the voltage sag than DSTATCOM but poor in correcting the phase of the lines. DVR recover 2% better in comparison with DSTATCOM.

6.2.2 Phase B to ground

For test 2, the faults generator still emulates a single line to ground fault of line B. it is applied from 25 milliseconds to 35 milliseconds. The rms value of the faulty system is as the same as Figure 6.1b. The only difference is in the phase of the system. Figure 6.5 show the shifted phase of the system when the fault occurs.

Figure 6.5

Phase shift of line B to the ground fault.

57 It can be noticed that phase B has been shifted 90 to 150 for the duration of the fault. Figure 6.6a shows the result from DVR mitigation and Figure 6.6b shows the result for DSTATCOM for phase correction. Each technique recovers the same value of the rms as when it mitigates the phase A to the ground fault.

(a)

(b) Figure 6.6 (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line B to the ground fault.

58 From the figure above, it can be observed that other line phases were also affected when both techniques try to correct the lines phase. The effect can be clearly noted in Figure 6.6a where the phase of line A and C are shifted even though those lines were not in fault. This condition as well happen when DSTATCOM try to correct the phases. The result of the test is shown in Table 6.2(a) whereas Table 6.2(b) will show the recoveries that have been achieved by those three techniques.

Table 6.2

(a) Test results for line B to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result
TEST 2: PHASE B TO GROUND PHASE() RMS(pu) C 118.06 140 96.72 118.11 min 0.686 0.923 0.942 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 1.016 0.989

TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -1.94 -21 15.83 -1.89 B 149.64 -118.56 -122.37 -121.89

(a)
TEST 2: PHASE B TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 19.06 13.89 0.05 B 31.08 27.27 27.75 C 21.94 21.34 0.05 GAIN 95.85 92.72 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

59 DVR manage to recover 95.85% of the rms voltage with respect to the reference value and DSTATCOM recover 3% less of DVR. For SSTS, the recovery rate is always 100% since the backup feeder is healthy.

6.2.3 Phase C to ground

Test 3 involves line C of the system. This test is practically the same as previous test which only involves 1 line of the system. The results of the rms voltage is the same as Figure 6.1(b), but the phase of line C is shifted as much as 90 and can be seen in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7

Phase shift of line B to the ground fault.

60 Mitigation of the fault outcome is the same product as the preceding test which DVR and DSTATCOM compensate the rms voltage similarly. Figure 6.8(a) and Figure 6.8(b) shows the phase difference for the mitigation technique accordingly.

(a)

(b) Figure 6.8 (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line C to the ground fault.

61 The numerical result will be shown in Table 6.3(a) whereas the recovery will be shown in Table 6.3(b). The phase of line C has been corrected but at the same time, other lines were also affected. This is true for both of the technique but not for SSTS which is the same as Figure 6.4(a) and Figure 6.4(b).

Table 6.3

(a) Test results for line C to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result.
TEST 3: PHASE C TO GROUND PHASE() RMS(pu) C 29.69 117.42 128.67 118.11 min 0.686 0.923 0.914 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 1.011 0.989

TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -1.94 19.69 -22.83 -1.89 B -121.94 -139.45 -101.83 -121.89

(a)
TEST 3: PHASE C TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 17.75 20.89 0.05 B 17.51 20.11 0.05 C 87.73 98.98 88.42 GAIN 95.85 90.41 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

From the table, line A and line B should have stay fixed on 0 and -120 respectively but after DVR and DSTATCOM try to correct the phase of line C, the phase of those lines were shifted to 20 and -149 for DVR and -23 and -102 for DSTATCOM. This could be due to the control scheme that is too simple. In the mean

62 time, the rms voltage compensation for both DVR and DSTATCOM are still above 90% in respect to the reference voltage. DVR still maintain 5% from the overall voltage. This is true for the entire tests that have been carried out before, while SSTS results are overwhelming with no ripple or overshoot.

6.3

Double lines to ground fault

The next line of test is double line to the ground fault. As an overall, those techniques except SSTS suffer terrible loss when its try to mitigate double line to the ground fault. This fault only covers 15% of overall fault that occurs practically, but it pose much more danger to the loads that draw supply from the lines.

6.3.1 Phase A and B to ground

The first test to come is line A and line B to the ground fault. The effect of this fault is depicted in Figure 6.8(a) which shows the phase fault and Figure 6.8(b) that shows the rms voltage of the test system during the fault.

63

(a)

Figure 6.9

(b) (a) Phase shift for line A and B to the ground fault (b) Rms voltage drop

For this test, the phase A and B has been shifted 90 to -90 and 150 respectively. The voltage drop is doubled from previous test set to 0.366 per unit with respect to the reference voltage. Figure 6.10(a) shows the result of the DVR try to correct the shifted phases for the fault and Figure 6.10(b) shows for the DSTATCOM.

64

(a)

(b) Figure 6.10 (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line A and B to the ground fault.

As we can see from the figure, DVR continue to correct the phases of the faulted lines steadily with almost the same value at the time DVR is correcting the single line to ground fault. The same abnormality happens with the line that doesnt need any correction and in this case, it is line C. The phase of line C is shifted nearly 10. However, DSTATCOM capability of correcting the phase of single line to the ground fault has not been continual for the double line to the ground fault. For lines A and B to the ground fault, DSTATCOM is able to correct the phase of line B but this is not occurred to line A. The phase is shifted about 140 and rest at 50.

65

Even though the voltage sag is double from the previous value, DVR manage to compensate the voltage drop and recovered nearly 90% with respect to the reference voltage. DSTATCOM only manage to recover 78%. This is due to the inability of DSTATCOM to mitigate double line to the ground fault with only using simple control scheme that has been introduced in section 5.1. It is clearly shown in Figure 6.11(a) and 6.11(b) for DVR and DSTATCOM respectively.

(a)

(b) Figure 6.11 (a) Compensated voltage sag using DVR (b) Compensated voltage sag using DSTATCOM; Line A and B to the ground fault.

66

The value of voltage sag that have been recovered for other double lines to the ground fault, such as line A and C to the ground fault and line B and C to the ground fault, is the same as the result shown in Figure 6.11. Hence, those results are omitted hereafter.

Table 6.4(a) will show the full result of line A and B to the ground fault while Table 6.4(b) shows the recovered voltage sag and corrected phase for those lines.

Table 6.4

(a) Test results for line A and B to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result.
TEST 4: PHASE AB TO GROUND PHASE() VRMS(pu) C 118.06 110.331 117.25 118.11 min 0.366 0.858 0.777 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 0.991 0.989

TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -90.38 -0.78 49.61 -1.89 B 149.66 -110.6 -123.36 -121.89

(a)
TEST 4: PHASE AB TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 89.6 40.77 88.49 B 39.06 26.3 27.77 C 7.729 0.81 0.05 GAIN 89.1 78.41 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

67 6.3.2 Phase A and C to ground

The next test case is line A and C to the ground fault. As mention before, the result of voltage sag that is mitigated is the same as the result for section 6.3.1. DVR and DSTATCOM recover the same value as its try to mitigate test case 4. Therefore, the results of voltage sag mitigation of this section are omitted.

Figure 6.12

Phase shift for line A and C to the ground fault

Figure 6.12 shows the phases that are in fault. The phase of line A is shifted 90 to rest at -90 while the phase of line C is also shifted 90 and stays at 30 during the fault. The result of the corrected phase will be shown in Figure 6.13(a) and 6.13(b) for DVR and DSTATCOM respectively.

68

(a)

(b) Figure 6.13 (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line A and C to the ground fault.

The result in Figure 6.13(b) clearly shows the improper phase correction of line C which definitely affect the result of DSTATCOM voltage mitigation while in Figure 6.13(a), DVR also cannot correct the phase accurately. The full test result is shown in Table 6.5(a) while Table 6.5(b) shows the recovery result.

69 Table 6.5 (a) Test results for line A and C to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result.
TEST 5: PHASE AC TO GROUND PHASE() TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -90.38 -19.82 2.86 -1.89 B -121.93 -119.38 -128.98 -121.89 C 29.65 139.3 178.72 118.11 min 0.365 0.858 0.769 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 0.995 0.989 VRMS(pu)

(a)
TEST 5: PHASE AC TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 70.56 87.52 88.49 B 2.55 7.05 0.04 C 109.65 149.07 88.46 GAIN 89.1 77.29 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

70 6.3.3 Phase B and C to ground

The last test case is line B and C to the ground fault. In this case, phase B is shifted 90 to end at 150 and phase C is also shifted 90 and stays at 30 respectively. This can be seen in Figure 6.14 as it shows the phase shift of the faulty lines.

Figure 6.14

Phase shift for line B and C to the ground fault.

The phase of line A is unaffected by the fault of other lines throughout the fault period. However, the phase of the line is affected and shifted 30 for the moment of mitigation using DVR. This affect is obviously depicted in Figure 6.15(a).

71

(a)

(b) Figure 6.15 (a) Phase correction using DVR (b) Phase correction using DSTATCOM; line B and C to the ground fault.

As typically happened for DSTATCOM, one of the faulty lines in Figure 6.15(b) is not corrected appropriately and this time, it is line B. The phase of the line at the time of mitigation is -60 as it suppose to be at -120. The full result of the test is shown in Table 6.6(a) and the recovery result is shown in Table 6.6(b).

72 Table 6.6 (a) Test results for line B and C to the ground fault. (b) Recovery result.
TEST 6: PHASE BC TO GROUND PHASE() TECHNIQUES A FAULT DVR DSTATCOM SSTS -1.93 30.73 -6.26 -1.89 B 149.65 -135.93 -61.6 -121.89 C 29.68 147.93 126.03 118.11 min 0.365 0.858 0.768 0.989 max 0.991 0.963 0.991 0.989 VRMS(pu)

(a)
TEST 6: PHASE BC TO GROUND RECOVERY PHASE() TECHNIQUES A DVR DSTATCOM SSTS 28.8 4.33 0.04 B 13.72 88.05 27.76 C 118.25 96.35 88.43 GAIN 89.1 77.5 100 VRMS(%)

(b)

73

6.4

Conclusion

In mitigating single line to the ground fault, DVR and DSTATCOM that has been introduced in section 5 are able to compensate the voltage sag without any difficulty. The problem lies in correcting the phase of the system. Even though the phase of the faulty line has been corrected, the rest of the lines that are not in fault is also affected and shifted a few degrees. This affect can be seen happened to DVR when it mitigates the test system. In general, the capability of the techniques to mitigate single line to the ground fault are uncontested especially SSTS as it pose the best result.

While mitigating double lines to the ground fault, the same problems occurred to the DVR where the phase of the healthy line is unwontedly shifted a few degrees, but the performance of DVR in mitigating voltage sag remain the same as it mitigates single line to the ground fault. For DSTATCOM, a new problem occurred while DSTATCOM is mitigating double line to the ground fault. One of the faulty lines is not corrected appropriately and this brings an upsetting effect in mitigating the voltage sag of the system. Once again, SSTS that has been introduced in section 5 remain as the best mitigation technique. This is due to the nature of the SSTS where it doesnt try to compensate or correct the faulty line; instead, SSTS switch the faulty feeder to the alternative feeder. The result is always and remains constant if and only if the backup or alternative feeder is being kept healthy.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

7.1

Conclusion

Nowadays, reliability and quality of electric power is one of the most discuss topics in power industry. There are numerous types of power quality issues and power problems and each of them might have varying and diverse causes. The types of power quality problems that a customer may encounter classified depending on how the voltage waveform is being distorted. There are transients, short duration variations (sags, swells, and interruption), long duration variations (sustained interruptions, under voltages, over voltages), voltage imbalance, waveform distortion (dc offset, harmonics, interharmonics, notching, and noise), voltage fluctuations and power frequency variations. Among them, two power quality problems have been identified to be of major concern to the customers are voltage sags and harmonics, but this project is focusing on voltage sags.

75 Voltage sags are huge problems for many industries, and it is probably the most pressing power quality problem today. Voltage sags may cause tripping and large torque peaks in electrical machines. Generally, voltage sags are short duration reductions in rms voltage caused by faults in the electric supply system and the starting of large loads, such as motors. Voltage sags are also generally created on the electric system when faults occur due to lightning, which are accidental shorting of the phases by trees, animals, birds, human error such as digging underground lines or automobiles hitting electric poles, and failure of electrical equipment. Sags also may be produced when large motor loads are started, or due to operation of certain types of electrical equipment such as welders, arc furnaces, smelters, etc.

Therefore, this project intends to investigate mitigation technique that is suitable for different type of voltage sags source. The simulation will be using PSCAD/EMTDC software and the mitigation techniques that using such as dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM), and solid state transfer switch (SSTS).

Dynamic voltage restorers (DVR) are used to protect sensitive loads from the effects of voltage sags on the distribution feeder. In all cases it is necessary for the DVR control system to not only detect the start and end of a voltage sag but also to determine the sag depth and any associated phase shift. The DVR, which is placed in series with a sensitive load, must be able to respond quickly to voltage sag if end users of sensitive equipment are to experience no voltage sags.

The distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM) offers an alternative to conventional series shunt compensation. In the traditional power transmission system, controllable devices are restricted to the slow mechanisms such as transformer tap changers and switched capacitor. In the late 1980s, thanks to the major developments

76 in the semiconductor technology, it became possible to apply power electronics in the control of DSTATCOM. Based on the simulation, theres a room for improvement. DSTATCOM is a device that promises a prominent feature in power system in mitigating power quality related problems in the future.

Solid state transfer switch (SSTS) is not the most cost effective but in many cases, it is a practical mitigating technique to apply especially for sensitive loads. These solutions involve fixing the two identical power source components in order to increase the ride-through of the entire system. SSTS solutions are attractive since they in theory do not require add on power conditioning equipment, but instead involve using another source components. Furthermore, semiconductor tool suppliers are more comfortable with this approach since it does not require the addition of unfamiliar technologies.

As conclusion, voltage sag is unwanted phenomenon which unavoidable but can be reduced using all techniques, but not limited to the techniques that have been discussed. There is no one mitigation technique that will suitable with every application, and whilst the power supply utilities strive to supply improved power quality, it is up to the applications engineer to minimize power quality problems. It means, power quality problem cannot be eliminated but we can reduce and try to avoid this problem form occur. The best way to avoid power quality problem is by ensuring that all equipment to be installed in the industrial plants are compatible with power quality in the power system. This can be achieved by procuring equipment with proper technical specifications that incorporate power quality performance of its operating electrical environment.

77

7.2

Suggestion

Mitigating voltage sag requires a lot of intensive research especially in developing custom power device to help distribution system to achieve desired power quality as been insisted by many customer or end-user. There are still rooms of improvement that can be achieved further, for the technique that have been included in this thesis and other techniques that are available.

The DVR and DSTATCOM that has been used earlier, employs a two- level voltage source converter or VSC in both technique. Additional research of other multilevel and multipulse VSC can be implemented in the future to exploit the simplicity of the pulse width modulation or PWM based control scheme to further enhance both DVR and DSTATCOM. Another control scheme can also be proposed to take the advantage of the two-level VSC that has been employed previously to support more control over voltage sags that were caused by double line to ground, line to line faults and three phase fault that cover 25 percent of the total faults.

78

REFERENCES

[1]

Roger C. Dugan, Mark F. McGranaghan and H. Wayne Beaty, TK1001.D84 (1996) Electrical Power Systems Quality, Mc Graw-Hill. Pages 1-8 and 39-80.

[2]

Prof. Khalid Mohd Nor (2006), Lecture Notes MEP 1542 Special Topic In Power Engineering, session 2005/2006-II.

[3]

Tenaga National Berhad (1996), A Guidebook on Power QualityMonitoring, Analysis & Mitigations, pages 1-61

[4]

IEEE Standards Board (1995), IEEE Std. 1159-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality. IEEE Inc. New York.

[5]

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, Before and During Voltage sags, available at http://www.ieee.org/ias

[6]

SEMI

F47-0200

voltage

sag

immunity

curve,

available

at

http://www.semi.org

[7]

ITI (CBEMA) curve application note, Available at http://.www.itic.org/technical/iticurv.pdf.

79

[8]

M. H. Haque, (2001) "Compensation of Distribution System Voltage Sag by DVR and D-STATCOM", IEEE Porto Power Tech Conference 2001

[9]

M A Hannan and A Mohamed, (2002) Modeling and Analysis of a 24Pulse Dynamic Voltage Restorer in a Distribution System, Student Conference on Research and Development PROCEEDINGS, Shah Alam, Malaysia.

[10]

A. Hernandez, K. E. Chong, G. Gallegos, and E. Acha The implementatio of a solid state voltage source in PSCAD/EMTDC, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., pp. 61-62, Dec 1998.

[11]

L. Xu, Anaya-Lara, V. G. Agelidis, and E. Acha Development of custom power devices for power quality enhancement, in Proc. 9th ICHQP 2000, Orlando, FL, Oct. 2000, pp. 775-783.

[12]

Y. Chen and B. T. Ooi, STATCOM based on multimodules of multilevel converters under multiple regulation feedback control, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 14, pp. 959-965, Sept. 1999.

[13]

E. Acha, V. G. Agelidis, O. Anaya-Lara, and T. J. E. Miller, Electronic Control in Electrical Power Systems, London, U.K., Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.

[14]

K. Chan, A. Kara, and G. Kieboom, Power quality improvement with solid state transfer switches, in Proc. 8th ICHQP 1998, Athens, Greece, Oct. 1998, pp. 210-215

[15]

PSCAD Electromagnetic Transients Users Guide, The Professionals Tool for Power System Simulation

80 [16] O. Anaya-Lara, E. Acha, Modelling and analysis of custom power systems by PSCAD/EMTDC, IEEE Trans., Power Delivery, Vol. PWDR-17 (1), pp. 266-272, 2002.

[17]

I. T. Fernando, W. T. Kwasnicki, and A. M. Gole. Modeling of conventional and advanced static var compensators in electromagnetic transients simulation program. Available at http://www.ee.umanitoba.ca/~hvdc

[18]

N. Mohan, T. M. Underland, and W. P. Robbins, Power electronics: Converters, Application and Design, New York, Wiley, 1995.

81 APPENDIX A Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for DSTATCOM

!======================================================================= ! Generated by : PSCAD v4.1.0 ! ! Warning: The content of this file is automatically generated. ! Do not modify, as any changes made here will be lost! !=======================================================================

!--------------------------------------! Local Node Voltages !--------------------------------------VOLTAGES: 1 0.0 // NT_1 2 0.0 // NT_2 3 0.0 // NT_6 4 0.0 // NT_7 5 0.0 // NT_8 6 0.0 // NT_12 7 0.0 // NT_13 8 0.0 // NT_14 9 0.0 // NT_15 10 0.0 // NT_16 11 0.0 // NT_17 12 0.0 // NT_18 13 0.0 // NT_19 14 0.0 // NT_20 15 0.0 // NT_21 16 0.0 // NT_22 17 0.0 // NT_23 18 0.0 // NT_24

!--------------------------------------! Local Branch Data !--------------------------------------BRANCHES: 1 2 RE 0.0 6 9 RS 1000000.0 6 1 RS 1000000.0 1 6 RS 1000000.0 2 6 RS 1000000.0 6 2 RS 1000000.0 7 1 RS 1000000.0 1 7 RS 1000000.0 2 7 RS 1000000.0 7 2 RS 1000000.0 8 1 RS 1000000.0 1 8 RS 1000000.0 2 8 RS 1000000.0 8 2 RS 1000000.0 7 10 RS 1000000.0 0 12 RE 0.0 0 13 RE 0.0 0 14 RE 0.0 8 11 RS 1000000.0 16 18 RS 1000000.0 15 18 RS 1000000.0 17 18 RS 1000000.0 16 17 RS 1000000.0 17 15 RS 1000000.0 15 16 RS 1000000.0 17 0 RL 12.1 0.1926 15 0 RL 12.1 0.1926 16 0 RL 12.1 0.1926

// // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // //

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NT_1 NT_12 NT_12 NT_1 NT_2 NT_12 NT_13 NT_1 NT_2 NT_13 NT_14 NT_1 NT_2 NT_14 NT_13 GND GND GND NT_14 NT_22 NT_21 NT_23 NT_22 NT_23 NT_21 NT_23 NT_21 NT_22

NT_2 NT_15 NT_1 NT_12 NT_12 NT_2 NT_1 NT_13 NT_13 NT_2 NT_1 NT_14 NT_14 NT_2 NT_16 NT_18 NT_19 NT_20 NT_17 NT_24 NT_24 NT_24 NT_23 NT_21 NT_22 GND GND GND

82
14 13 12 1 5 4 3 2 RL RL RL C 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.758 0.758 0.758 750.0 // // // // 1 1 1 1 NT_20 NT_19 NT_18 NT_1 NT_8 NT_7 NT_6 NT_2

!--------------------------------------! Local Transformer Data !--------------------------------------TRANSFORMERS: ! 3 Phase, 3 Winding Transformer: !* Name: T1 Tmva: 100.0 MVA, Freq: 50.0 Hz, V1: 230.0 kV, V3: 11.0 kV !* Imag1: 0.02 p.u., Imag2: 0.02 p.u., Imag3: 0.02 p.u., (p.u.) !* Sat: 0 , -3 / Number of windings... 3 0 7.91831796746 / 11 0 -82.7824151144 3461.8100866 / 17 0 -82.7824151144 -1730.9050433 3461.8100866 / 888 / 4 0 / 10 0 / 15 0 / 888 / 5 0 / 9 0 / 16 0 / !

V2: 11.0 kV, Xl: 0.1, 0.1, 0.1

DATADSD:

DATADSO:

ENDPAGE

83 APPENDIX B Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for DVR

!======================================================================= ! Generated by : PSCAD v4.1.0 ! ! Warning: The content of this file is automatically generated. ! Do not modify, as any changes made here will be lost! !=======================================================================

!--------------------------------------! Local Node Voltages !--------------------------------------VOLTAGES: 1 0.0 // NT_1 2 0.0 // NT_2 3 0.0 // NT_3 4 0.0 // NT_4 5 0.0 // NT_5 6 0.0 // NT_6 7 0.0 // NT_7 8 0.0 // NT_10 9 0.0 // NT_11 10 0.0 // NT_13 11 0.0 // NT_17 12 0.0 // NT_18 13 0.0 // NT_19 14 0.0 // NT_20 15 0.0 // NT_21 16 0.0 // NT_22 17 0.0 // NT_23

!--------------------------------------! Local Branch Data !--------------------------------------BRANCHES: 5 1 RS 1000000.0 5 3 RS 1000000.0 2 0 RS 1000000.0 3 0 RS 1000000.0 1 0 RS 1000000.0 5 2 RS 1000000.0 5 0 RS 1.0 0 17 RE 0.0 0 16 RE 0.0 3 5 RS 1000000.0 2 5 RS 1000000.0 1 5 RS 1000000.0 0 3 RS 1000000.0 0 2 RS 1000000.0 0 1 RS 1000000.0 11 6 RS 1000000.0 6 7 RS 1000000.0 7 11 RS 1000000.0 11 0 RS 1000000.0 6 0 RS 1000000.0 7 0 RS 1000000.0 0 15 RE 0.0 15 10 RL 0.1 0.758 13 0 RL 0.1 0.1926 12 0 RL 0.1 0.1926 16 8 RL 0.1 0.758 17 9 RL 0.1 0.758 14 0 RL 0.1 0.1926

// // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // // //

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NT_5 NT_5 NT_2 NT_3 NT_1 NT_5 NT_5 GND GND NT_3 NT_2 NT_1 GND GND GND NT_17 NT_6 NT_7 NT_17 NT_6 NT_7 GND NT_21 NT_19 NT_18 NT_22 NT_23 NT_20

NT_1 NT_3 GND GND GND NT_2 GND NT_23 NT_22 NT_5 NT_5 NT_5 NT_3 NT_2 NT_1 NT_6 NT_7 NT_17 GND GND GND NT_21 NT_13 GND GND NT_10 NT_11 GND

84

!--------------------------------------! Local Transformer Data !--------------------------------------TRANSFORMERS: ! 3 Phase, 2 Winding Transformer !* Name: T32 Tmva: 100.0 MVA, Freq: 50.0 Hz, V1: 230.0 kV, !* Imag1: 0.02 p.u., Imag2: 0.02 p.u., Xl: 0.1 p.u. !* Sat: 0 , -2 / Number of windings... 10 0 5.9387384756 / 11 0 -124.173622672 2596.35756495 / 888 / 8 0 / 6 0 / 888 / 9 0 / 7 0 / ! ! Single Phase Transformer: 100.0 MVA, 11.0 kV : 230.0 kV -2 / Number of windings... 14 11 2596.35756495 / 4 1 -124.173622672 5.9387384756 / ! ! Single Phase Transformer: 100.0 MVA, 11.0 kV : 230.0 kV -2 / Number of windings... 12 6 2596.35756495 / 4 2 -124.173622672 5.9387384756 / ! ! Single Phase Transformer: 100.0 MVA, 11.0 kV : 230.0 kV -2 / Number of windings... 13 7 2596.35756495 / 4 3 -124.173622672 5.9387384756 / !

V2: 11.0 kV

DATADSD:

DATADSO:

ENDPAGE

85 APPENDIX C Data generated by PSCAD/EMTDC for SSTS

!======================================================================= ! Generated by : PSCAD v4.1.0 ! ! Warning: The content of this file is automatically generated. ! Do not modify, as any changes made here will be lost! !=======================================================================

!--------------------------------------! Local Node Voltages !--------------------------------------VOLTAGES: 1 0.0 // NT_1 2 0.0 // NT_2 3 0.0 // NT_3 4 0.0 // NT_7 5 0.0 // NT_8 6 0.0 // NT_9 7 0.0 // NT_10 8 0.0 // NT_11 9 0.0 // NT_12

!--------------------------------------! Local Branch Data !--------------------------------------BRANCHES: 0 9 RE 0.0 0 8 RE 0.0 0 7 RE 0.0 3 2 RS 1000000.0 2 1 RS 1000000.0 1 3 RS 1000000.0 3 0 RS 1000000.0 2 0 RS 1000000.0 1 0 RS 1000000.0 7 3 RL 0.1 0.758 5 0 R 20.0 4 0 R 20.0 6 0 R 20.0 8 2 RL 0.1 0.758 9 1 RL 0.1 0.758

// // // // // // // // // // // // // // //

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

GND GND GND NT_3 NT_2 NT_1 NT_3 NT_2 NT_1 NT_10 NT_8 NT_7 NT_9 NT_11 NT_12

NT_12 NT_11 NT_10 NT_2 NT_1 NT_3 GND GND GND NT_3 GND GND GND NT_2 NT_1

!--------------------------------------! Local Transformer Data !--------------------------------------TRANSFORMERS: ! 3 Phase, 2 Winding Transformer !* Name: T32 Tmva: 100.0 MVA, Freq: 50.0 Hz, V1: 230.0 kV, !* Imag1: 0.02 p.u., Imag2: 0.02 p.u., Xl: 0.1 p.u. !* Sat: 0 , 2 / Number of windings... 3 0 0.0 84.1929648956 / 6 0 0.0 4.02259344016 0.0 0.192577481141 / 888 / 2 0 / 4 0 / 888 / 1 0 / 5 0 / !

V2: 11.0 kV

86
DATADSD:

DATADSO:

ENDPAGE