Sections covered: Sections 2.1 4.

6
Chapter 2 Section 2.1 Logical Form and Logical Equivalence Propositional Logic If something is True or False, it is a statement (or proposition). If it cant be determined because there is not enough information or in some cases it is true and other cases it is false, it is not a statement (or proposition). And Inclusive Or Negation or Statement variables (such as p, q, and r) and logical connectives (such as propositional) form. Example of a Truth Table for p T T F F q T F T F T T T F T F F F F T T T F T T F F T T F ) makes up a statement (or Exclusive Or (One or the Other, but not both) NAND (Not And)

Triple Equal Sign ( ) means two statements are equal Tautological statement that is always false. is a statement that is always true and a Contradictory statement Important Laws (VERY IMPORTANT.. MEMORIZE!) Commutative Law Associative Law Distribute Law Identity Law Negation (Inverse) Law Double Negative Law Idempotent Law Universal Bound Law De Morgans Law Absorption Law Subsititute in values for p and q to check this statement works Negations of t and c Logic Algebra Proof Example: Theorem: Proof: Identity Law (Therefore) *Commutative and Associative Property can be used on the same on the same line, but only those two, everything else needs a separate line* is a statement

Section 2.2 Conditional Statements Notation If [sufficient condition] then [necessary condition] Single Statements 1. If (goes in front of) [sufficient condition] 2. Must (goes in front of) [necessary condition] 3. Only If (goes in front of) [necessary condition] 4. [sufficient condition] (goes in front of) If and Only If (goes in front of) [necessary condition] Conditional Logic Implies (Sufficient Conditions Guarantees Results) Bi Conditional (if and only if abbreviated as iff) p q T T F F T F T F (Implication Form) T F T T

*You can conclude anything from a false assumption hence* The converse of The inverse of is is is is

T F F T

The contrapositive of The contradiction of

*Always define variables as positive, Example: Sally wont run if it is raining, I = Sally will run, ~I = Sally wont run* Order of Operations for Logical Operators Evaluate negations first Evaluate and second. When both ate present, parentheses may be needed Evaluate and third. When both are present, parentheses may be needed Equivalent Form Review for Truth Tables and Logic Algebra

Section 2.3 Valid and Invalid Arguments

(Property of Transitivity) Section 2.4 Application: Digital Logic Circuits Conjunctive Normal Form Disjunctive Normal Form

Chapter 3 Notation for This Chapter Natural Numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, ) Integer Numbers (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ) Rational Numbers (-5, 3, 2/5, 9/10, ) Real Numbers (All Real Numbers) Positive Integers Only!, Positive Reals Only!, etc. Such that Element of Implies Section 3.1 Predicates and Quantified Statements I A predicate is a function that has an output of true or false and it has a domain Example { is even Truth Set for P(x) = T = { } }

Quantifiers are used to determine if the predicate is true for all in its domain. Example Universal Quantifier: This quantifier means that the predicate is true for every element in its domain Existential Quantifier: This quantifier means that the predicate is true for at least one domain Example Using Universal Quantifier All Dogs have a Tail Domain : Set of All Dogs Predicate : has a tail [For all x, (where) x is an element of D, x has a tail] Example Using Existential Quantifier There are some sunny days Domain : Set of All Days Predicate : x is a Sunny Day [There exists an x, such that x is an element of D and that day is sunny] Example Hardly anybody likes tornadoes Domain P: Set of all people Predicate P(x) = x likes tornadoes Not everyone wants to go Domain P: Set of all people Predicate G(x) = x wants to go

Example

Section 3.2 Predicates and Quantified Statements II Negating Existential and Universal Quantifier [ Negation Example ] [ ] AND [ ] [ ]

There are some students who like football Domain S: Set of all student Predicate P(x) = x likes football [ [ ] ] [ ] [All students do not like football]

Section 3.3 Statements with Multiple Quantifiers Example Everybody loves Somebody Set of All People Set of All People X loves Y [ ] (The Negation of [ Each child has at least one book Set of All Children Set of All Books x has a y [ ] Formal to Informal Example Set of All Teachers Set of All Text Books X likes Y [ [ [ [ ] (Given any text book, there exists at least one teacher who likes that text book) ] (There is at least one text book that is liked by all teachers) ] (There is at least one teacher who likes all text books) ] (All teachers like at least one text book)

] is [

])

Example

Section 3.4 Arguments with Quantified Statements Examples All dogs are Carnivorous Animals <- Premise All Carnivorous Animals are fast sufficient <- Premise Dogs are fast <- Conclusion

All polynomials are differentiable <- Premise All differential functions are continuous <- Premise All continuous functions have limits at all points <- Premise All polynomials have limits at all points <- Conclusion

Chapter 4 Notation for This Chapter Natural Numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, ) Integer Numbers (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ) Rational Numbers (-5, 3, 2/5, 9/10, ) Real Numbers (All Real Numbers) Positive Integers Only!, Positive Reals Only!, etc. Divisible - Does not Divide Such that Section 4.1 Direct Proof and Counterexample I: Introduction Definitions (IMPORTANT): 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Definition of an Even Integer: is even, if and only if Definition of an Odd Integer: is odd, if and only if Definition of a Prime Integer: is prime, if and only if for , then Definition of a Composite Integer: is composite, if and only if,

where

, if

Definition of Consecutive integers: Two integers are consecutive, if and only if, one is one more than the other

Examples of Direct Proof Theorem: The Sum of Any Even Integer and any Odd Integer is Odd Proof: Let be the even integer and be the odd integer. By definition of even, we have that integer and by definition of odd we have Given By distribution is also an integer is odd for some

where By definition of odd, Theorem: The Product of Two Odd Integers is Odd

Proof: Let and be two odd integers then, by definition of odd we have now we consider Consider [ ] (This fits the definition of odd so is odd) By definition of odd, the product of odd integers is odd Theorem: For All Consider where is an integer By definition of odd, I have that is indeed odd is Odd

and

(1)

Theorem: The Difference of Any Even Integer and Minus Any Odd Integer is Odd Proof: Let be an even integer and be an odd integer, then for by definition of odd Consider where is an integer By previous theorem (1), we know that Theorem: Consecutive Integers have Opposite Parity Proof: Consider integers Case I: Let where and be odd so so so is even by definition of even. is also odd for by definition of even and

Case II: Let be odd so so where is even by definition of even. By all cases, consecutive integers have opposite parity. Section 4.2 - Direct Proof and Counterexample II: Rational Numbers A corollary is a statement whose truth can be immediately deduced from a theorem that has already been proven Definitions (IMPORTANT): 1) 2) Definition of a Rational Number: r is rational, if and only if, Definition of a Irrational Number: A real number that is not rational (seriously..)

Theorem: The Sum of Two Rational Numbers is Also Rational Proof: Consider two rational numbers, . By definition of Rational so So and is rational by definition of rational. and so that where and where , where

The sum of two rational numbers is rational.

Theorem: The Product of Two Rational Numbers is Also Rational Proof: Consider two rational numbers, . Now consider and so that and and where and where . Therefore, the product

and let

is a rational number by definition of rational.

The product of two rational numbers is rational.

Section 4.3 - Direct Proof and Counterexample III: Divisibility Definitions (IMPORTANT): 1) Definition of Divisible: if and only if, of n) and has a zero remainder (This means that d divides n (or d is a divisor

Theorem: , If and , then Proof: Since we know that , we have by the definition of divisible that again by the definition of divisible for

for

and we know

and

Proof: Consider By definition of divisible, Theorem: If Proof: Consider Associative By definition of divisible, Now consider again Commutative Associative By definition of divisible, Theorem: Not Valid then for Counterexample does Let Theorem: Proof: Since Consider and , Then for , for ? then and Since we have the definition of divisible that ,

By definition of divisible. Similarly, since

where is an integer By definition of divisible, . So, if Theorem: If Counterexample: then ,

and

, then

Section 4.4 Direct Proof and Counterexample IV: Division into Cases and the Quotient-Remainder Theorem Formal Definition Given any integer n and positive integer d there exists integers q, r such that Terms: } Example: 43 divided by 7 is 6 with a 1 remainder, So. }

The possibilities for (any integer n) mod 3 is

and the possibilities for (any integer m)

mod 3 is

where q is any integer.

Example Problem: Consider We know that and and [ where Using the Quotient Remainder Theorem: Consider , According to the QRT, an integer n can be represented as . ] where . Find

Section 4.6 Indirect Argument: Contradiction and Contraposition Example of Contrapositive Theorem: For integers If , then Proof by Contrapositive New Statement: If Proof: Given Consider so Then for . by definition of divisible (Given is used when we are using info that is given) Now Multiple through by Integer c By Associative So by definition of divisible The contrapositive is true so then the equivalent original statement is also true. Examples of Contradiction Theorem: , If n is prime, then n is odd and Proof by Contradiction New Statement: Assume n is prime and n is even (Assume is Used with New Statements) Proof: The new statement contradicts the definition of prime since any prime could be divided by itself, 1 and 2. Then by contradiction the original statement is true and all prime numbers > 2 are odd. If n is prime, then n is odd and . Theorem: If r is rational and w is irrational then the sum is irrational Proof by Contradiction New Statement: There exists a situation so that given r is rational and w is irrational, we will assume that the sum is rational. (2)

Proof: Given r is rational rational so Consider

for non-zero integers

by definition of rational and we have assumed

is

for non zero integers

by definition of rational.

So Where

and must

So is rational by definition of rational but w is irrational so this is a contradiction and the sum be irrational. If r is rational and w is irrational then the sum is irrational. Theorem: Part A: Proof: is even Method 1 Set , n is even if and only if is even is even. (If and only if NEED 2 parts) (3)

and [ ] So by definition of even, Part B: is even

. is even.

Method 2 Given is even, then is also even since the product of two even integers is even. So by definition of even, is even.

Proof By Contrapositive New Statement: Proof: So where So by definition of odd, also true. Theorem: is irrational Proof by Contradiction New Statement: Assume is rational and in lowest terms Proof: By definition of rational, for non-zero integers a, b. So and so by definition of even, we have that is even. We also know that a is even by the previous theorem (3) when is even then a is also even and by definition of even, . So So so is even by definition of even and b is even by the previous theorem (3) is not in lowest terms. is irrational is odd. The contrapositive is true therefore the equivalent original statements are is even. is odd By definition of odd and

Contradiction

RECAP ON PROVEN THEOREMS: Theorem: For all is Odd Theorem: , If n is prime, then n is odd and Theorem: , n is even if and only if is even. (1) (2) (3)

NOT PROVEN ON THIS PAGE, BUT PROVEN IN THE BOOK: Theorem: Theorem: , n is odd if and only if if and only if for is odd. . (4) (5)

END OF TEST 1 Comments, Suggestions, or Corrections? Email me at riddlermessages@hotmail.com