HALF-MOON WORKSHOP CURRICULUM ALL THINGS PHOTOVOLTAIC: ELECTRICITY FROM LIGHT

JANUARY 13, 2010 Prepared by: John Pugno EXECUTIVE SUMMARY All Things Photovoltaic is an introduction to solar photovoltaic energy. Solar Photovoltaic technology is the science of converting sunlight into electricity. A brief summary of the US energy industry and the renewable energy sector is reviewed. The instruction material is presented in four modules dealing with solar photovoltaic history, production materials, state of the art technology, system design and implementation, pricing and market incentives. Web based solar tools and case studies will be presented to better orientate the participants as to the reality of solar energy deployment. An extensive definition list and bibliography are included for those participants wishing to continue researching the topic. Participants will: Understand the overall energy matrix and the place of solar photovoltaic energy within the renewable energy sector Be introduced to state of the art solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies in the market and under research and development Be introduced to the structure, operating principles and manufacturing techniques for solar PV technology Grasp the history and trajectory of the industry Understand design parameters, system sizing and key components and how to utilize web based open source analytical tools Understand system life cycle and energy payback period Review government and utility sponsored incentive programs Review current market potential at local, national and global levels Look at different scenario case studies of current applications Be able to make strategic business decisions regarding solar photovoltaic projects

COURSE OUTLINE Introduction: USA Energy Industry and Renewable Energy Sector Module 1: Solar Photovoltaic History and Energy Basics Solar Photovoltaic History Fundamentals of Electro-Magnetic Radiation Quantum Physics and Wave-Particle Duality Solar Radiation and Insolation Energy Basics -

Power vs. Energy Conversion Table

Module 2: Solar Photovoltaic Materials, Manufacturing and Technology Solar Photovoltaic Technology Breakdown 2009 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Overview Solar Cells Doping Production Summary Solar Inefficiencies

1st Generation Crystalline Silicon Monocrystalline Silicon Multicrystalline Silicon Ingot growth

2nd Generation Thin Film Comparison between 1st and 2nd Generation Technologies

3rd Generation Tandem Cells Solar Photovoltaic Historical Milestones The Future of Solar Cells Solar Photovoltaic Materials Summary Solar Cell Research and Development Goals

Module 3: Solar Photovoltaic System Design and Payback Analysis

Site Specific Considerations Off-Grid vs. Grid-Tie Systems Balance of Systems (BOS) System Components Building Integrated Installation Energy Pay Back Time

System Pricing Open Source Analytical Tools RETScreen International PV Watts

Module 4: Solar Photovoltaic Incentive Programs and Market Potential

Utility Sponsored Incentive Programs Detroit Edison Solar Currents Program (Case Study) Detroit Edison Solar Currents Financial Analysis

Solar Photovoltaic Market Potential Barriers to Entry

Appendix
Definition List Bibliography Web Links

INTRODUCTION: RENEWABLE ENERGY INDUSTRY The US Energy industry is made up of a complex mix of a variety of energy generation technologies and applications. The chart below demonstrates the current portfolio of energy production methods, consumption and overall efficiency. The sources of energy are these: hydro (2.71%), biomass (2.8%), geothermal (0.3%), wind (0.15%), solar (0.006%), nuclear (8.1%), coal (22.9%), natural gas (22.7%) and petroleum (40.1%). On the consumption side are; residential (11.6%), commercial (8.5%), industrial (24.3%), light-duty vehicles (17.01%), freight (7.6%) and aircraft (3.4%). The infrastructure is running at 42.8% efficiency, meaning an astounding 57.2% of the energy generated is lost.
2008 Energy Production and Use Matrix

Source: US Department of Energy

Note: Solar energy accounts for only 0.006% of the overall energy matrix. In the move towards reducing pollution and improving efficiencies solar and other renewable energy technologies are scheduled to gain a significant share of the energy generation portfolio in the coming years.

Renewable Energy is a quickly accelerating industry both globally and nationally. The graph presented below focus on the USA electric sector and demonstrates the expected growth renewable electricity generation as part of the overall electricity portfolio. Currently, renewable energy makes up 4% of the electric generation pie and is expected to grow by 300% to 15% of the portfolio by 2030. This growth represents an estimated $170

Billion dollars and 850,000 new jobs (source: US Department of Energy). Solar PV shares a portion of the renewable energy sector together with wind power, bio-energy, plug-in electric vehicles (PEV), ocean energy, hydro and hydrogen generation.

Source: Electrical Power Research Institute

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions, resulting primarily from the burning of fossil fuels, is the critical issue of the green movement and the motivating factor in the move towards a more balanced energy portfolio. The graph presented below shows the projected reduction in CO2 emissions by the year 2030 if the portfolio presented in figure 2-2 (above) is implemented. The results show a 58% reduction in CO2 levels compared to 2005 levels and the reduction comes from seven initiatives: energy efficiency, renewable energy, nuclear energy, fossil efficiencies, carbon capture and storage (CCS), PEV and electricity technologies (replaces dirty fossil fuel burning with cleaner technologies for electricity generation). Solar PV plays a part in this overall reduction as a segment of renewable energy.

EPRI CO2 Reduction Projection Based On PRISM Analysis

Sources: Electrical Power Research Institute

Although, Solar PV is a relatively small segment of the renewable energy portfolio, worldwide capacity is significant. As seen by the graph below the production of solar PV modules was close to 5 GW in 2008 and is expected to increase to 20+ GW by 2012.

Source: isupply.com

Module 1: Solar Photovoltaic History and Energy Basics

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC HISTORY The Photovoltaic Effect was first recognized by French physicist Edmond Becquerel in 1839 while experimenting with an electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes placed in an electricity conducting solution, which generated more electricity when exposed to light. This phenomena was named the photo-voltaic circuit by Alfred Smee in 1849 (see text from the book, Elements of Electro-Biology below). The first solar cell was built by Charles Fritts in 1883 who used selenium and gold to produce a 1% efficient solar cell. The modern cell was patented by Russell Ohl in 1946 and serious work began on improving solar cell efficiency by Bell laboratories in 1954. It was not until NASA took interest in the technology that real gains were made and a 6% efficient cell was deployed for the US satellite, Vanguard 1, launched in 1958. First Use of the Term Photovoltaic in 1849

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION An overview of the basics of the electro-magnetic wave is helpful to better understand how solar cells work and the focus of current research and development initiatives. Our sun, a ball of fire composed of 75% Hydrogen, is an ongoing nuclear fusion reactor sending energy throughout the solar system in the form of electro-magnetic radiation. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum ranges from the ultra-tiny gamma rays measured in nanometers to the large radio waves measures in kilometers. The visible light spectrum makes up the

middle portion of the EM spectrum and is measured in micrometers. On either side of the visible light spectrum lie ultraviolet and infrared waves. Solar Photovoltaic technology utilizes primarily the visible light spectrum, although recent advances have targeted both ultraviolet and infrared portions of the EM spectrum. The Electro-Magnetic Spectrum

Source: NASA

QUANTUM PHYSICS AND WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY Solar Photovoltaic technology, especially thin film, is considered a quantum or space age technology. To better understand why, a short summary of the major advances in physics from the turn of the 20th century is presented. In 1900, Max Planck began the Quantum Physics revolution with the introduction of the wave-particle duality phenomena. Albert Einstein followed soon after by dubbing the particle side of the duality, photons. A photon is a quanta or packet of light energy that has mass and exhibits particle like qualities. Photons make up the electro-magnet wave and different wave-lengths represent different intensities of energy as measured as frequency multiplied by Plancks constant (6.626 x 10-34 J/s). Nikolia Tesla discovered in 1901 that metal ejects electrons when illuminated by highfrequency light (ultraviolet rays). This further proved that light will produce a current when exposed to certain materials. The following year, Philipp Lenard discovered that the energy of these ejected electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but on its frequency. So if one shines a little low-frequency light upon a metal, a few low energy electrons are ejected. If one now shines a very intense beam of low-frequency light upon the same metal, a whole slew of electrons are ejected; however they possess the same low energy, there are merely more of them. In order to get high energy electrons, one must illuminate the metal with high-frequency light. The more light there is, the more electrons are ejected. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveparticle_duality) Electrons of a certain energy represented as a frequency can only be ejected from the surface of materials if the energy of the incoming photon is greater, and the high frequency light photons have greater energy and are able to dislodge enough electrons to produce an electric current.

SOLAR RADIATION The earth is constantly bombarded by solar radiation in the form of an electro-magnetic wave. The Suns total energy is composed of 7% ultraviolet radiation, 47% visible radiation and 46% infrared (heat) radiation. (Sen p. 63) Not all of the energy hitting the earth penetrates the atmosphere. A portion of the energy is reflected immediately and other parts are absorbed by gases in our atmosphere such as Ozone (O3). The energy penetrating the atmosphere is greatly made up of the visible light spectrum, which can then be measured to understand the energy available for harnessing. On a clear day direct radiation (radiation penetrating directly through the atmosphere) can approach 1 kW/m2 and this is known as solar power density.

Source: NASA

Component Albedo (prompt reflection away) Heat (absorption of radiant energy) Hydrologic cycle (water distribution) Kinetic Energy (wind energy) Photosynthesis (chemical energy)
Source: Kruger pg. 18

Percent 30-35% 43% 22% 0.2% 0.02%

The charts below show the Suns energy as it reaches earth in terms of wavelength and energy content (Irradiance in Wm2/mm). The highest energy wavelengths make up the visible light spectrum, and is the portion of the solar beam that photovoltaic panels most readily capture.

source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/solar_power.htm

Insolation Insolation is the measure of solar radiation energy as represented by kWh per day considering an area of 1 m2 (kWh/m2/day) at ground level. The NASA web site: http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/grid.cgi?uid=3030 provides comprehensive data for insolation and other key climate indicators. According to the model provided, Michigan has a yearly average insolation level of 3.58, which means the solar radiation energy is 3.58 kWh/m2/day. This figure provides the information necessary to complete solar energy production predictions for any given location and is used for solar energy modeling.

ENERGY BASICS Power vs. Energy Energy is most commonly defined as the ability to perform work. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the sum of all forms of energy in a closed system is constant. Humans are only able to harness energy through transforming it. Power is the rate at which energy is transformed and is commonly measured in Watts = Current (amps) x Voltage (volts). Conceptually, Power is identical to energy except for the addition of the time factor. When dealing with electricity, power capacity is the base unit as measured by Watts generated in one hour and energy is measured by multiplying Watts by the number of hours in production arriving at the unit Watt hours (Wh). This is a complicated unit as we are taking a power (watt) multiplied by time (one hour) and again by time (# of hours). For this reason, there is often confusion between capacity (power), as measured by watts, and output energy as measured by watt hours. Electrical energy is power flowing through time. Conversion Table Energy kWh Btu Calorie Ft-lb J POWER kW HP Ft-lb
Source: Kruger pg. 21

kWh
1 0.000293 0.00000116 0.000000377 0.000000278

Btu
3,412 1 0.00397 0.00128 0.000948

Calorie
860 0.252 1 0.000324 0.000239

Ft-lb
2,650,000 778 3.09 1 0.738

J (10^7 Erg)
36,000,000 1,054 4.18 1.36 1

KW
1 0.746 0.000225

HP
1.34 1 0.000303

FTLB/MIN
44,400 33,000 1

Module 2: Solar Photovoltaic Materials, Manufacturing and Technology Solar PV Technology Breakdown 2009
1st Generation Crystalline 85% of overall market 2nd Generation Thinfilm 15% of overall market

c-SI 45%

mc-SI 55%

a-SI 95%

CdTe CIGS GaAs Nc-Si 5%

3rd Generation New to Market in 2009

Microcyrstalline, a-Si Tandem Cells

Source: John Pugno

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW Solar Cells The photovoltaic effect takes place as photons of light containing packets or quanta of energy enter the silicon material and knock loose electrons from the valence band or the outer band of electrons surrounding the silicon atoms.

Source: http://photochemistry.epfl.ch/EDEY/NREL.pdf

As these electrons are in a relatively loose state, they are easily jostled and as long as the energy contained in the photon is greater than the binding energy of the individual electron, it can be knocked out of its orbit. The key to a successful photovoltaic effect is a small band-gap, which is the area the electron must cross from its original orbit in the valence band to the conduction band where the electrons energy is directed outside of the solar cell through metal contacts into an external wire in the form of electricity. For insulator and semiconductor materials, the valence and conduction bands are separated by a region called the band-gap. The band-gap is a region of forbidden energy levels, as defined by the quantum aspects of modern atomic theory. The difference between the lowest energy level of the conduction band and the highest energy level of the valence band is called the bandgap energy (Eg). (source: http://photochemistry.epfl.ch/EDEY/NREL.pdf) Semiconductor solar cells have the capacity to absorb light and to deliver a portion of the energy of the absorbed photons to carriers of electrical current as electrons and holes. A solar cell is simply a semiconductor diode that has been carefully designed and constructed to efficiently absorb and convert light energy from the sun into electrical energy. (Gray pg. 61) When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen: 1. the photon can pass straight through the silicon; this (generally) happens for lower energy photons, 2. the photon can reflect off the surface, 3. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat, depending on the band structure. When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between

neighboring atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-hole pairs. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell) The creation of electron-hole pairs via the absorption of sunlight is fundamental to the operation of solar cells. The excitation of an electron directly from the valence band (leaving a hole behind) to the conduction band is called fundamental absorption. (Luque pg. 70) A good material with high chemical purity and structural perfections is required to fight the natural tendency of the conduction band electrons to return to the valence band. The loss process of electrons unable to reach the conduction band from the valence band is called recombination. To avoid this, the electrons must be highly mobile, as in perfect silicon. Impurities and imperfection can rob electrons of the necessary energy required to reach the conduction-band. Doping In order for solar grade silicon to produce an electric current a process called doping is carried out in the production of the solar cells. The Doping process injects two layers to the silicon, one contains boron and named p-type (positive type) and the second contains phosphorous and called n-type (negative type). The addition of these impurities to the silicon materials allows a current to be established within the solar cell itself and that current is harnessed by metal plates attached to the solar cells. When an n-type semiconductor comes into contact with a p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. Production Summary The production of solar panels is extremely intense and required significant amounts of prime material and coupled with high heat and rigorous processes. High purity silicon is first cast into individual ingots or blocks by heating it to its melting point of 2,577 F and then allowed to solidify under a well-defined temperature gradient. Wire saws are used to cut the wafers out of the ingots, which use wires several km long and 200 micrometers in diameter. Final wafers are 200-300 micrometers thick and 125-156 mm on each side. 5060% of the initial material is lost in this process, literally pulverized in the process of cutting. (see next section for greater detail on the production process)

Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Cross Section

Source: ARC Photovoltaic Centre of Excellence, Annual Report 2008

Working Mechanism of a Solar Cell

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell , http://www.specmat.com/Overview%20of%20Solar%20Cells.htm

Solar Inefficiencies Solar cells have theoretical limits to how much energy they can produce. When considering single junction cells, this limit is placed close to 44% and 60% for a multi-junction cell structure. These inefficiencies can be partially overcome by combining different materials in multi-junction solar cells, but become more costly with each additional layer. Solar inefficiencies are caused by: overexcited photons or underpowered photons reflectivity internal shadowing recombination heating losses

FIRST GENERATION CRYSTALLINE SILICON Monocrystalline Silicon (c-Si) Silicon (Si) is one of the most abundant materials on earth. The traditional solar cell is constructed of monocrystalline silicon through a complex production process. First, metallurgical grade (MG) is obtained by reduction of quartz with coke in an arc furnace. Then it is strongly purified by fractional distillation of chlorosilanes, which are obtained from the reaction of HCl with Si. Finally, silanes are reduced with hydrogen at high temperatures to produce hyper-pure silicon, usually called semiconductor grade (SG) silicon or polysilicon. The polysilicon now has the desired purity (unwanted impurities below 1 ppb (parts per billion) level, but its structural quality is still deficient. The structural quality is improved by melting polysilicon and freezing or allowing it to solidify very slowly around a rotating crystalline seed. The material is then doped with phosphorous atoms on one side and boron atoms on the other. Metallic grids are printed on the doped zones and the monocrystalline solar cell is now finished. (Luque pgs. 24-25) Monocrystalline Silicon has been the material of choice of the solar photovoltaic market since its creation in the early 1950s. Silicon has been relied on due to the abundance of the material and the amount of research already invested in the semiconductor grade silicon as applied to the computer industry. Until recently, monocrystalline silicon dominated the solar photovoltaic market worldwide due to its solid history (50 + years under development) and the ready availability of the material thanks to the computer industry. As demand has increased, the available material from the computer industry has not been able to fulfill the production requirements so new methods and materials have become more popular. Recently, multicrystalline silicon has equaled monocrystalline silicon in terms of production. Multicrystalline Silicon (mc-Si) Multicrystalline silicon is produced in the same manner as monocrystalline silicon only it uses a lower grade version of the silicon, resulting in larger lattice crystals with more impurities. Multicrystalline silicon has advantages and drawbacks when compared to monocrystalline silicon. The production process is less intensive as the crystalline has a higher tolerance for errors and thus requires less energy to produce. The multicrystalline wafers are square in shape and fit better into modules than the circular monocrystalline wafers. The offset is that multicrystalline is about 2% less efficient on average than monocrystalline silicon. Recent improvements in the manufacturing process of the multicrystalline silicon have resulted in it becoming the solar PV technology of choice between all technologies.

Multicrystalline Silicon

Source: http://www.fotosearch.com/photos-images/solar-cell_2.html

Ingot Growth The process of manufacturing monocrystalline and polycrystalline is extremely intense and result in 50% loss of primary solar grade silicon during the formation and cutting process. Wafers are cut out of silicon blocks called ingots. The ingots are cast from molten silicon or the material is melted by induction heating using strong electromagnetic fields. The step of sawing out the wafers reduces much of the starting material to powder and a considerable amount of energy is wasted, worsening the energy balance and increasing the production costs. Only new technologies, such as thin-film, can solve the production inefficiencies of traditional, 1st generation solar PV. (Wengenmayr p. 34) Multicrystalline Silicon Installation

Source: TSNergy, Inc.

SECOND GENERATION THIN FILM Thin film technologies are the quickest growing segment of the photovoltaic industry as efficiencies are gaining on 1st Generation PV. The major thin-film technologies most successfully developed to date are amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdT), copper indium diselenide (CIS) and gallium arsenide (GaAs). Thin film greatly reduces the amount of primary material needed by using much thinner wafers, often measured in nanometers (1 billionth of a meter). It is deposited from hydride gases such as SiH4 directly to the substrate and uses plasma to decompose the gas. Thin film can also be deposited on cheaper substrate material such as plastic. Although a thin film solar cell is about half the efficiency of traditional crystalline, the savings in the production process result in a more cost effective solution. Thin film has additional advantages as it is able to absorb a greater portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and is not hindered as much by shading as First Generation crystalline. One of the major drawbacks is that thin film does not have as strong a research and development base as traditional crystalline.

Thin Film Ground Mount Installation

Source:Renewableenergyworld.com

Comparison between 1st and 2nd Generation Photovoltaic Technology: POSTIVE ATTRIBUTES Crystalline Solar Cells Thin-film Solar Cells Higher Efficiency Higher output per dollar invested Less Space requirement due to higher Lower production costs efficiency Solid R&D base, proven long term (30+ Less environmental impact due to less years) performance material in production process Greater worldwide production capacity Not effected by external temperature differences Shading only impacts shaded portion Utilizes larger portion of the EM spectrum, higher output in cloudy conditions
Source: John Pugno

THIRD GENERATION TANDEM CELLS Microcrystalline Silicon and Amorphous Silicon Multi-junction (or tandem) cells offer the efficiency of First Generation for the price of Second Generation. The graph below presents the target costs and efficiency for Third Generation solar PV technology as compared to First and Second Generation technologies.

Source: ARC Photovoltaic Centre of Excellence, Annual Report 2008

Third Generation solar photovoltaic cells are just now entering the market place both nationally and globally. As production levels increase, solar energy projects should become more common place as payback returns are greatly reduced.

Solar Photovoltaic Historical Milestones

Year 1883 1953/4 1957 1958 1959 1960 1976 1985 1994 1996 2003 2004 2005 Type of Solar Cell Selenium (photo cell) Monocrystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Amorphous silicon (thinfilm) Monocrystalline silicon Gallium indium phosphide/gallium arsenide, with concentrator Photoelectrochemical, Gratzel CIS thin-film Multicrystalline silicon Aluminum gallium indium phosphide/gallium indium arsenide/germanium; three layers, with concentrator Triple junction cell with concentrator Efficiency Nearly 1% 4.5-6% 8% 9% 10% 14% 1.1% 20% Over 30% 11.2% 19.2% 20.3% 39% Developer Charles Fritts, USA Bell Labs, USA Hoffmann Electronics, USA Hoffmann Electronics, USA Hoffmann Electronics, USA Hoffmann Electronics, USA RCA Laboratories, USA University of New South Wales, Australia National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL), USA ETH Lausanne, Switzerland NREL, USA Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg, Germany Boeing Spectrolab, USA

2007

42.8%

University of Delaware, USA

Source: Wiley-VCH

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PVeff(rev110707)d.png

THE FUTURE OF SOLAR CELLS The ultimate advance in solar cell technology is organic solar cells, mimicking the photosynthesis process to create electricity. Organic solar cells use dyes as the absorption material. The current world record for organic solar cell efficiency stands at 6.7%. The payoff for developing organic PV cells is in its promise of low-cost production and high throughput. Organic Cell Structure with Photos

Source: IMEC, http://www2.imec.be/imec_com/scaling-driven-nanoelectronics.php

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIALS SUMMARY c-Si: Crystalline Silicon [Traditional, or 1st Gen.] mc-Si: Multi-Crystalline [Traditional, 1st Gen.] a-Si: Amorphous Crystalline [Thin-Film, 2nd Gen.] CdTe: Cadmium Telluride [Thin Film, 2nd Gen.] CIGD: Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide [Thin Film] GaAs: Gallium Arsenide [High Efficiency Single-Crystalline Thin-film, Expensive] Nc-Si: NanoCrystalline Silicon [Thin film] Tandem or multi-junction, combines different materials to cover a greater portion of the radiation spectrum [Thin film, 3rd Gen.] Organic

SOLAR CELL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Use less semiconductor material by making thinner cells Use less expensive semiconductor materials Improve solar cell performance with less expensive, less perfect semiconductors Even with poorer material, keep a high production yield Increase material utilization by reducing waste in semiconductor and cell fabrication Increase solar cell flux on the solar cells by using concentrators without increasing cost or optical losses too much 7) Increase solar radiation utilization by absorbing more of the electro-magnetic spectrum efficiently 8) Increase speed and throughput of manufacturing process 9) Simplify processing steps (this reduces fabrication costs and increases the yield) and reduce equipment costs 10) Reduce costs and improve reliability of Balance of Systems (BOS)

Module 3: Solar Photovoltaic System Design and Payback Analysis

SITE SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS When considering the correct solar PV technology to apply in a project the factors to consider are: The area available for the installation (southern exposure with minimal shading) Is there sufficient ground area to consider a ground-mount system? Insolation level at the site location Grid-tie or off-grid system? Take into account local utility incentive programs. Site visibility, does the customer want to see the system or keep it hidden? Budget

To determine what size system to deploy a good start is the clients utility bill. A one year history is required to determine yearly consumption. An example of a Detroit Edison one year bill:

Usage in KWH 2009 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TOTAL 30-Day Average** 2908 1756 1743 1582 2845 1396 1153 1884 1572 2008 5102 4838 4211 4063 3935 2751 1896 2383 2220 1950 1524 2156 2007 5791 2856 2350 1889 6270 2463 4771 4317 4062 3913 5369 2009

Amount Billed 2008 $630.65 $597.37 $520.31 $502.15 $459.56 $340.02 $231.35 $298.25 $277.35 $242.85 $188.65 $268.80 2007 $693.92 $345.35 $283.24 $226.26 $760.34 $292.83 $577.38 $520.76 $490.04 $472.28 $660.53

Days Billed 2009 2008 34 31 32 30 29 34 29 33 31 283 31 32 29 30 31 29 32 30 30 30 28 32 364 2007 63 34 29 29 61 31 28 32 30 28 33 398

$377.92 $219.96 $220.92 $200.85 $362.47 $177.68 $147.62 $245.47 $209.66

16,839 37,029 44,051 1,785 3,052 3,320

$2,162.55 $4,557.31 $5,322.93 $229.25 $375.60 $401.23

Based on the yearly consumption and specific site requirements, such as; available space, desired percent offset and available budget, a final energy production proposal is quickly established. OFF-GRID vs. GRID-TIE SYSTEMS Historically, most solar PV systems have been off-grid as in the past solar PV was only financially viable in locations with no grid connection. As prices have continually dropped, Grid-tie systems are becoming more popular. An additional reason for the increase in interest in grid-tie systems is the incentive programs that are being established by government and private interests. We will review a local program sponsored by Detroit Edison in more detail below. In addition, grid-tie systems to not require batteries, lowering the lifetime project cost by close to 25% and significantly reducing maintenance. BALANCE OF SYSTEMS (BOS) When considering a solar PV installation, a number of additional parts are required to bring the system on-line. This is referred to as the Balance of Systems and must be carefully considered to avoid underpricing a solar energy proposal. The components presented below are required for most installations. (Note: Batteries are usually not considered in Grid-tied systems)

System Components (Grid-Tie and Offgrid): Photovoltaic Module Charge Controller Batteries (off-grid) Inverter Rectifier Wires Lightning Protection Over-current Protection Disconnects Smart-Grid Applications Meter Renewable Energy Credit (REC) Meter Real-time Software Building Integrated Installation

Source: NREL

Energy Pay Back Time (EPBT) Embodied Energy is the amount of energy required to extract raw materials, manufacture solar cells and install the system, including all BOS materials. Embodied energy is compared with the solar PV output/year to calculate the Energy Payback Time (EPBT). The EPBT shows how long it takes before energy investments are compensated by energy yield.

Source: US Department of Energy

SYSTEM PRICING Solar Panels have been steadily reducing in cost in the last ten years and now can be purchased for as low as $2.20/Watt. When taking into consideration the BOS, the cost for solar energy installed ranges from $5.50/Watt to $10.00/Watt depending on the size and site specific requirements. The following chart shows estimated cost per Watt compared with system size as a guideline. System Capacity in kW 1 5 10 100 500 1,000 10,000 + Installed Cost per Watt $10.00 $9.00 $8.00 $7.00 $6.50 $6.00 $5.50

These costs are expected to come down significantly as Third Generation technology penetrates the market. Theoretically, the next three years could yield a 50% reduction in

solar panel costs. Coupled with improvements in the BOS design and components a cost of $3.00/Watt could be reached in the next three to five years. At that cost, Solar PV becomes a serious competitor in the energy sector and aggressive solar incentive programs will no longer be necessary.

OPEN SOURCE SOLAR ENERGY ANALYTICAL TOOLS A host of free web based analytical tools are available to project planners to assist in the proposal and budget process. We will review two options: RETscreen International and PV Watts. RETScreen International
Download the program at: http://www.retscreen.net/ang/download.php

Resource assessment Solar tracking mode Slope Azimuth

Show data

Fixed 30.0

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Annual solar radiation - horizontal Annual solar radiation - tilted Photovoltaic Type Power capacity Manufacturer Model Efficiency Nominal operating cell temperature Temperature coefficient Solar collector area Control method Miscellaneous losses Inverter Efficiency Capacity Miscellaneous losses Summary Capacity factor Electricity delivered to load Electricity exported to grid MWh/m MWh/m

Daily solar radiation horizontal kWh/m/d 4.62 5.58 6.74 7.44 7.92 7.73 7.44 6.90 6.22 5.79 4.83 4.18 6.29 2.29 2.38

Daily solar radiation - tilted kWh/m/d 6.13 6.79 7.31 7.13 6.89 6.45 6.35 6.37 6.37 6.76 6.18 5.65 6.53

Electricity export rate $/MWh 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.0 180.00

Electricity exported to grid MWh 69.74 69.64 82.97 78.33 78.24 70.80 71.92 71.99 69.66 76.27 67.64 64.20 871.41

kW

% C % / C m %

a-Si 500.00 Kaneka G-Type 6.1% 45 0.11% 8,197 Maximum power point tracker

1 unit(s)

% kW %

75.0% 500.0

% MWh MWh

19.9% 0.00 871.41

Source: RETScreen International PV WATTS Download program at:

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/codes_algs/PVWATTS/version2/readmefirst.html

Source: PV Watts

Module 4: Solar Photovoltaic Incentive Programs and Market Potential

UTILITY SPONSORED PROGRAMS Detroit Edison: Solar Currents Program (Case Study)
http://www.dteenergy.com/residentialCustomers/productsPrograms/solarCurrents/solarCurrents .html A Detroit Edison Solar Currents sponsored installation is considered for the

following case study. The installation is an 8.1 kW Thin Film Ground Mount system and is operating on a net metering agreement with Detroit Edison. 8.1 kW DC Thin Film Solar Photovoltaic Array

Source: TSNergy, Inc.

The Solar Currents program was established in September, 2009 as an incentive program to stimulate the solar PV market in Michigan and to assist Detroit Edison in attaining the mandated 10% renewable energy portfolio by 2015. The program is based on a new market for Renewable Energy Credits (RECs), called MIRECs (http://www.mirecs.org/). Detroit Edison invests $2.40/Watt and enters into a 20 year Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) to buy the renewable electricity generated by the system at a fixed rate of $0.11/kWh. This allows the utility to own the renewable energy in the form of RECs. The following chart shows the initial investment, net investment, net metering energy offset, REC sales and payback period for the project.

Detroit Edison Solar Currents Program Financial Analysis System Investment @ $8.00/Watt Federal Tax Rebate @ 30% Detroit Edison REC investment @ $2.40/Watt Net System Investment Estimated System Output/Year (Michigan) Net Metering Offset Value/Year* REC Payment Value/Year Simple Payback Period* 20 Year Simple Payback amount* *Does not consider cost of energy increase

$64,800 $19,440 $19,440 $25,920 9,500 kWh $1,045 $1,045 12.4 years $15,880

Taking into consideration government and utility incentives, a grid-tied solar PV system becomes a viable long term business proposition as the client will see a return on their investment in 12 years and earn $15,880 over the 20 year term of the agreement. This analysis does not take into consideration the increasing traditional energy rates, which could reduce payback times to close to 8 years and increase the 20 year payback accordingly.

SOLAR PV MARKET POTENTIAL (GRAPHS) The following graphs are presented to give participants an idea of the market opportunity for solar photovoltaic initiatives. The market began to achieve significant growth in 2005 and is now doubling in size each year. Represented below are global and national investment figures, net revenues and profit margins and merger and acquisition activity. It is clear that the solar photovoltaic market place is experiencing an aggressive growth period and this trend is expected to continue well into the future as overall costs decrease and demand increases. Note: Germany, Japan and USA represent 90% of the global production and application of solar PV technology. (Wengenmayr p. 34)

Barriers to Entry for the Solar PV market: High cost/kW installed Limited supply of raw materials Old mentality slows down rapid deployment Limited availability of capable installers Low efficiencies Balance of Systems are not as reliable as solar cells: 5-8 yrs for most parts as opposed to 30-40 year solar cell lifetime.

APPENDIX
Definitions Bibliography Key Links

Definition List Photovoltaic Effect The transformation of solar radiation into electricity. Photons Particles of light energy measured as a frequency in eV when multiplying Hz by Plancks constant. Watt - The unit of electrical power. The power developed when a current of one ampere flows through a potential difference of one volt. Watt Hour (Wh) - A unit of energy equal to one watt of power connected for one hour. Electron Volt - An energy unit equal to the energy an electron acquires when it passes through a potential difference of one volt; it is equal to 1.602 x 10-19 V. Doping The process of deliberately adding a known impurity to a pure semiconductor material. By doping lattice atoms are replaced by atoms having a higher or lower valence. Semiconductors materials consisting of weakly bonded electrons occupying a band of energy called the valence band. When energy exceeding a certain threshold, called the band-gap energy, is applied to a valence electron, the bonds are broken and the electron is free to move around in a new energy band called the conduction band where it can conduct electricity through the material. The free electrons in the conduction band are separated from the valence band by the band gap. The energy needed to free the electrons can be supplied by photons, which are particles of light. Electron Affinity binding energy of an electron in a state at the lower boundary of the conduction band. Silicon (Si) - A chemical element, atomic number 14, semi-metallic in nature, dark gray, an excellent semiconductor material. A common constituent of sand and quartz (as the oxide). Crystallizes in face-centered cubic lattice like a diamond. The most common semiconductor material used in making photovoltaic devices. Crystalline Silicon - A type of PV cell made from a single crystal or polycrystalline slice of silicon. Multicrystalline Silicon - A material used to make PV cells which consist of many crystals as contrasted with single crystal silicon. It is developed from metallurgical-grade silicon, which is cheaper than electronic-grade silicon but have more impurities. Amorphous Semiconductor - A non-crystalline semiconductor material that has no longrange order. It was discovered by Yoshiher Hamakawa of the Osaka University in Japan in 1966. The theoretical efficiencies are usually no more than 8%.

p-type Semiconductor Silicon doped with Boron making positive holes to carry current. n-type Semiconductor Silicon doped with phosphorus resulting in negative electrons to carry current. Czochralski Process - A method of growing large size, high quality semiconductor crystal by slowly lifting a seed crystal from a molten bath of the material under careful cooling conditions. Ingots Large Silicon blocks produced through intense manufacturing processes. Wafers Flat discs of Silicon cut out of solar grade crystalline ingots. Chemical Vapor Deposition - A method of depositing thin semiconductor films. With this method, a substrate is exposed to one or more vaporized compounds, one or more of which contain desirable constituents. A chemical reaction is initiated, at or near the substrate surface, to produce the desired material that will condense on the substrate. Recombination some carriers recombine with a carrier of opposite sign, thus eliminating both. This usually happens at a defect or impurity in the crystal. Reflectivity A loss in solar PV cell efficiency is impossible to avoid due to photons reflecting from the surface of the cell itself. Air Mass Zero A measure of how absorption in the atmosphere affects the spectral conduct and intensity of the solar radiation reaching the Earths surface. Valence Band The area of the solar cell in which the normal lattice state of the absorption material is preserved. Band-Gap - For insulator and semiconductor materials, the valence and conduction bands are separated by a region called the band-gap. The band-gap is a region of forbidden energy levels, as defined by the quantum aspects of modern atomic theory. Band-Gap Energy - The difference between the lowest energy level of the conduction band and the highest energy level of the valence band. Conduction Band The area of the solar cell that captures the electric current and directs it outside the solar cell via metallic bands. Heterojunctions Solar cells composed of two different semiconductors. This allows for design flexibility leading to a larger built-in potential and a higher open-circuit voltage than homojunction cells.

Recombination - The loss process of electrons unable to reach the conduction band from the valence band. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) - The designation of a power supply providing continuous uninterruptible service. The UPS will contain batteries. Hybrid System - A PV system that includes other sources of electricity generation, such as wind or diesel generators. Irradiance - The solar power incident on a surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied by time equals Insolation. Isolation The amount of sunlight in hitting any point on earth calculated as kW/m2 Insolation - The solar radiation incident on an area over time. Equivalent to energy and usually expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter. Peak Sun Hours - The equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1,000 w/m2. For example, six peak sun hours means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would have been received had the irradiance for six hours been 1,000 W/m2. Embodied Energy Resources utilized in the entire manufacture and installation process of solar photovoltaic cells; from resource extraction, through manufacturing, product installation and use until end of life. Energy Pay Back Time A calculation determining the amount of time it takes to pay back the fossil fuel embodied energy in the solar photovoltaic cells. It is calculated by dividing the embodied Energy by the annual energy output. Diffuse Radiation Solar radiation deflected or scattered by the earths atmosphere. Packing Factor The ratio of area occupied by PV cells in a module to the actual area of the module; it is a key factor in calculating overall system efficiency for sizing purposes. Renewable Energy Credits A form of carbon bonds utilized by government and utilities to track Renewable Energy portfolios and amount of pollution mitigated in an open market atmosphere. Electro-Magnetic Spectrum The White Ray of light issuing from the Sun and broken into a number of different wave lengths from Ultra-violet (measured in nanometers) to Gamma Rays (measured in miles).

Balance of Systems All the components required in addition to solar PV modules to complete a system, including; batteries, control unit, inverter, mechanical support structure, electric cabling, protection devices, meters, automatic transfer switch and a breaker. Solar Power Density The amount of direct radiation at the earths surface, can approach 1 kW/m2 on a clear day. Direct Solar Radiation Solar radiation that travels in a straight line from the sun to the earths surface. Beam Radiation The solar radiation received from the sun without scatter by the atmosphere. Diffuse Radiation The scattered solar radiation absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. Renewable Energy Credits A bond market created to capture and measure carbon emissions through renewable energy systems and is often utilized to help utilities reach mandated renewable energy portfolio standards. Embodied Energy - is the amount of energy required to extract raw materials, manufacture solar cells and install the system, including all BOS materials. Energy Payback Time (EPBT) - Embodied energy is compared with the solar PV output/year to calculate the EPBT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Maycock, Paul D., Photovoltaics, Sunlight to Electricity in One Step. Brick House Publishing Co., Andover, MA 2004 Komp, Richard J., Practical Photovoltaics; Electricity From Solar Cells. Aatec Publications, Ann Arbor, MI 2002 Hutchins, M.M., Solar Optical Materials. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England 1988 Wengenmayr, Roland. Renewable Energy; Sustainable Energy Concepts For the Future. Wiley-VCH 2009 US Department of Energy. Solar Photovoltaic Applications Seminar. PRC Energy Analysis Company 1980 Schaeffer, John. Solar Living Source Book. New Society Publishers. Gabriola Island, BC 2006

Evans, Robert L. Fueling Our Future; An Introduction to Sustainable Energy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 2007 Wade, Herbert A. Solar Photovoltaic Systems Technical Training Manual. UNESCO Publishing, France. 2003 Scheer, Hermann. The Solar Economy; Renewable Energy for a Sustainable Global Future. Earthscan Publications, Sterling, VA 2002 Odum, Howard T. Environment, Power, and Society; The Hierarchy of Energy. Columbia University Press, Chichester, West Sussex 2007 Bubenzer, A. Photovoltaics Guidebook for Decision Makers. Springer, Berlin 2003 Braun, Harry. The Phoenix Project; An Energy Transition to Renewable Resources. Scientific Publications and Productions. Phoenix, AZ 1990 Inslee, Jay. Appollos Fire; Igniting Americas Clean Energy Economy. Island Press. Washington DC 2008 Gibilisco, Stan. Alternative Energy Demystified. McGraw Hill. New York 2007 Erge, Thomas. Photovoltaics in Buildings; A Design Handbook for Architects and Engineers. International Energy Agency, Paris, France. 2003 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy Technology Advances. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York 2006 Soga, Tetsuo. Nanostructured Materials for Solar Energy Conversion. Elsevier, Netherlands 2006 Hough, Tom. Recent Developments in Solar Energy. Nova Science Publisher, Inc. New York 2006 Harper, Gavin. Solar Energy Projects for the Evil Genius. McGraw Hill. New Your 2007 Sen, Zekai. Solar Energy Fundamentals and Modeling Techniques. Springer. London 2008 Wurfel, Peter. Physics of Solar Cells. WileyVCH. Germany 2009 Kruger, Paul. Alternative Energy Resources. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey 2006 Olofsson, William. Solar Energy: Research, Technology and Applications. Nova Science Pulishers, Inc. New York 2008

Luque, Antonio. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, New Jersey 2007 Photovoltaic Solar Energy; Development and Current Research. European Communities, Belgium 2009 Markvart, Thomas. Solar Electricity. John Wiley & Sons. West Sussex, England 1997

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