1

Day 1

Hand out Syllabus
Discuss semester issues;
1. Electronics, Quantum Mechanics (Nuclear squeezed in several places).
2. Weekly labs associated with Electronics
3. Somewhat random math topics as needed.


DC electronics

Circuit elements and symbols:
Ideal power supply I-V graph Define load line


Ideal current supply

Resistor

Batteries = Ideal power supply plus internal resistance. I-V Characteristic graph and load line.

Example: 9 V, R
int
= 3 Ohms, R
load
= 15 Ohms






Power P = IV
Power dissipated in R
load
: P = IV = 0.5A * 7.5 V = 3.75 Watts P
r
= 1.5V*0.5A = 0.75 Watts
P
bat
= 9V*0.5A = 4.5W = 3.75 + 0.75 W

Voltage loop rule: I = u




DC Circuits Voltage divider I
out
= I
n
R
2
R
2
+R
2

Circuit Analysis finding algebraic expressions for voltages and currents.
Kirchoffs Laws
Ideal Battery
V=constant
2



Branch current method.

I1 I2 I3 I4 = 0
I3 = 5 mA
I3 + I4 I5 = 0
I5 + I2 I1 = 0
15V I1R1 I2R2 = 0
15V I1R1 I4R4 I5R5 = 0

A = nr
2






Loop Current method

V I1R1 I1R2 + I2R2 = 0
I3 = 5 mA
V
A
I3R3 + I2R3 = 0
I1R2 I2R2 I2R3 I2R4 + I3R3 = 0



I
2
= 1.67 mA




Key points:
AV = IR + if opposite of current flow, - if parallel to current flow
Loop current can have multiple I through one resistor.

I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I1
I2
I3
3







4

Circuit Analysis finding algebraic expressions for voltages and currents.
Kirchoffs Laws


5
Find the current through R
2
.
Branch Current method.
1. Identify the unique current variables.
2. Set up the current node and voltage loop
equations.
3. Compare the # of equations to the # of variables.





















Loop Current Method
1. Identify current loops for the circuit
2. Write out the voltage loop equations.
3. Check to see that you have enough equations.







Homework #1 Chapter 1: 4, 6, 7, 9, 14
Extra: Write an expression for the power dissipated in R
2
of a voltage divider. Maximize this
function of P with respect to R
2
. What value of R
2
maximizes the power dissipated in R
2
?


6
4. Day 2

Equivalent Circuits represent circuits as a power supply and a resistor.

Thevenins Theorem


Steps:
1. V
th
determine V
out
with no load connected.
2. R
th
- short all batteries and make current sources open circuits then find R
eq
of the
circuit.

Example.

V
th
voltage divider V = 9V(1.5)/2.7 = 5V

R
eq
= (1/(1.2) + 1/(1.5))
-1
= 667 Ohms


Return to this circuit


What is the Thevenin equivalent if the output
voltage is v
o
?

V
th
= v
o


R
th
= 10k // (3k + (6k // 3k)) = 3.33 k



7





8




9

Week 2 Day 1
AC circuits (Sinusoidal voltage generator)

:(t) = Icos(t +0) = Icos(2n +0)

The key parameters for the wave are the amplitude and the frequency.

Amplitudes are sometimes expressed as peak to peak values.


Root Mean Square voltage RMS Voltage an average value.

Power of simple AC circuit. P = i: =
vsn(2n])
R
Icos(2n +0) =
v
2
R
sin
2
(2nt +0)

We need to average the P over time. P = i: =
v
2
R
sin
2
(2nt +0) =
v
2
R
[
1
2


Writing P = i
ms
:
ms
=
I
2
v
2
=
v
2
R
[
1
2



i
ms
=
I
2
:
ms
=
I
2


Writing the voltage as a complex number


10
Resistor circuit: Find v
out
for this circuit using complex notation..


:(t) = Icos(t +0) = Ic
](ot+0)


The assumption is that the voltage is the real part of this complex number.

:(t) = Ic
](ot+0)
= I|cos(t +0) +]sin(t +0)]


i(t) =
:(t)
R
=
I
R
c
](ot+0)
=
I
R
|cos(t +0) +]sin(t +0)]

Current is in phase with the applied voltage.


:
out
(t) = i(t)R
2
=
:(t)R
2
R
1
+R
2
=
IR
2
R
1
+R
2
c
](ot+0)
=
IR
2
R
1
+R
2
|cos(t +0) +]sin(t +0)]



1 2 3 4 5 6
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0
v
in
V
out
11
Reactive circuit elements in a circuit. Impedance a general form of resistance to include
frequency dependent terms. Capacitors and Inductors

Impedance a generalized resistance quantitty. It takes into account the behavior of circuit
elements that respond non-linearly to a time dependent voltage.




Capacitors
C j
Z
C
e
1
=
Inductors
L j Z
L
e =


AC circuits


i(t) =
:(t)
Z



Impedances add the same way that resistors do. This circuit is an AC voltage divider.

|
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|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
1
) (
1 1
CR j
C j
V
C j
C j
j R
R
V
j R
R
V t V
Z i v
in
C
in
C
in o
C c C
e
e
e
e
e e

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
1
1
) (
1
1
1
1
CR j
V
C j
C j
j R
j
V
j R
j
V t V
Z i v
in
C
C
in
C
C
in o
C c C
e e
e
e
e
e
e


In class we talked about this circuit. Using impedence we can rewrite the form of the output
v
out
12
voltage in terms of the input voltage, the angular frequency, and the impedence parameters.

|
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\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
1
) (
1
1
1
1
CR j
V
C j
C j
j R
j
V
j R
j
V t V
in
C
C
in
C
C
in o
e e
e
e
e
e
e
(8)
show that:
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
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.
|

\
|
+
+
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
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.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
1 1
1
1
1
) (
2
2
1 1
CR
RC j CR
V
CR j
CR j
CR j
RC j
V
CR j
RC j
V
C j
C j
j R
R
V
j R
R
V t V
Z i v
in in
in
C
in
C
in o
C c C
e
e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e



( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
1
) (
2
RC
RC j
V t V
in o
e
e
(9)

The complex notation incorporates a phase shift between the input and output voltage. We can
equate the output voltage with a general form of a complex number.

( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
1
2
2
CR
RC j CR
V
in
e
e e
( ) u u
u
sin cos j V e V
o
j
o
+ = =

Show that this equation can be rewritten as:

( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1
2
RC
RC
V V
in o
e
e
and
RC e
u
1
) tan( =



( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1
1
2
RC
V V
in o
e
and RC e u = ) tan( (10)



13
Phaser
For
Low frequencies 2 /
1
) tan( t |
e
| = ~ =
RC


V
out(t) =
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
1
2
2
CR
RC j CR
e V
t j
in
e
e e
e


For the high pass filter the output voltage leads the input voltage. This is a relative phase
statement. It does not mean that the signal at the output precedes the input signa.



High frequencies

0
1
) tan( ~ = |
e
u
RC
capacitor behaves as a wire.

2 4 6 8 10 12
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0
14








LRC series circuit






V
o
V=V
o
cos(et)
15
LRC series circuit









Tank Circuit
LC
L j
Z
L j
LC
C j
L j L j Z
C j
2
2
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e

= + = + =

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

+ |
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
LC
L
R
LC
L
jR
LC
L
V
LC
L j
R
LC
L j
R
LC
L j
R
LC
L j
LC
L j
R
LC
L j
V t V
in in o
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e

( )
L
R LC
e
e
u
2
1
) tan(

=
For small w the phase shift goes to +90 (Inductive)
For very large w, the phase shift goes to -90 (Capacitive)
For resonance frequency, phase shift goes to 0.


Magnitude of v
out

|
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.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ |
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 1
LC
L
R
LC
L
V
LC
L
R
LC
L
R
LC
L
v V
in in o
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e





16
Limits for very small w
1
1
1
1
2
2
<< ~
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
R
L
V
R
L
V
L
R
L
V V
in in in o
e
e
e
e
goes to zero

Limits for large w
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
<< ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

=
CR
V
C
R
C
V
LC
L
R
LC
L
V
LC
L
R
LC
L
V V
in in in in o
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e

Goes to zero again


As the frequency approaches the resonance frequency:
LC
r
1
= e
2
2
2
1
|
.
|

\
|

<<
LC
L
R
e
e


in in o
V
LC
L
LC
L
V V ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
1
1
e
e
e
e
The output voltage amplitude equals the input amplitude.




17
Week 2 Day 2 Chap3.3-3.6
DEFINE THE Transfer function! Make a connection with the text.

v
out
=v
in
H(jw)


Phase shift of the R-tank circuit.


For small w the phase shift goes to +90 (Inductive)
For very large w, the phase shift goes to -90 (Capacitive)
For resonance frequency, phase shift goes to 0.

BODE PLOT (log(H) vs Log(w)

( )
L
R LC
e
e
u
2
1
) tan(

=
18



19
Two passive filters in series

Low pass
( ) ( )
( ) | | ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | |
4 2
1 1
2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1
1 1
1
1
) (
1 1
1
) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
) ( ) (
1
1
) ( ) (
e e
e
e e
e
e e
e e
e
e e e
e
e
e
R C R C R C R C
j H
R C R C
j H
R C R C
R C j R C j
j H
R C j R C j
v
R C j
v v j H t v
R C j
v v j H t v
in
in in
+ + +
=
+ +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =



BODE PLOT (log(H) vs Log(w)

Decibels:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
in
out
V
V
dB
10
log 20 dB dB 3
2
1
log 20
10
= |
.
|

\
|
=


20
Week 3 Day 1 Diodes POWERPOINT
Diode Circuit Chapter 5
5.3 What are semiconductors as opposed to conductors and insulators?
Metals Free electrons

The are poor conductors at low temperatures.
At room temperature semiconductors are fair conductors.

The pn junction is a physical contact between two different semiconductors.
P doped shortage of electrons; n type extra electrons

Depletion zone - Image and power point.

Forward and reverse bias ideal diode



Diode behavior as a circuit element.
Forward bias 0.6V Reverse bias no current flow.

Diode circuits
Rectification
Voltage clipping
Voltage clamps

Zener Diodes


21



22
Week 3 Transistors
Day 2 Transistor action npn transistor
Emitter follower define parameters h
FE
,

Power point


Day 2 Biasing
Power point
Define transistor parameters again Quiescent Operating point



23
Day 3 Common emitter amplifier

Problems with previous circuit:
1. Gain depends on the transistor parameters which are not constant between transistors.
2. using the resistance of the base-emitter junction as a critical component.
3. base voltage is small so the input signal is limited by how much current it subtracts from
the base current. Can turn off the transistor.



A fix: this circuit moves the operating voltage of the base away from 0V. It also produces a gain
that is independent of the transistor parameters.





On the next page is a typical characteristic curve for a npn transistor. As in the previous example
we need to choose a quiescent operating point for the transistor.

I am going to make three choices:
1. V
c
= V
CC
/2 {Allows max. swing of voltage both + and -.

2. I
C
= 2.0 mA - relatively low current for this transistor but well in the working range of the
transistor. This value could be anything from 1.5 to 3.5 mA for this transistor. NOTE: it will
draw double this current as a maximum value so that limits the size of this current.

3. R
e
= R
c
/10. We need to keep V
E
small compared to V
C
. Since I
e
~ I
C
a small emitter resistor
ensures that V
E
< V
C
. This relationship ensures that V
CE
> 0 which is required for the transistor
to work.



24
Quiescent operating Point.
Assume that V
CC
= 12 V.




Calculate the resistor values for R
C
and R
E.




Calculate the base current you would expect for quiescent operation of the transistor.




25
Next you need to set up the base voltage divider to set the proper quiescent point.

What value does V
B
take?


Write an expression for V
B
in terms of the voltage divider resistors.


Get an expression for R
2
in terms of R
1
.


Final consideration: To choose R
1
you want to be sure that the base current that gets pulled off
the divider circuit doesnt change the voltage divider output. A rule of thumb is to ensure that the
current flowing through R
2
: I
2
> 10 I
B
.









Redraw your circuit with all of the resistor values listed.




Voltage gain.

Begin with
b
V A
Explain why
e b
V V A = A











Show:
|
|
.
|

\
|
A = A
E
C
b c
R
R
V V
26
Input and output impedance of circuits.

Emitter follower

Input impedance: what impedance does a source see when looking into
the base of the transistor?
Z
n
=
v
B
I
B
if we change the base voltage, what is the change in base
current?

I
B
= I
L
The changes are equal.

I
L
= I
L
R
L
= ([ +1)I
B
R
L


I
B
I
B
= ([ +1)R
L
= [R
L


The follower amplifies the impedance seen by the driver.

Output impedance:
Think of thevenin equivalent circuits: Connect a load.

I
out
= I
out
R
th


For the follower
I
out
= I
out
R
th


I
out
I
out
=
I
L
I
L
=
I
B
I
L
=
I
B
I
B
([ +1)
=
I
B
I
B
1
([ +1)
=
Z
soucc
([ +1)


In our circuit, this output is parallel to R
E
so that can be added in. Normally R
E
is much larger
than the other term.




27
Biased emitter follower


What is the input impedance as seen by the signal generator?

R
1
//R
2
//R
in
Think carefully about this!!!

A changing voltage at V
B
changes currents through all of the biasing resistors and the transistor.
Another way to think about this is that the battery is a fixed voltage so it also serves as a ground
for AC signals.


If we assume b= 100, what is the input impedance?




What is the 3 dB point for this input filter including the capacitor?






The output impedance is

z
scurcc
([+1)
||R2||RS Smallest term by far is Z
source




28
Common Emitter Amplifier


What is the input impedance of this circuit?




What is the cutoff frequency of the input signal?




What is the output impedance?

Looking back into the collector in parallel with R
C
. The collector impedance is huge reverse
biased diode. So the output impedance it usually just R
C
.
29
FET field effect transistor JFET, MOSFET

Characterized by high input impedance ~ 10 MOhms
Used as current controls

JFET


FET use a vol t age t o cont r ol cur r ent f l ow. Bi -pol ar t r ansi st or s use base cur r ent t o
cont r ol col l ect or cur r ent .
Addi ng a +vol t age t o t he gat e, decr eases t he si ze of t he depl et i on zone and opens t he
n channel f or mor e cur r ent t o f l ow. Put t i ng a vol t age on t he gat e i ncr eases t he
depl et i on zone and decr eases cur r ent f l ow.

Pi ct ur e: FET cur r ent f l ow i s modul at ed by t he appl i ed vol t ages.
30




Advant ages of a MOSFET Di sadvant ages
Swi t chi ng t i me i s about 10 t i mes
f ast er t han a bi pol ar t r ansi st or
Hi gher r esi st ance t han a bi pol ar
t r ansi st or
Ver y much smal l er swi t chi ng cur r ent Can be dest r oyed by hi gh vol t ages,
especi al l y st at i c el ect r i ci t y
Less af f ect ed by t emper at ur e