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This thesis, written by Kay Sales under the direction of Mark Rios, Thesis Committee and approved by all of its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of the School of Architecture, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Landscape Architecture.
Dean of the School of Architecture Jerry Davison Director of the Landscape Architecture Program Mark Rios Thesis Committee John Jennings Chris Aykanian Tricia Ward
01.09.06
a new playground?
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Architecture University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT copyright 2006
kay sales
Acknowledgements
This thesis is based on my study undertaken in the Landscape Architecture program, School of Architecture at the University of Southern California from Fall 2005 to Spring 2006. Many thanks to John Jennings, my Thesis Chair, for his expert guidance and thoughtful insight during the thesis process. Also, to Chris Aykanian, Tricia Ward and Mark Rios for their help and support throughout.
thesis topic
thesis statement
children
Outdoor, unstructured play is integral to developing healthy, creative and independent children. Direct experience of the natural world is crucial to healthy development, learning and education.
Finding a way to link together children and nature through play in high density, urban neighbourhoods, where most cities comprise of large areas that are severely park poor, is the modern dilemma. The need to create play areas that incorporate an experience of nature, stimulate childrens creativity, encourage independence and provide social interaction is crucial for our cities to become enriching places to live. The vacant lots, that children played in 15-20 years ago, have disappeared, the street has become the domain of the automobile and the need for an alternative is great. Physical play has become less of a priority in todays society; modern sedentary lifestyles have increased the levels of obesity and ADD in children and adults. Getting children away from the TV and outside to play, while reassuring parents that their children are safe, is a challenge.
play
nature
Re-designing the utilitarian aspects of the street to be more harmonious with natural cycles, would create an environment which would be more conducive to the way children naturally play, thereby encouraging social interaction, independence and creativity.
If [cities] are not meant for children, they are not meant for citizens, either. If they are not meant for citizens - ourselves - they are not cities., Aldo Van Eyck. 7
contents
research personal interests relevance today the importance of play safety issues/managing risk educational philosophies history of the playground case studies emdrup adventure playground kidspace childrens museum audubon center at debs park washington environmental yard central park adventure playground child educational center thesis site urban context systems of nature site analysis mapping point of view design resources thesis committee bibliography articles websites
11 12 13 15 16 17 19 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 34 36 39 43 49 61 62 63 65 67
research
10
11
People being out and about on the streets maybe more conducive to neighborhood renewal through a vision of a walkable community. Ken Worpole, No Particular Place To Go.
IPA is deeply concerned by a number of alarming trends and their negative impact on children's development: - Society's indifference to the importance of play - Overemphasis on theoretical and academic studies in schools - Inadequate environmental planning, which results in a lack of basic amenities, inappropriatehousing forms, and poor traffic management Richard Louv, the author of the book Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children From Nature-Deficit Disorder is similarly concerned. Copious studies show a reduced amount of leisure time experienced by American families, more time in front of the TV and the computer, and growing obesity among adults and children because of diet and sedentary lifestyles. Coupled with this worrying trend is the fact that natural play spaces are fast disappearing in our urban environment; a transformation that appears to have happened only over the last fifteen years or so. Heidi Brirz-Crecelius, a proponent of the Waldorf early childhood education approach recognizes that Our environment is becoming increasingly sterile and more and more deprived of possibilities for play. Even our cities used to offer fine opportunities for play.Today..the eye is regaled by properly looked after house-fronts, well cared for parks and clean, boring playgrounds. The benefits of emersing children in nature has long lasting repercussions. There has to be a development of a universal environmental ethic. Our children need to be encouraged to be the stewards of our planet. Without that connection and passion with and for nature, we will develop a generation of people who will not fight to stop the environmental crisis currently happening. There are many early educational philosophies around today; ranging from the Montessori approach of emphasizing the individual child's initiative and independence, to the Academic program stressing serious preparation for elementary school, using structure and work. The main priority for any early childhood educator is to stimulate the children to want to learn. Childrens learning occurs best when the whole self is involved and play is an active form of learning that unites the mind, body and spirit. However, the outdoor environment is not taken into consideration in many schools or childcare centers in America. School recess has been reduced and even deleted in many states, due to the advent of increased school accountability, student testing procedures and the belief that time would be better spent on academics. Recent studies in Scandinavia have shown that children attending an outdoors-in-all-weathers school reached a more advanced stage of development and acquired stronger powers of concentration than children attending an average pre-school. For many reasons, ranging from availability, accessibility, and financial resources, not every child has the same early educational choices. If local neighborhoods, ideally accessible to all, offered a more stimulating, learning environment; encouraging skills needed that havent been focused on in the indoor classroom, wouldnt it help to level the playing field just a little?
The benefits of of outdoor play are identified in four specific developmental domains by the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAESC/SDE). Social Development Close relationships with peers contribute to both social and cognitive development. Through active, free play and peer interaction, children can: develop a respect for rules, gain selfdiscipline, appreciate others cultures and beliefs Emotional Development An outlet for reducing anxiety, managing stress and gaining self-control. Children learn the art of expressing themselves to others, begin rehearsing behaviours and practicing skills. Children learn about their own abilities, perseverance, self-direction, responsibility and self-acceptance. Physical Development Release excess energy, which in turn improves childrens attentiveness and decreases restlessness. Essential for healthy growth and development. Through active play, young children learn about their bodies capabilities and how to control their bodies. Physical activity fuels the brain with a better supply of blood and provides brain cells with a healthier supply of natural substances, enhancing brain growth- leading to improved retention of facts, a greater understanding of concepts and subsequnetly higher acheivment. Cognitive Development Children learn through play. Children can remember more more, focus better and regulate their own behaviour better in play than in any other context. Providing opportunities for free, active play with peers facilitates the encoding and decoding of social signals. What is acquired through play is not specific information but a general (mind) set towards solving problems that includes both abstraction and combinatorial flexibility where children string bits of behaviour together to form novel solutions to problems requiring the restructuring of thought or action. Sylvia, 1977, Best Play Booklet.
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14
Risk-taking is an essential feature of play provision, and of all environments in which children legitimately spend time at play. ...Play provision should aim to manage the balance between the need to offer risk and the need to keep children safe from harm....Exposure to some risk is actually benefit: it satisifies a basic human need and gives children the chance to learn about the real consequences of risk-taking. Managing Risk in Play Provision: A Position Statement.
educational philosophies
(1896-1980) Jean Piaget Jean Piaget is considered to be one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental pyschology. He was very interested in the way children think and saw play as less a behaviour or activity than a state of mind which allowed children to become engrossed in what they were doing. He believed that the fundamental basis of learning was discovery. (1859-1952) John Dewey He is thought to be one of the most influential thinkers on education in the twentieth century, His focus for children was on real life tasks and challenges, children learn more when they engage with and enlarge their experiences. Education depended on action and these learning situations would have to occur in a social environment. Constructivism Constructivism has been labeled as the philosophy of learning that proposes learners need to build their own understanding of new ideas. Much of what Jean Piaget and John Dewey developed became the foundation for constructivist learning. The essential core of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Nine principles of learning are derived from constructivism: - Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it, - People learn to learn as they learn. Learning consists both of constructing meaning and con structing systems of meaning. - Physical actions and hands on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for chil dren, but is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hand. Dewey called this reflective activity.
17
Let us hope that the growing concern over safety will be matched by a concern for giving children outdoor places filled with developmentally appropriate opportunities, in recognition of what has been taken from them by urbanization, cars and trucks and social disorder. Children have to have the opportunity to take some chances, to stretch some of their limits. Risk taking is concomitant with growth. Their environment should not be hazardous, but neither should they be without challenge. Mary S. Rivkin, The Great Outdoors: Restoring Childrens Right to Play Outside.
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- Learning involves language: the language that we use influences our learning. - Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our teacher, our peers, our family, as well as casual acquaintances. - Learning is contextual: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. - One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to absorb new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we learn. - Learning is not instantaneous: it takes time to learn. - The key component to learning is motivation. Montessori This educational philosophy originated in Italy by Maria Montessori, a Physician and educator. Her philosophy emphasizes the individual childs initiative and independence, allowing him or her to progress through an orderly series of structured learning activities at his or her own pace. Special materials which emphasizer the use of all senses in learning are employed. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) The method of education is play, creative and imaginative, learning and developing skills. Children learn through their own experiences. Self-discipline brings all into harmony. Part of the The Froebel curriculum includes nature study, handwork, block play, art and drawing, music and movement and story telling. The typical Froebel kindergarten has three focuses: - Toys for sedentary creative play (these Froebel called gifts and occupations) - Games and dances for healthy activity - Observing and nurturing plants in a garden for stimulating awareness of the natural world Kids Klub, Child Development Centre and Preschool, Pasadena My children attend this daycare and it has elements from many of the philosophies already quoted. The centre has the following mission statement: Kids Klub has a "Back-to-Basics" approach when working with children, allowing them to reach their full potential for proper growth and development. We provide scheduled learning times, outdoor play, and free play within a consistent routine. Our caregivers cue into your child's individual needs. With Kids Klub's "Back-to Basics" approach, the teachers help instill values, rolemodel appropriate behavior, and teach valuable lessons the child needs for a solid foundation in life. It is vital that the children learn about their "Self" since they are naturally developing their self-image, self-control, self-respect and independence. Through play and the freedom to explore within appropriate limits, the child learns not only about himself, but also learns to respect others, and appreciate his environment.
18 19
1885
1889
1894
1904
1914
1926
Under the leadership of Robert Moses, the Parks Commissioner for New York at the time, Central Park began its program of building structured playgrounds; the Hecksher Playground was the first.
1940
1945
1963
1970
1981
The Commission published its first set of playground safety guidelines. By this time, the number of lawsuits increased, with the court awarding judgements of up to $11 million in fecent playground injury cases. This fear of litigation has led to many in the field becoming more cautious.
2005
The earliest playground spaces were founded by private charities. The first one was a large sand pit in the yard of a Boston Mission, called a sand garden.
The Olmsted Bros. designed and built Chicagos South Park, with distinctive areas for different ages and sexes. This was soon to be emulated in many cities across America.
Charlesbank, Boston, developed an open air gymnasium for boys and men.
Due to lawn abuse, 18 marginal playgrounds were added to Central Park. 100s of acres of formerly idle land around New York was made useful and turned into park space, playgrounds developed in conjunction with them.
The first adventure playground was developed in Emdrup, Denmark by C Th. Soprensen. Children would play with scrap lumber, tools, earth, water and even fire under supervision. This spurned off many adventure playgrounds throughout Scandinavia, Switzerland, Germany and especially England.
Playgrounds remained unchanged until several landscape architects in New York applied new ideas of child psychologists to the reinvention of playgrounds. Using concrete, granite and timber landscape architects such as M. Paul Friedberg and Richard Dattner created sculpted forms and linked them with bridges and stepping columns, to encourage decision making and group play.
The Federal Consumer Product Safety Commission discovered that several hundred thousand children were being injured at playgrounds across America.
Playgrounds began to be built for specific age groups. Many states began to sponsor recreation legislation, with New Jersey enacting the first comprehensive piece of legislation creating a playground commission.
Fulton Mall, Fresno, California, the first pedestrian shopping mall to be built in America.
During the 70s many progressive schools began to rethink the outdoor space, focusing on enriching play and creating learning environments serving both the school and neighborhood. Washington Elementary School in Berkeley replaced their asphalt school yard with mini-ecosystems. After school and at weekends it became a play space for all ages. This model continues to be replicated in various forms, both here and abroad. It seems that although it may be difficult to build a challenging playground that meets safety guidleines, some designers are investing their time to create more dynamic and stimulating spaces for children. 21
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case studies
22
23
Kidspace Childrens Museum is an interactive learning environment that is fun for children, families, educators and caregivers. This new facility was opened in 2004 and the outdoor space was designed by Nancy Power. The design was based on the concept of outdoor discovery. The natural shell of the space was designed so that outdoor exhibitry could be inserted, creating a sequence of flexible spaces for exploration, play and learning. Along the path was a series of outdoor rooms, each with a distinctive character, influenced by the plant community within it. Linking the spaces was The Arroyo, a way to reintroduce water into the space, by abstracting the notion of channelisation and creating an interpretive Arroyo. Having visited it with my children I found it to be beautifully planted and interestingly laid out. Nancy Power, the landscape architect, felt that her true vision for the space was not fully implemented and that many of the play instillations were not placed sympathetically within the outdoor rooms, something she wished she had had more control over. The museum and its grounds blend well with the surrounding landscape and help create a unique and exciting space for children. The program of the museum lends itself well to the concept of discovery, play and learning.
25
before
after
The environmental yard was designed by Robin Moore and Herb Wang and built on an ordinary municipal schoolyard, previously one and a half acre site of asphalt. The focus was to support child development and to act as a social focus for the surrounding neighbourhood. The ecological principle of diversity was used as a major concept. The designers aim was to demostrate that childrens needs are much more diverse and can properly be met only by a much broader range of play settings-especially ones containing natural features. Schoolteachers, parents, children and local residents all partnered together with several local organizations, including UC Berkeley campus, to create this yard. Climbing structures and community gathering places were included. After school and during weekends it became a play space for all ages . Children are motivated to learn when they make their own discoveries. There was a push to develop a rich play and learning environment serving both the school and the community. The emphasis was on a living and learning laboratory. Earth, water, vegetation, animals and playground equipment stimulate creative interaction. The children have been regularly asked to complete surveys of their outdoor space and consequently there have been modifications.The Environmental Yard is still thriving and continues to inform future generations on ecology and nature.
27
The CEC is a private, non-profit organization to serve the child care needs of employees of JPL and Caltech. Its mission is to support the development of happy, caring and productive human beings, to ensure a high quality, affordable program and to advocate for a high quality of life for children beyond the CEC. The CEC has cultivated the concept and practice of the Outdoor Classroom Project (funded by First 5 LA) understanding the value of the outdoor environment and perceive it as an extension of the indoor classroom. They also understand that it is through play that children ages 0 to 5 learn and grow. There are 3 fundamental principles to the Outdoor Classroom: - Children benefit from spending substantial time outdoors. - Even with a minimally developed yard, there are very few childrens activities that cannot be done outside. - Childrens development is optimized when they spend a significant amount of time participating in child-initiated activities that are teacher-supported.
29
thesis site
30
31
Children being seen and heard in public places is one of the hallmarks of a vital city. Plymouth City Council Play Policy, UK.
n los a
griffith park
hollywood reservoir
geles river
runyon canyon
los feliz
hollywood boulevard
rowena reservoir
hollywood
hollywood memorial park
barnsdall park
silver lake
western avenue
LACC
paramount studios
normandie avenue
park la brea
beverly boulevard
vermont avenue
hancock park
echo park
wilshire boulevard
westlake
macarthur park
urban context
rea ave nue
korea town
Los Angeles appears to have a lot of green space, 9.1 acres of parkland per 1,000 residents, but much of it is tied up in the Santa Monica Mountains and Griffith Park and the highly populated city centre is almost entirely devoid of large public parks. The site chosen falls in an area where 33%-69% of the total population per acre are children and the need for parks is greatest in areas where most children live. Nearly 67% of children in Los Angeles do not live within walking distance of a park, ballfield or playground; in comparison to 3% in Boston and 9% in New York. White neighbourhoods (where whites make up 75% or more of the residents) boast 31.8 acres of park space for every 1,000 people, compared with 1.7 acres in African-American neighbourhoods and 0.6 acres in Latino neighbourhoods.
mid-city
la b
rosedale cemetery
staples center
100 yr
500 yr
open space
32
water
flood plains
33
artemisia californica
encelia californica
salvia mellifera
lesquerella ludoviciana
dichelostemna capitatum
adenostoma fasciculatum
losus scoparious
california towhee
blue-grey gnatcatcher
cactus wren
juglans californica
quercus agrifolia
quercus chrysolepis
quercus kelloggii
california jay
nuttalls woodpecker
oat titmouse
western warbler
acorn woodpecker
bushtit
populus fremontii
salix alba
acer macrophyllum
umbellularia californica
platanus racemosa
alnus rhombifolia
downy woodpecker
orangecrowned warbler
pacific-slope flycatcher
american dipper
canyon wren
common yellowthroat
ash-throated flycatcher
California has a wide and diverse collection of native plants that are adapted to the climate and require little care. They also attract a greater diversity of wildlife. The benefit of immersing children has long lasting repercussions. Children are one third of the population and all of our future and without a connection and passion with and for nature we will develop a generation of people who will not want to be stewards of this planet. Nature is integral to creating enriching play environments and some of the ways that can be achieved is by using nature to stimulate all 5 senses, experience change in the natural environment, manipulate natural materials and play with natural elements.
yucca
salvia apiana
ceanothus
poison oak
salvia mellifera
arctostaphylos sonoma
quercus ilicifolia
spotted towhee
wrentit
california thrasher
california quail
bewicks wren
audubons warbler
clarks grebe
gulls
herons
egrets
ducks
wood duck
canada geese
american wigeon
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chaparral
systems of nature
riparian woodlands
Children have a right to develop in an environment that stimulates their healthy development as mandated by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. To fulfill this mandate, nature must be seen as an essential component of the experiential world of childhood, designed into every childhood habitat, providing daily emersion in nature, putting children in close touch with the biosphere. Robin C. Moore and Nilda G. Cosco, Developing an Earth-bound Culture through Design of Childhood Habitats.
melrose av normandie av
x x
vermont av
beverly blvd
x x
site analysis
The site is placed in the 13th District, which is one of the five poorest city councils in Los Angeles. These five districts have just 17% of the total neighbourhood park space, according to the Verde Coalition. The Alexandria Avenue Elementary School falls within the site boundaries. 1,400 children attend the school, with 99% living within the area bound by Beverly, Melrose, Normandie and Vermont. This also one of the many schools in the area that doesnt have a park within walking distance.
x
37
1/4 mile walking circle from school 1/4 mile walking circle from park
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private/public boundaries
In legal terms the public realm can be used to pass and repass, allowing us to gain access to land and buildings and for the passage of goods and people. But the public realm gives benefits beyond just access. It helps to structure our lives. Penelope Tollitt, Life in the Public Realm, Planning Services, Bath and North East Somerset Council, UK.
This is a predominantly Latino neighbourhood and most of the homes are fenced off from the street. Culturally, parks and public space are an intimate and important part of domestic life in Mexico and other Latin American countries. They are vital components of social and ethnic identity. Ordinarily parks and playgrounds would the place for the people of this neighbourhood to appropriate, but as there are none nearby, the front yard and the street become the extension of the house.
commercial corridor
The main commercial corridor in the area is along Beverly and this becomes an important destination point for many local residents, as most people dont own cars and therefore use public transport. The main transportation hubs are located on the corner of Beverly and Normandie and Beverly and Vermont.
residences
There is a predominance of multi family houses within the neighbourhood. This is a fairly old and well established area within the city and comprises of many old houses.
mapping
vegetation
After extensive mapping of the site, the following maps diagram the pertinent information found. In summary; the site is a densely populated, low income neighbourhood of renters. Most people speak Spanish at home and their children attend the Elementary School on Alexandria Avenue. The topography is quite extreme, with a flood plain passing through the low point of the site. The 2/101 freeway passes through the north of the site and Beverly Boulevard, a main transportation artery, borders the south.
The most used street trees are Washingtonias, Magnolias and Ficus Nitida. All of these are evergreen, low maintenance and contribute very little to both wildlife and awareness of nature.
38
Public transport is heavily used and there is a bus stop on the corner of Beverly and Normandie and a Metro train station on the corner of Beverly and Vermont.
39
total population
hispanic or latino
under 5 years
foreign born
28,590 - 33,048 73.1% - 80.5% 45,731 - 74,946 9.9% - 11.1% 64.2% - 68.2%
89.5% - 91.5%
85.6% - 91.7%
83.9% - 87.7%
94.9% - 97.8%
commercial lots
apartment buildings
street lights
28.6% - 31.6%
35.6% - 40.0%
storm drains
flood plain
topography
traffic use
vegetation
public realm
40
41
spring
growth
summer
heat
shade
fall
colour
dark
winter
42
edahs
light
point of view
The following images and photographs show how an adult and child navigate the street within the neighbourhood. The adult tends to use the street to get from A to B, using signage, house numbers, curb colours etc. Their path through the urban landscape tends to be very linear. Children see interesting things in the most mundane; reflections in puddles, shadows created by the tree canopy, chain link fences, a length of poles. Their journey through the space is quite different; erratic and spontaneous, a discovery of interesting things en route.
43
design
48
49
The following site map shows how my thesis design focuses on transforming a whole neighbourhood, by redesigning the utilitarian aspects of the street to be more harmonious with natural cycles and therefore more conducive to the way children naturally play. The elements on the following pages can be used in various combinations to link together children and nature through play. The orange areas show various places where potential transformations could occur, i.e. the culde-sac next to the freeway where a Caltrans yard is empty and not used, a wide street with diagonal parking, an alleyway and road next to the school with a drop off zone, sidewalks along an inlcined street, an existing tree-lined street where a grocery van stops every day. The systems of nature are applied to different areas of the neighbourhood, based on topography, the flood plains, potential transformations and native plant adaptability. Ken Worpole expresses the need for these areas that are integral to all neighbourhoods, one of the ways young people inhabit public space is as a series of stopping points in a continual process of moving on or wandering in and through the neighbourhood. (No particular place to go)
potential transformations coastal sage scrub oak and walnut woodlands riparian woodlands chaparral
heliotrope drive
systems of nature
50
transformations
seasonal storm water Using the natural topography and flow of water during the spring, water features occur along the sidewalk. During the spring and early summer water is retained and through the rest of the year the dips can be played in, creating year round interest. existing trees transformed Although the neighbourhood doesnt have a huge amount of street trees, the ones that are there can be transformed into play and rest spaces, by surrounding them with chain link structures and planting native shrubs inside.
15ft
70ft
existing curb
3ft
8ft
new curbs As the residents walk through the neighbourhood and get closer to a play element, curbs jut out, an index of a change of environment. The dips the trees are planted in collect leaves during fall, enhancing the change in seasons.
existing curb
80ft
40ft 15ft
new curb
bench snakes Native shrubs planted inside chainlink structures that double as resting places, encourage an abstracted experience with nature.
3-4ft
40
ft
5ft
pole forest Using utilitarian aspects of the street, such as these dividing poles, in a playful way, reintroduces them to children, combining play and safety.
40ft
5ft
5ft
wire walls Another version of the running theme of chainlink and native planting create this wall/tunnel of plants. Children brush past the plants, releasing scents, seeds and an experience with nature.
40 ft
5ft
humps and dips Exaggerating the topography of the road or sidewalk creates interest on a different scale to the rest of the neighbourhood. The dips collect water, leaves, dirt or sand, depending on the season and the humps encourage physical play.
52 53
heliotrope drive
spring
summer
fall
winter
traffic flow
topography
Heliotrope Drive is an example of how the various design elements can be combined to transform just one part of the nieghbourhood.
54
1 : 66 ft
road bump 55
spring
summer
The model for the final design solution is made up of various interlocking elements; humps, dips, trees, buildings and sidewalks. These are combined in different ways to create a sense of the seasons. Using elements such as water, light, shadow and greenery helps to show the change of the seasons and how these changes can be exaggerated to introduce nature to the residents of the neighbourhood. As the seasonal mapping diagram on page 42 shows, each season brings with it something new and exciting for children to discover and a way to begin to connect with nature. Spring emphasises the retention of water and long shadows. Summer brings with it heat, colour and growth. Fall shows change in colour and change in the environment and winter has stark contrasts, bare trees, shadows getting longer and a lack of colour.
56 57
fall
winter
58
59
signage
9 mph
9 mph
9 mph
9 zone
60
nine zone
9 9
resources
61
thesis committee
Thesis Chair John Jennings Thesis Committee Chris Aykanian Tricia Ward
bibliography
Allen, Lady of Hurtwood. Planning for play. Cambridge, Massachusetts; The MIT Press, 1968. Bengtsson, Arvid. Environmental Planning for Play. New York; Praeger Publishers, 1970.
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Bengtsson, Arvid. Adventure Playgrounds. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972. Bergen, Doris and Fromberg, Doris Pronin. Play from Birth to Twelve and Beyond. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1998. Bouroullec, Ronan. Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec. London ; New York : Phaidon, 2003. Britz-Crecelius, Heidi. Children at Play: Using Waldorf Principles to Foster Childhood Development. Rochester; Vermont: Park Street Press, 1972. Curtis, Deb and Carter, Margie. Designs for Living: Transforming Early Childhood Environments. St. Paul; M.N.: Redleaf Press, 2003. Dattner, Richard. Design for play. Cambridge; Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1969. Franceschini, Amy and On, Josh. Harvest : [Futurefarmers, 1995-2000] Hong Kong : Systems Design Ltd., c2002. Hendricks, Barbara E. Designing for Play. Aldershot; England: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2001. Lefaivre, Liane and de Roode, Ingeborg. Aldo van Eyck : the playgrounds and the city. Amsterdam : Stedelijk Museum ; Rotterdam : NAi Publishers, c2002. Louv, Richard. Last Child in the Woods: Saving our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder. Chapel Hill; N. Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2005. Miller, Thomas and Schneider, Romana. Montessori: Teaching Materials 1913-1935, Furniture and Architecture. Munchen: Prestel Verlag, 2002. Montero, Marta Iris. Roberto Burle Marx: The Lyrical Landscape. Berkeley: University California Press, 2001. Newton, Norman. Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978. Rivkin, Mary S. The Great Outdoors: Restoring Childrens Right to Play Outside. Washington D.C.: NAEYC, 1995. Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. Landscape Design: A Cultural and Architectural History. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. Rojals del Alamo, Marta. Design for Fun: Playgrounds. Barcelona; Spain: Links Int. Rouard, Marguerite and Simon, Jacques. Childrens Play Spaces: From sandbox to adventure playground. Woodstock; New York: The Overlook Press, 1977. Ruby, Andreas and Durandin, Benot. Spoiled climate : R&Sie, architects. Boston: Birkhuser-Publishers for Architecture, c2004.
Spellman, Catherine. Re-envisioning Landscape/Architecture. Barcelona: Actar, 2003. Stine, Sharon. Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997. Tuan, Yi-Fu. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis; M.N.: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. Tufte, Edward R. Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative. Cheshire, Conn. : Graphics Press, c1997. Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning information. Cheshire, Conn. : Graphics Press, c1990. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Handbook for Public Playground Safety. Washington D.C.: Latest version. Whitford, Frank. Bauhaus. London, Thames and Hudson, 1984. Wilson, Edward O. The Future of Life. New York, Vintage Books, 2003.
articles
APA. How Cities Use Parks.....Help Children Learn.
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