4.1.

Introduction: Wear is defined as the gradual loss of material from the interacting surfaces during the relative motion under the normal load. Wear is classified as mild wear and severe wear. Mild wear is therefore generally associated with low loads where metallic interactions are somewhat inhibited and the wear debris consists of fine particles and is usually in the form of oxides. This does not imply that metallic contacts have never occurred at all, since the resulting metallic debris would tend to become oxidized at the high local temperature at the interface. Nevertheless the nature of the surface asperity interaction is relatively gentle, resulting in characteristically mild wear and smoothing of the surfaces.

Fig. 4.1 The transition phenomena in wear At higher load a much coarser wear process occurs. The wear debris is of a much larger particle-size, the worn surfaces are much rougher and the increase in volume changes the wear rate by several orders of magnitude. This is the so-called severe wear regime. A starting fact about these two types of wear behavior is the very rapid transition from one mode to the other as the load is increased (fig. 4.1). In this figure it should be noted that the wear rate suddenly changes by more than one hundred times. With some materials at even higher loads the increasing temperatures cause metallurgical changes in the materials

such as to increase their inherent hardness. These effects can then lead to a second transition from the severe wear back to the mild wear regime. 4.2. Mechanisms of Wear: We now consider the detailed mechanisms by which material may be removed from the surface. The most common mechanisms are: (a) Adhesive wear, (d) Corrosive wear. (b) Abrasive wear, (e) Erosive wear (c) Fatigue wear In some situations more than one of these mechanisms may be operative at the same time, and this is one of the reasons for the complexity of wear studies. 4.2.1. Adhesive Wear: When the two surfaces are having identical hardness then the contact between surfaces occurs at the tips of the asperities, which then deform under load. Tile nature of the adhesion between such asperity interactions is modified by surface films so that the metallic adhesion characterized in the simple friction theory is somewhat modified. But as

translation occurs these surface films are to some extent disrupted and adhesion will occur at a certain proportion of these contact, as can be appreciated in view of the distribution of asperity heights discussed in chapter 2. From these considerations and our knowledge of the nature of the contact of rough surfaces we can now predict a wear equation, If one assumes that the wear particles are geometrically similar, the wear volume would be expected to be proportional to the real areas of contact at which adhesion occurs, and also to the distance of sliding. Since the real area of contact for the plastic interaction of asperities is given by A=W/H The wear volume V is given by V A x L W x L H Where L is the distance of s\liding. Thus the adhesive wear law becomes W V=KWxL H Or in words the: laws of adhesive wear are:

(a) The volume of Wear is proportional to the distance of sliding. This relationship has been justified by experience for a wide range of conditions. (b) The volume of wear is proportional to the applied load. This has also been shown to be true in many tests for limited ranges of load, although as wear mechanisms change with increasing load some abrupt transitions have been observed; see fig. 4.1. (c) The volume of wear is inversely proportional to the hardness of the softer material. This has also been shown to be valid, particularly for pure metals. Recalling the physical nature of the wear process arising from adhesion we can give a physical meaning to the constant of proportionality K. often called the adhesive wear coefficient or the Archard constant. Surface films together with the asperity contact forms the adhesive contacts are only significant on adhesive wear. Since shearing due to sliding probably formed where the junctions are stronger than the underlying material, So that some material from the surfaces is torn away and eventually released by the continued sliding. So we can see

that K may be probability factor, that is, the factor which indicates the probability of wear particles being created by the adhesive effect between the populations of asperities on the two rubbing surfaces.

Fig. 42 Surface contact of an identical hemispherical asperity Theory of Adhesive Wear: Consider two surfaces of an identical material having the same hardness. Assume that the asperities on both the surfaces are identical. In nature of such surfaces are in contact then the deformed area of the asperities is a circular area of radius 'a' under the application of load W. Consider anyone asperity in contact when the asperity is in relative motion the function of asperity will be shear from the weaker bond of the asperity. Let the load carried

by anyone asperity is W1 = W/n where n is the total numbers of asperities in contact. Let the particle separate out from such asperity is of a hemispherical in shape having a radius, a The volume of material in dist. is vol. of sphere V/2 = 2/3 r3. V1 = (4/3 a3) / 2 ( = 2a) X X V1 = 1 = 1/3 a2 = 1/3 A1 X 3 Since a2 is the area of contact, where is proportional to the ratio W1/H. Where H = hardness of material. A1 W 1 But A = A1 + A2 + + An W = W1 + W2 + + Wn & also A1 = A2 = A1 = = An for similar shape of asperity W1 = W2 = W1 = = Wn

A = n A1 W = n W1 A1 = A / n W 1 = W / n AW The total volume of wear from the surface, if all the asperities are effective in removing the material then. V = n V1 V1 = 1 A1 = 1 W 1 X 3 3 H Therefore volume of wear for displacement is V1 = 1 W1X 3 H V = n V1 = n . 1 W1X 3 H V=WX 3H If wear constant Kadh can be introduced for considering the actual numbers of the asperity in contact. But nW1 = WT = W

V= Kadh . W / 3H. Kadh = 1, When all asperities in contact are effective in wear = 0.1, When out of 1000 asperities 100 asperities are effective in wear = 0.01, When out of 1000 asperities 10 asperities are effective in wear. Also, =u.t = DN /60 . t 4.2.2. Abrasive Wear: This type of wear arises from the cuttion acting of hard surface rubbing on softer materials, as for example, when hard surface asperities act rather like cutting tools and remove material from softer materials. Another example arises when loose debris of any kind is trapped between sliding surfaces. Such debris may be extraneous, such as sand particles, or may be the actual wear particles created by the primary wear process.

One method of reducing the first type of abrasive wear is to ensure high quality of surface finish of the mating surfaces particularly the hard surface. With modern production methods this type of wear is no longer as serious problem. The second type of abrasive wear is more difficult to eliminate. Suitable sealing and filtration can reduce correct design of the contact geometry. It is often desirable to provide grooves or other such recesses on the surfaces of bearings, which allow the debris to escape from the contact geometry.

Fig. 4.3 Wear due to a single conical asperity

Fig. 4.4 Abrasive wear due to Which Olly Consider two dissimilar surface materials in contact and is in relative motion. Assume that the hard surface asperities remove the material from relatively soft material surface. Let the hard surface asperities are of conical in shape having radius a at the contact and height h at the penetration in soft material. The asperity angle is , consider anyone such asperity for analysis the volume of material to be removed from soft material in distance x is V = The projected area of conical asperity in the direction of motion x distance x. = x 2a x h x X but h = a. tan V = a . a tan . x

= a2 tan . x For plastic deformation of material W A ( area of contact) =A.H i.e. W = A . H = A . H/3 The area of contact in the direction of a normal load is A = a2 / 2 W = a2 / 2 . H a2 = 2W / H Substituting value of a2 in equation of volume V = a2 tan . X Vabr = 2W tan . X H Here Kabr = X tan = 6 tan Vabr = Kabr . W.X H

Where Vadh = 1/3 W.X . Kadh H

Vw = Vadh + Vabr = Kadh W.X + Kabr + W.X 3 H H V = Kw . W.X H Where Kw = Kabr + Kadh /3 In all practical cases the wear occurs due to the abrasive and adhesive wear. Therefore the general equation of wear can be given as Vw = Kw . W.X H

4.2.3. Fatigue Wear: It is well known that if materials are loaded and unloaded cyclically they exhibit fatigue failure. This type of failure can occur after large number of loading cycles, even though the load is less than that which we could normally expect to produce failure in a single load application. It is usual to express such behavior bay logarithmic graph of stress S against the number N of cycles to failure (the S/N curve, as it is usually called) such as fig. 4.5. Here we see that the lower the applied cyclical stress have the longer the life of the material.

Fig. 4.5 A typical S-N fatigue curve Fig. 4.5 shows a typical S-N fatigue curve. If we consider the interaction of asperities during the sliding of one surface over another we can see the possibility of fatigue mechanisms being broken off the asperities to produce wear debris. A simple experiment to illustrate this is to run one's finger a many times along the teeth of a comb. The teeth (asperities) are continuously being loaded and unloaded due to repeated traversals by ones finger and after many cycles they ultimately break due to fatigue.

4.2.4. Corrosive Wear: Any clean metal surface reacts with its environment to form contaminant films, and the rate of formation of such mm is initially very rapid but decreases as the corrosive film thickens. In many instances, such as oxide (rust) films on steel, these surface films adhere only loosely to the surface. Rubbing therefore removes the films leaving exposed clean metal, which immediately reacts with its environment to provide new surface films, which are again removed during ragging. So materials continuously bang removed from the surface, and wear is taking place. The chemistry of such reaction is beyond the scope of this book, but fortunately is not needed for the understanding of the basic mechanism. A further effect of corrosive environments is to enhance the abrasive action of wear debris. Most metal oxides are harder than the metal itself sot that if metal debris is created, this becomes oxidized and gives a rate of abrasion greater than that which would otherwise occur. A good example of this occurs with relatively soft aluminum, where the oxidized wear debris is very hard abrasive.

Indeed aluminum oxide is often used as the cutting agent in girding wheels and the like. Corrosive effects are not entirely deleterious. In the chapter on friction it has already been shown that the presence of oxide films in preventing metal-to-metal contact greatly reduces the coefficient of friction. In other applications surface films are deliberately produced to avoid metallic contact. The so-called E.P. (extreme pressure) additives to lubricating oil produce surface films such as chlorides and sulphides and provide protective surface layers. In a sense these could be more properly be called extreme temperature films rather than extreme pressure films. Their main characteristic is that chemical stability at the high temperatures of the high pressure contacts in such situations as hypoid gears as used in motor car back axles. 4.2.5. Erossive Wear: Erossive wear is mainly because of the erossion which is a combined effect of mechanical stresses under the ambient condition for example the wear on the bearing

surface of a concrete mixture operated in an open atmosphere. 4.2.6. Fretting: This is not really a separate mechanism of wear but it is treated separately because it arises in rather special circumstances. It shows one particular wear process may be a complicated combination of several mechanisms of wear, and also demonstrates the deleterious effects of any wear debris which may become trapped in the contact system. Fretting effects are associated with the contact of surfaces in which the sliding motion is an oscillation of relatively small amplitude, often only a few micrometers. Since vibrations occur in virtually all machines we find fretting occurring between surfaces in contact such as bolted components, splines and components located by friction rise to small amplitude oscillatory displacements between the surfaces in contact. 4.3. Tribological Properfies of Plastics:

In recent years there has been a significant growth in the use of plastics to replace metals in many bearing applications. In general the friction and wear of plastics can be explained by the adhesion theories already discussed. The friction coefficients of plastics are not particularly low, but their main advantage is that they wear at reasonably low and predictable rates. One notable exception to this behavior is PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) whose friction coefficient may be very low, about 0.05. This very low friction value seems to be associated with the very low adhesion of this material, because of this it is used in nonstick kitchenware. It is also reasonably hard due to the mechanical interlocking of its molecules. So it is extensively used in bearings, where the loads and speeds are moddest, sine its is almost self-lubricating and is highly reliable.

Fig. 4.6. The change in dimension due to wear. A useful design parameter for all trips of plastics used in bearings is the pv factor (which is the product of the nominal contact pressure and the sliding speed.). Consider a block of this material sliding on a metal surface, fig. 4.6. The rate of energy dissipation against friction is Wv. It is reasonable to assume that the volume wear rate of the block. V = dV / dt, is proportional to this rate of energy dissipation, so V Wv. The block will therefore wear to a depth d such that the volume wear V is given by V= Ad. Hence its rate V= Ad. Where d is the rate of increase of d with time. Thus d = V Wv A A This shows that the rate of change of dimension of the block is proportional to the product Pv. This is the rate of change of bearing clearance with time in any practical

application and as such as in more useful parameter than the actual volume of material removed. For any material the allowable value of the pv product may be defined and fig. 2.7 shows a typical result of PTFE if the wear rate is to be a dimensional change of 25 mm in 100 hours. Plastic bearings and particularly PTFE bearings must be operated within their approved pv ratings. These ratings are associated with wear and are particularly subject of thermal effects due to the decomposition of the surface. Thus at their ambient temperatures the pv factor for such materials is considerably reduced. Such materials when used in practical bearing designs are often associated with a metallic matrix which provides additional strength and improves the thermal conductivity thus allowing the easier escape of the heat generated in rubbing. When plastics slide, problem can arise from the generation of electrostatic charges. In such 10 situations, designers must incorporate earth paths to minimize the build-up of charges.

Fig. 4.7 A typical 'pv' curve 4.4. The Measurement of Wear: In most engineering machinery the rate of wear is relatively small, typically changes in dimensions of micrometers per year. Also wear takes place in real time and laboratory tests aye to devise conditions where the wear processes are considerably accelerated so that results are produced in days rather than years. In so far as such tests are artificially accelerated their results should viewed with some caution. 4.4.1. High-Pressure Contact Tests: These tests produce accelerated results by applying loads over very small areas of contact. Various geometrical arrangements are used as shown in fig. 4.8. In each of these

tests specimen A is the material being worn away, the degree of wear being measured by either a change in dimensions or a loss of mass from the material., Many such machines also measure the frictional force at the contact.

Fig. 4.8 Pin on Ring

Fig. 4.9 Pin on Disc Such contact geometries can be studied either in the ordinary atmosphere or in a totally enclosed chamber where the atmosphere may be controlled, as to such properties as the gaseous environment, pressure, temperature and

humidity. A very common form of such apparatus is designed to carry out these tests at various reduced pressures. In a high vacuum the formation of oxide films is inhibited, so we obtain useful information on the friction and wear of the materials themselves. UHV apparatus is also useful for measuring the adhesion between surfaces in contact, and we have already seen that such information is very valuable to our understanding of friction.

Fig. 4.10 A simple crossed cylinder wear machine More complex geometrical arrangements are shown in fig. 4.11. The Fig. 4.11 (a) shows the four-ball arrangement in which a rotating ball rubs against three stationary balls to produce wear scars whose size is an indication of the volume wear. This arrangement is extremely popular for industrial testing since the test specimens, the balls, are

readily

available

at

low

cost

from

ball

bearing

manufacturers. Fig. 4.11(b) shows the so-called disc machine which is very useful for the study of wear under combinations of rolling and sliding. When the peripheral speed of both discs is the same one has pure rolling whilst a difference in speeds implies some additional sliding. This rather complex roll/ slide process often occurs in machinery, perhaps the best example being the contact between meshing gear teeth depicted in fig. 4.12. At the initial contact we have rolling and sliding between the teeth which becomes pure rolling at the pitch point B followed by rolling with sliding in the opposite sense during the arc of disengagement.

Fig. 4.11 The four ball wear machine and disc on disc wear machine

A. Initial contact - rolling and sliding B. Pitch point contact-pure rolling C. Final contact-rolling and sliding Fig. 4.12 The progress of contact between gear teeth

( Solved Problems ) EX.1. A pin on disc experiment the rate of vol. of wear observed was 0.1 mm3/min. Pin was placed at 30 mm radial distance from the centre of disc. The disc was rotated at 500 rpm. Load on pin is 20 N. Material of pin is brass, hardness is 120 N/mm2. Material of disc is steel, hardness 280 N/mm2. Determine the wear constant. Solution :

Data given: V r N W = 0.1 mm3/min = 30mm = 500 rpm = 20N

Hp (pin) = 120 N/mm2 Hd (disc) = 280 N/mm2 V = Kw . W.2 rNt Hp V / t = Wear rate = 0.1 = Kw . 20 x 2 x x 30 x 500 120 Kw = 6.3662 x 10-6 Ex.2. Determine the wear constant Kw by using a pin on disc wear measuring test ring. The testing data are as follows: (1) Pin diameter at the tip 3.0 mm. (2) The maximum diameter of the conical pin = 10.0 mm (3) The cone height of the pin is = 9.0 mm. (4) Load on the pin = 50 N

(5) The disc diameter = 150 mm. (6) The pitch radius at pin contact = 60 mm. (7) r.p.m. of the disc. = 600. (8) The hardness of the pin = 20 N/mm2. If the experiment is conducted for 130 hours. The wear reading show the linear in unit of the wear volume. The final diameter of the pin was 8.0 mm. The material of the pin is brass and the material of the disc is hardened steel. . If the above tested material is required to use in a machine for shaft and bearing. Determine the life of the bearing for a shaft rotating at 140 r.p.m. under a load of 10N. The bearing diameter is 40mm. The maximum allowable radial wear is 1.0 mm. The length to diameter ratio of the bearing is 1.0. Solution: tan = (d2 d1)/2 r = 0.3888

= (10 3)/2 9 = 21.25

Kw = t in sec:

5 (dt3 d13)H 4 tan W.R.N.T

Time require = 130 hours = 130 x 60 x 60 secs. t Kw = = 468000 secs. (83 33)20 50 x 60 x 600 x 468000 5 4 tan 2125 Ans = I Now N = 140 rpm Kw = 3.7013 x 10-8 W = 10 N D = 40 mm L = 40 mm rw = 1.0 mm Life of the bearings t = (D) . rw . L . H Kw.W.DN/60 = (40) x 1.0 x 40.20 x 60 3.7013 x 10-8 x 10 x x 40 x 140

= 3.7013 x 10-8

= 1.47428 x 108 sec. x 2 = 40952.135 hours x 2

= 81904.3 hours. Ex.3. In an experiment of wear with the plastic bearing it is found that for the change in dimension of 0.1 mm under the load of 1.5 N in a slender bearing. The velocity required is m/sec. For the same operating conditions, if the load and speed are doubled than what will be the change of dimensions? Data given: dt = 0.1 mm W = 1.5 N u = 1 m/sec. dd1 = W1 u , dt1 A1 & dd2 = W2 u2 dt2 A2 But A1 = A2 W 2 = 2 W1 u2 = 2 W dt1 = dt2

dd2 = P2 u2 dd1 P1 u1 dd2 = 2.2 0.1 dd2 = 0.4 mm For the same operating conditions change of dimension is 0.4 mm if load & pressure both (velocity) are doubled. Ex.4. In a crossed cylinder wear measuring experiment the stationary specimen is brass in contact with a rotating cylinder made all of hardened cylinder having radius 50 mm and thickness 25 mm. is rotating at 500 rpm. The rate of Wear was observed to be constant is found 2mm in 60 hours of a constant operation under a 50 N load. Determine the wear const. if the hardness of brass is 120 N/mm2 Solution: Data given: H = 120 N/mm2 W = 50 N

R = 50 mm L = 25 mm N = 500 rpm t = 60 hours h = rw = 2 mm cos = R-h = 50.2 = 0.96 R 50 = 16.26 Kw = R2 ( sin 2 / 2) L H W ( D N / 60) t t = 60 x 3600 secs. Kw = 502 [16.26 x /180 sin {(2 x 16.26 )/ 2}] 25 x 120 50 x [( x100 x 500)/ 60] x 60 x 3600 = 3.977 x 10-6 Ans. Ex.5. A 30 mm long brass bearing is used to support a steel shaft having 50 mm diameter, and a steady radial load of 60 N. Shaft is rotating at 500 rpm. Shaft surface is having an average asperity angle 10. The hardness of the bearing material is 200 N/mm2. Determine the time required to exceed the radial wear 2 mm.

Solution: Data given: rw = 2 mm L = 30 mm D = 50 mm W = 60 N N = 500 rpm = 10. H = 200 N/mm2 (Questions) 1. (i) (ii)
2.

Write short notes on the following: Fatigue wear Pin on disc wear measurement. Explain cross cylinder wear machine. Define Wear. State the condition where wear proved

to be boneficial. 3. In pure abrasion wear, show that the wear quantity 6 W.X V = 6 tan WX H

Where

= average asperity angle.

W = applied load. X = sliding distance. H = Hardness of material 4. Explain four ball Wear machine.
5.

Classify the wear mechanisms. Explain the methods to eliminate the wear, of each mechanism. Define fatigue Wear. State the mechanisms of wear. Describe the methods to eliminate wear. Show that the change in dimension due to wear for the case of plastic - metal contact is proportional to the product of pressure and the relative velocity of the contact surfaces.

6. 7.

8.

9. Define abrasive wear.

10. Define

wear. Why do you consider that wear is

beneficial in running in and planned obsolescence? 11. Explain elimination of wear.

12. Show

that the volume of wear due to adhesion and Vw = Kw W.x

abrasion is

H Where Kw = wear constant.

13. A

steel shaft runs within PTFE bearing at 10 m/sec.

After 1000 operating hours the bearings were warn 2 mm radially. Find out the load on each bearing if the contact area of each bearing is 0.01 m2. The wear constant may be taken as 10-21 m2/N. Suggest the various possibilities to improve the performance of such bearing.
14. In

a cross cylinder wear measuring experiment the

stationary specimen is brass in contact with a rotating cylinder made out of hard steel; having radius 50 mm and thickness 40 mm is rotating at 960 rpm. The size of the stationary specimen is 100 mm length, 25 mm width and 25 mm height. The rate of wear was observed to be constant, 100 N load. Find out the wear constant Kw. If above tested material is required to use in a machine for shaft and bearing. Determine the life of the bearing for a shaft rotating at 250 rpm under load of 25 N. The maximum allowable radial wear is 0.5 mm and length of

the bearing is 75 mm. Take hardness of the brass = 120 N/mm2. 15. Show that the life of a sleeve bearing due to abrasive wear is L= b.l.H 1800 kwWw hrs.

Where b is the permissible radial wear of sleeve bearing l is the length of the sleeve bearing, m H is the hardness of sleeve bearing, N/m2. hw is the wear coefficient. W is the radial load, N is the angular velocity rad/sec. 16. In an experiment on a pin-on-disc test rig the following observation were made: (i) Diameter of the pin and its material: 10 mm, Brass (ii) The pitch diameter of the disc and its material: 120 mm Brass. (iii) The change in length of the cylindrical pin due to wear in 150 hours: 5 mm (iv) The rotational speed of the disc is: 500 rpm. (v) The hardness of the pin is: 20 N/mm2

(vi) Load on pin is: 200 N. If the above tested material is to be used in a machine for shaft and bearing, determine the life of the brass bearing for a steel shaft rotating at 150 rpm. under load of 50N. The permissible radial wear is 1.0 mm. The length/ diameter ratio of the bearing is 1.0. The length of the bearing 50 mm.
17. In

a pin on disc experiment, the test piece pin was made

out of brass and disc was made out of stainless steel. The pin was located at 50 mm radial distance from the disc centre. The asperity angle on the disc surface was 3. The power required to rotate the disc at constant speed 960 rpm was 500 watts. The testing data are as follows: Pin diameter at tip = 3.0 mm The maximum diameter of conical pin = 12.0 mm The cone height of pin = 12.0 mm. The hardness of pin material = 20 N/mm2 The wear constant = 3.0 x 10-8. The wear reading shows the linear increment of the wear volume. Determine the time required for the experiment of wear if the final tip diameter of the pin is 10.0 mm.