Hydrodynamic Design and Analysis of a Swirling Flow Generator

Romeo SUSAN-RESIGA1, Sebastian MUNTEAN2 , Constantin TNAS1, Alin BOSIOC1,

(1)

National Center for Engineering of Systems with Complex Fluids, Politehnica University of Timioara, Bd. Mihai Viteazu, 1, 300222, Timioara, Romania

(2)

Center for Advanced Research in Engineering Sciences, Romanian Academy Timioara Branch, Bd. Mihai Viteazu, 24, 300223, Timioara, Romania

Abstract
The paper presents a hydrodynamic design and analysis of a swirling flow generator aimed at producing a flow similar to the one downstream a Francis turbine runner when operating at part load. This swirl generator is part of a swirling flow apparatus which is used for basic hydrodynamic studies of precessing spiral vortex and various flow control methods for mitigating the swirling flow instability and associated vortex breakdown phenomena. We design swirling flows by considering either absolute or relative flow angles distributions from hub to tip in the annular bladed region. A special configuration is investigated, with fixed guide vanes followed by a free runner. The runner blades act like a turbine near the hub and as a pump near the tip, respectively, and rotate freely with an angular speed such that the total power vanishes. This free runner redistributes the flux of angular momentum, thus decelerating the flow near the hub while accelerating it at the tip. Analytical solutions are found for the axial and circumferential velocity profiles downstream fixed and rotating blades. A parametric study is presented in order to assess the influence of guide vanes angle and runner blade angle, respectively, on the swirling flow. Finally, the flow in the swirling flow apparatus is computed using an axisymmetric model, and the results are checked in two survey sections against actual data for a Francis turbine operated at partial discharge.

Nomenclature
r, R ,
Radius and wall radius, respectively Absolute and relative flow angles Axial and circumferential velocity components Static pressure and stagnation (total) pressure, respectively Liquid density Volumetric flow rate (discharge)

Vz ,V

p, p0

Vz

Average discharge velocity Runner angular speed Flux of circumferential momentum Quantities downstream guide vanes, upstream the runner Quantities downstream the runner
tip

F
(1)

(2)

hub ,

Quantities at the hub and tip (shroud), respectively

Introduction
The swirling flow hydrodynamics, and in particular its stability properties and various approaches to control it is a very important topic in the context of hydraulic turbines. In particular, the decelerated swirling flow in the turbine draft tube cone becomes unstable when the Francis turbine is operated at part load, with the development of a precessing spiral vortex (so-called vortex rope) and associated severe pressure fluctuations, [1]. In order to investigate the swirling flow downstream the Francis runner blades, at operating points corresponding to partial discharge, one can obviously use a model turbine or choose a less expensive approach and build a suitable swirl generator, [3]. In this paper we investigate the swirling flow configuration that can be generated by an axial arrangement of guide vanes and runner blades, as shown in Fig. 1. The swirl apparatus designed and manufactured at the Politehnica University of Timisoara National Center for Engineering of Systems with Complex Fluids has an upstream annular section with stationary and rotating blades for generating swirling flow, followed by a convergent section where the hub is ending with a nozzle. Downstream the throat section we have a conical diffuser similar to the hydraulic turbine draft tube cone. We consider four survey sections in the swirl apparatus: S1 downstream the guide vanes, S2 downstream the runner, S3 similar to the Francis runner blade trailing edge, and S4 just downstream the throat. Our goal is to find the suitable swirl (i.e. axial and circumferential velocity profiles) in section S2, which evolves further downstream at S3 and S4 similar to the Francis turbine investigated in [1]. More precisely, we investigate the swirling flow produced by guide vanes with a given distribution of flow angle
(1)

, further modified by a free runner (i.e. a runner with vanishing overall

(2)

torque) with given distribution of relative flow angle the axial velocity profiles, and we find the suitable

, where the absolute and

relative flow angles are defined as in Fig. 2. We derive the differential equations for

(1) ( r ) and (2) ( r ) distributions

that produce the desired velocity profiles in survey sections S3 and S4 similar to the ones in Francis turbines operated at partial discharge. The results obtained in this paper are further used for the actual design of the guide vanes and runner blades.

Fig. 1: Overall flow passage of the swirling flow apparatus from UPT-NCESCF.

Fig. 2: Velocity triangle, with absolute,

, and relative, , flow angles.

Swirling Flow with Given Angle Distribution and Constant Total Pressure
Let us consider a swirling flow produced by axial guide vanes with wrapping angle constant from hub to tip. Such vanes are easy to manufacture by milling. As a first approximation we assume a relatively large number of blades, and consequently the swirling flow will have a constant angle

(1) defined as:

Vz(1) ( r ) = tan (1) = constant . (1) V ( r )

(1)

The flow in the annular section upstream the guide vanes is axial uniform, thus the total pressure is constant from hub to tip. If hydraulic losses are neglected for the preliminary design and analysis, the Bernoulli equation holds and consequently the total pressure downstream the stay vanes and upstream the runner, p0 constant from hub to tip,
(1) p0
(1)

is also

p (1)

(V ) + (V ) +
(1) 2 z

(1) 2

= constant ,
(2)

or, using (1),

p (1)

(V )

(1) 2 z

2sin 2 (1)

= constant .

After differentiating (2) with respect to the radius, and using the radial equilibrium equation,

dp V2 = , dr r
we obtain the differential equation for the axial velocity profile from hub to tip,
(1) dVz(1) 2 (1) Vz = cos . dr r

(3)

(4)

The solution to Eq.(4) is,

r Vz(1) ( r ) = Vz(1) hub Rhub

discharge condition

cos2 (1)

,
(1) hub

(5)

where the integration multiplicative constant Vz

Rtip Rtip

is found from the overall

Q = 2

V ( r ) r dr = 2 V
(1) z

(1) z hub

cos2 (1) hub

r sin

(1)

dr
. (6)

Rhub

Rhub

2 R V

1 + sin

2 (1) hub z hub 2 (1)

R 1+sin tip Rhub

(1)

From condition (6) we have

(1) z hub

= Vz

(R (R

tip / Rhub ) 1 2 1+sin 2 (1)

tip / Rhub )

1 + sin 2 (1) 2 1

(7)

where Vz =

Q 2 2 ( Rtip Rhub )

It is useful to examine the extremum cases in Eq.(7). If

(1)

(1) = / 2 , i.e. there is no

swirl component, then Vz hub = Vz . In fact, according to (5) we have in this case

Vz(1) ( r ) = Vz , meaning that there is an uniform axial flow. However, for very large
swirl,

(1) 0 , we have
Vz(1) = Vz hub Vz(1) = Vz tip Rtip / Rhub + 1 2 Rhub / Rtip + 1 2 > Vz
. (8)

< Vz Rtip = 75 mm and

Let us examine a numerical example corresponding to

Rhub = 45 mm . The maximum axial velocity, at the hub, is 1.33Vz , while the
minimum axial velocity, at the shroud, is 0.8Vz . As a matter of fact, the swirling flow downstream the stay vanes with constant flow angle will allways have an axial velocity excess near the hub and an axial velocity deficit near the shroud, within the limit values given by (8). A runner, rotating with the angular speed in the above incoming swirling flow will ingest a flux of angular momentum given by
Rtip

(1)

(rV )V

(1) 2 2

(1) z

Rhub 3 2 (Vz(1) ) Rhub hub

2 2 r dr = tan (1) R 1+2sin tip Rhub

2

Rtip

(V )
1

(1) 2 z

r 2 dr
. (9)

Rhub

(1)

(1 + 2sin

(1) ) tan (1)

If a variable flow angle is considered,

(1) ( r ) , then the differential equation for the

axial velocity profile downstream the guide vanes (4) has an additional term in the righ-hand side,

dVz(1) 1 d (1) cos2 (1) (1) = Vz . (1) dr dr r tan

(10)

This additional term accounts for the variation of the flow angle d separation of variables, Eq.(10) can be written as

(1)

/ dr . Using the

dVz(1) d (1) cos2 (1) dr . = Vz(1) r tan (1)

After integrating (11) we obtain

(11)

ln V

(1) z

= ln sin

(1)

cos2 (1) ( r ) dr . r

(12)

The integral in the righ-hand side of (12) requires special functions (Appendix C) or it could be in evaluated numerically. With the initial condition at the hub, the solution of Eq.(10) is

V (r) = V
(1) z

(1) z hub

1 r cos2 (1) ( x ) sin ( ) ( r ) exp dx . (1) sin hub x Rhub

(13)

Obviously, for constant

(1) Eq.(13) reduces to Eq.(5).

Swirling Flow Generated by a Free-Wheel Runner

The swirling flow generated by the axial guide vanes has a constant total pressure. As a result, for constant flow angle there is an excess in the axial velocity near the hub, and a deficit near the tip, respectively, with respect to the average axial velocity. However, in actual hydraulic turbines operated at part load the swirling flow downstream the turbine runner usually displays an opposite distribution for the axial velocity profile, i.e. a velocity deficit near the hub and an excess at the tip. In order to obtain such a flow configuration, we have to decelerate the flow near the hub and accelerate it near the tip by re-distributing the total pressure. In doing so, the total pressure will have a deficit at the hub and an excess at the tip, similar to the Francis runner loading distribution at partial discharge. The technical solution that meets the above requirement is to use a free-runner downstream the guide vanes, which ingests the swirl generated by the guide vanes, and modifies it according to the distribution chosen for the relative flow angle downstream the runner. Such a free-runner rotates with an angular speed such that the net torque vanishes. We will examine the swirl downstream a free runner, with a given relative flow angle distribution ,

(2) , defined as
(14)

(2)

Vz(2) = r . tan (2)

The runner angular speed is also found from the condition of vanishing total power. This free-wheel runner is ingesting the above swirling generated by guide vanes, with constant flow angle
(1) (1) and constant total pressure p0 .

If the hydraulic losses are neglected, i.e. we consider and inviscid liquid, the relative total pressure is constant along a relative streamline, [5], p. 125,

U2 Vz2 V2 p+ = p+ + UV = p0 UV = f ( ) , 2 2 2 2

W 2

(15)

where the Stokes streamfunction is defined by

1 = Vz ( r ) . r r

(16)

We assume here for simplicity that the flow is axisymmetric, thus the streamlines are helical curves on axisymmetric surfaces generated by = constant lines in the meridian half-plane. Using (15) between two sections upstream and downstream the runner gives

p0 UV

(2)

p ( ) = 0 UV

(1)

( ) .

(17)

After differentiating Eq.(17) with respect to the streamfunction we obtain

(2) (UV ) 1 p0 (2)

(UV ) , =
(1)

(18)

since p0

(1)

is constant. Since is function only of r , we can rewrite Eq.(18) as

(1) 1 p (2) (UV )(2) 1 (UV ) 0 , = (1) rVz r r r

1 rVz(2)

(19)

(2) d (UV ) 1 dp0 or, dr dr

(2)

Vz(2) d (UV ) = (1) Vz dr

(1)

The right-hand side term is

(1) (1) Vz(2) d ( rV ) (2) sin 2 (1) = Vz . Vz dr 2

(20)

For variable

(1) ( r ) angle, the right-hand side term in Eq.(19) becomes

(1) (1) Vz(2) d ( rV ) d (1) (2) sin 2 (1) = Vz r . Vz dr dr 2

(21)

The left-hand side term can be expanded as

(2) d (UV ) 1 dp0 dr dr (2)

(2) (2) dV(2) 1 dp (2) (2) dVz (2) dV (2) = + Vz + V V r dr dr dr dr

=V =V =V

(2) z

dV(2) V(2) dVz(2) (2) + (V r ) + dr r dr dVz(2) Vz(2) dr tan (2) 1 dVz(2) Vz(2) + 2 r tan (2) dr

(22)

(2) z

(2) z

1 dVz(2) 1 Vz(2) 2 + sin 2 (2 ) dr tan 2 (2) r tan (2)

Combining (20) and (22) results in the differential equation for the axial velocity profile downstream the runner with constant relative flow angle

(2) ,
(23)

(2) dVz(2) 1 2 (2) Vz + cos = sin 2 (2) sin 2 (1) sin 2 (2) . dr r 2

If variable relative flow angle, then Eq.(22) becomes

(2) d (UV ) 1 dp0 dr dr (2)

(2) ( r ) is considered downstream the free runner,

dV(2) V(2) dVz(2) (2) + (V r ) + = dr dr r

=V

(2) z

V (2) dV (2) V (2) r d (2) (2) = 2z (2) z + z cos2 (2) sin 2 sin dr tan (2) dr r
As a result, Eq.(23) includes and additional term in the left hand side,

(24)

dVz(2) 2 (2) r d (2) ( r ) Vz(2) + cos ( r ) = dr tan (2) ( r ) dr r . 1 = sin 2 (2) ( r ) sin 2 (1) sin 2 (2) ( r ) 2
Finally, combining (24) and (21) we obtain the differential equation for both

(25)

(1) and

(2) variable from hub to tip:

dVz(2) 2 (2) r d (2) ( r ) Vz(2) + cos ( r ) = dr tan (2) ( r ) dr r sin 2 (1) ( r ) d (1) ( r ) (2) 2 (2) = sin 2 ( r ) sin ( r ) r 2 dr
Note that for initial condition at the hub Vz ( Rhub ) = Vz hub is (see Appendix A)
(2) (2)

(26)

= 0 Eq.(23) reduces to Eq.(4). The analytical solution of Eq.(23) with

cos2 ( 2 )

r Vz(2) ( r ) = Vz(2) hub Rhub . 1 2 (2) sin 2 (2) sin 2 (1) sin 2 (2) 1+ cos 2 1 Rhub + r 1 + cos2 (2) r
The two parameters in (27), Vz hub and
(2)

(27)

, are found by simultaneously satisfying the

conservation of mass and of the angular momentum flux. The first condition corresponds to the given discharge value
Rtip

Vz(2) ( r ) r dr =

Rhub

Q . 2

(28)

The integrals in (28) can be evaluated analytically as shown in Appendix B. The second condition is,
Rtip

F
with F
(1)

(2)

(rV )V
(2)

(2) z

2 r dr = F (1) ,

(29)

Rhub

given by (9). As a result, Eq.(29) can be rewritten as

(2) (2) z

Rtip

r dr =
2

Rhub

(1 + 2sin

(V )
2

(1) 2 z hub

(1) ) tan (1)

3 Rhub

R 1+2sin tip Rhub

(1)

1 .

(30)

The system of equations (28) and (30) is solved numerically using the NEQNF subroutine (solve a system of nonlinear equations using a modified Powell algorithm and a finite-difference approximation of the Jacobian) from the IMSL library to obtain the Vz hub and
(2)

values.

Numerical Results
The theory for swirling flow presented in the above two sections is used to determine a suitable

(1) ( r ) and (2) ( r ) distributions for the swirl generator developed at the

UPT-NCESCF. The annular section with guide vanes and runner blades, Fig. 1, has the hub and tip radii Rtip = 75 mm and Rhub = 45 mm . The overall discharge is

Q = 0.03 m 3 / s . We have shown that a constant (1) angle produces an axial

velocity profile downstream the guide vanes with velocity excess at the hub and velocity deficit at the tip. As a result, we have chosen a linear distribution starting with

(1) ( r ) ,

(1) hub = 45 , then increasing the flow angle as we approach the tip. It is

well known that a free vortex has a corresponding constant axial velocity for a constant pressure flow. In order to obtain approximately a free vortex in section S1 we must have tan hub / tan tip = Rhub / Rtip . The flow angle at the tip should be 59
(1) (1) (1) tip = 60 . The

according to this condition, and we will choose for our design

corresponding axial and circumferential velocity profiles on section S1 are shown in the left-hand picture of Fig. 8. One can see that the free vortex approximation (dashed lines) is in very good agreement with the swirling flow obtained with a linear variation of the flow angle from
(1) (1) hub = 45 to tip = 60 .

In order to design the flow downstream the free runner blades, we perform a parametric study for

(2) hub

(2) , tip ) 20 ,90 20 ,90 . The main goal is to

achieve a maximum axial velocity deficit at the hub, with the related axial velocity excess at the tip. As a result, in Fig. 3 we plot the axial velocity variation at the hub,

Vz hub = Vz(2) Vz(1) and Vz tip = Vz(2) Vz(1) , respectively. A similar parametric hub hub tip tip
investigation is shown in Fig. 4 for the circumferential velocity variation,

V hub = V(2) V(1) and V tip = V(2) V(1) , respectively. In addition, we hub hub tip tip
investigate within the same parameter space the relative flow angle variation in the runner, Fig. 5, hub = hub hub and tip = tip tip , respectively, in order to
(2) (1) (2) (1)

check that an acceptable relative flow deflection is required through the runner blades. Finally, the free runner angular speed is shown in Fig. 6. After examining the above results, we choose the relative flow angle at the hub, downstream the runner blades, to be
(2) (2) hub = 25 . The tip value can be chosen by maximizing the weighted

axial velocity variation obtain

( V ) + ( V ) ( R
2 2 z hub z tip

tip / Rhub ) , as shown in Fig. 7. We 2

(2) tip = 55 , and the corresponding swirl configuration is shown in the right-

hand side of Fig. 8.

Fig. 3: Axial velocity variation in the runner, for upstream flow angle from

(1) hub = 45 to

(1) (2) (2) tip = 60 , and downstream relative flow angle from hub to tip .

Fig. 4: Swirl velocity variation in the runner, for upstream flow angle from

(1) hub = 45 to

(1) (2) (2) tip = 60 , and downstream relative flow angle from hub to tip .

Fig. 5: Relative flow angle variation in the runner, for upstream flow angle from
(1) (1) (2) (2) hub = 45 to tip = 60 , and downstream relative flow angle from hub to tip .

3.5

axial velocity change [m/s]

2.5

1.5

20

30

40

50 60 beta_tip [dgr]

70

80

90

Fig. 6: Free runner angular speed, upstream flow angle from

(1) hub = 45 to

Fig. 7: Optimization of the

(2) tip angle for

(1) tip = 60 , and downstream relative flow

(2) hub = 25 , and guide vanes with flow

angle from
4.5 4
velocity component [m/s]

(2) (2) hub to tip .

angle from
4.5

(1) (1) hub = 45 , tip = 60 .

axial velocity swirl velocity

4
velocity component [m/s]

axial velocity swirl velocity

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 radius [m] 0.07 0.075

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 radius [m] 0.07 0.075

Fig. 8: Axial and circumferential velocity profiles downstream the guide vanes (survey section S1, left) with
(1) (1) hub = 45 , tip = 60 , and downstream the free runner (survey (2) (2) hub = 25 , tip = 55 .

section S2, right) with

The axial and circumferential velocity profiles obtained downstream the free runner, right picture in Fig. 8, are used as inlet conditions for an axisymmetric turbulent swirling flow simulation in the domain shown in Fig. 1. The numerical results obtained for our swirling flow apparatus are compared against the numerical [4] and experimental [1] corresponding to a Francis turbine model investigated in the FLINDT project, and operated at partial discharge. One can see from Fig. 9 that the dimensionless meridian and circumferential velocity profiles in the survey section S3 (immediately downstream the runner blades for the

Francis turbine model) are in good qualitative agreement. Our swirl velocity is larger, but one should keep in mind that this preliminary hydrodynamic design does not account for the viscous and 3D effects in the actual blades.
1.8 1.8
FLINDT numeric swirl apparatus FLINDT (numeric) swirl apparatus

dimensionless meridian velocity []

1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.3 0.4

1.6

dimensionless swirl velocity []

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 dimensionless radius [] 1 1.1

1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 dimensionless radius [] 1 1.1

Fig. 9: Meridian and circumferential velocity profiles downstream on section S3, with
(1) (1) (2) (2) hub = 45 , tip = 60 , and downstream the free runner with hub = 25 , tip = 55 .

Further downstream, in the survey section S4, Fig. 10, the comparison of the swirling flow computed in our apparatus against experimental data flow FLINDT project, [1][4], show a good agreement as well.
1.5 1.4 FLINDT LDV measurements swirl apparatus 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 dimensionless radius [] 1.5 1.3 FLINDT LDV measurements swirl apparatus 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 dimensionless radius []

Fig. 10: Axial and circumferential velocity profiles downstream on section S4, with
(1) (1) (2) (2) hub = 45 , tip = 60 , and downstream the free runner with hub = 25 , tip = 55 .

The comparison shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 shows that the swirling flow from Fig. 8 produces upstream and downstream the throat section a flow configuration similar to the one encountered downstream the Francis runner when operating at part load.

dimensionless swirl velocity []

axial velocity component []

Conclusion
The paper investigates the basic hydrodynamic design of a swirling flow generator. The main goal is to generate a swirl which flows through a convergent-divergent test section and behaves similar to the flow downstream a Francis turbine runner operated at partial discharge. More precisely, we would like to generate a spiral vortex breakdown in the conical part of the test section, similar to the well known precessing vortex rope in hydraulic turbines. It is found that we need a combination of guide vanes and free runner in order to generate the suitable axial and circumferential velocity profiles. Our parametric study identified that the linear absolute flow angle variation downstream the guide vanes, from
(1) (1) hub = 45 to tip = 60 , and linear relative flow angle variation downstream the (2) (2) hub = 25 to tip = 55 , are a suitable combination to generate

free runner, from

the spiral vortex breakdown downstream the throat. This preliminary conclusion is supported here by comparing the flow in the swirl apparatus with numerical and experimental data for a Francis turbine operated at part load, with well defined precessing vortex rope in the draft tube cone.

Appendix A. Linear First-Order Ordinary Differential Equations

Equation (23) is a linear first-order ordinary differential equation, [2] p. 381, of the form

dy a + y =b, dx x
Eq.(31) by the integrand factor x , [2], and we obtain
a

(31)

where a and b are constant coefficients. In order to find its solution we multiply

d a ( x y ) = b xa . dx
Integrating Eq.(32) gives,

(32)

xa y = b

x a +1 + c, a +1

(33)

where c is an integration constant. The solution to Eq.(31) finally is

y = c xa +

bx . a +1

(34)

The constant c can be found from the initial condition y ( x0 ) = y0 , which introduced in (33) gives

a x0 +1 x y0 = b + c. a +1 a 0

(35)

After substracting (35) from (33) we obtain

a x a +1 x0 +1 x y = x y0 + b , a +1 a a 0

giving the solution of the form

a +1 x bx x0 y ( x ) = y0 + 1 . x0 a +1 x a

(36)

Appendix B. Flow Rate Integrals

The following integrals are used for computing the volumetric flow rate downstream the guide vanes and runner, respectively. Essentially, we have to integrate each term in (36), multiplied by the independent variable.
a 2a 2 x y0 x0 x1 y0 x0 x dx = 2 a x0 1 , x0 x1
x1

(37)

3 a 2 a +1 3 x0 x0 bx x0 b x13 x0 1 x dx = 1 1 . (38) a +1 x a + 1 3 x1 2 a x1 x0

Appendix C. Integral in Eq.(12)

The integral in the right-hand side of Eq.(12) can be evaluated analytically once we assume a simple variation for the flow angle

(1) ( r ) , say linear.

cos2 ( a + br ) cos2 (1) ( r ) dr = dr = r r , 1 1 1 = Si ( 2br ) sin ( 2a ) + Ci ( 2br ) cos ( 2a ) + ln ( br ) 2 2 2

where

(39)

(1) (1) (1) (1) a = ( hub Rtip tip Rhub ) / ( Rtip Rhub ) and b = ( tip hub ) / ( Rtip Rhub ) .

The sine and cosine integrals, respectively, are defined as:

sin t cos t 1 Si ( x ) = dt , Ci ( x ) = + ln x + dt , t t 0 0
x x

(40)

where

= 0.5772156649... is the Eulers constant, and are available in the IMSL

Math Library Special Functions. As required in Eq.(13) we need the definite integral

 R2 cos2 ( a + br ) exp dr = r R1 sin ( 2a ) . Si ( 2bR2 ) Si ( 2bR1 ) R1 exp 2 R2 cos ( 2a ) Ci ( 2bR2 ) Ci ( 2bR1 ) 2

Note that in the limit b 0 , the expression in (41) becomes
1+cos( 2 ) 2

(41)

cos(2 ) R2 R2 R1 exp ln = R2 2 R1 R1
thus recovering the constant angle case.

R = 2 R1

cos2

(42)

Acknowledgements
The present research has been supported by the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research through the CEEX-C2-M1-1185 (C64/2006) iSMART-flow project, and by the Swiss National Science Foundation through the SCOPES Joint Research Project IB7320-110942/1.

References
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