INTRODUCTION

The term motivation has its origin in the Latin word mover which means to move. Thus, motivation stands for movement. One can get a donkey to move by using a carrot or a stick, with people one can use incentives, or threats or reprimands. However, these only have a limited effect. These work for a while and then need to be repeated, increased or reinforced to secure further movement. The term motivation may be defined as the managerial function of ascertaining the motives of subordinates and helping them to realize those motives. According to Dubin motivation could be defined as the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated. Motivation refers to the way a person is enthused at work to intensify his/her desire and willingness to use and channelize his/her energy for the achievement of organizational objectives. It is something that moves a person into action wand continue him in the course of action enthusiastically. The role of motivation is to develop and intensify the desire in every member of the organization to work effectively and efficiently in his position. In the words of Dalton E. McFarland, motivation is the way in which urges, desires, aspiration, striving or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human being. Motivation has very close relationship with the behavior. It explains how and why the human behavior is caused. According to McFarland motivation is a form of tension occurring within individual, with resulting behavior aimed at reducing, eliminating or diverting the tension. Understanding the needs and drives and their resulting tensions helps to explain and predict human behavior ultimately providing a sound basis for managerial decision and action. Thus, motivation is the term, which applies to the entire class of urges, drives, desires, needs and similar forces. Motivation is the driving force which allows us take action on our desires or goals. There is always a motivating force behind anything we do and it is the intensity of our motivation which determines how well and how fast we succeed at obtaining what we wish to achieve.Motivation is the factor which makes the man work with zeal & enthusiasm. Needs Give Rise to Wants which causes tension and Leads to Action which Results in Satisfaction. And once the person gets satisfied the need (thing) not remains as motivator for him.
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TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is generally defined as the driving force behind our actions, fueled by our desire for something. It is that internal strength that gets us to move, and take action, to whatever goal or end we desire or plan to achieve. There are several different types of motivation, based on the goal or end that motivates us. But in the broadest sense, motivation can be categorized into two different types: In the First Type - Our motivation results from our desire for something that is internally driven; it is our intrinsic desire for something, and not related to anything outside of us. Say you love the job you are doing. You want to learn what there could be about it, just for the reason that you could be the best you can be in that job. The very thought of getting to work and doing what you love, is what gets out of the bed in the morning. That is internal motivation. In the Second Type - Our motivation has an external stimulus; it results from our desire for something outside of us. Relating back to the same job example we have used earlier - let's say, your management or boss has decided to select one best performing employee, for a week long, all-expense-paid cruise trip to the Caribbean. Now, you may still work to be the best you can be in your job; but this time, you do it for a different reason. You do it because you want to be that best performing employee, that earns that Caribbean pleasure cruise from your employer. Your source of motivation is something outside of you - the cruise trip in this case. That is extrinsic motivation. There are other categories or types of motivation as well, usually based on the specific end goal that we are interested in: For instance, if it is the pleasure of achievement that drives us, it is Achievement motivation; if it is the pressure of our society or peers that drives us, it is Social motivation; if it is an external reward that we want (as in the example above), it is Incentive motivation; if it is the fear or repercussion, it is Fear motivation, and so forth.
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MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
There are several factors that motivate a person to work. The motivational factors can be broadly divided into two groups: I. MONETARY FACTORS:  Salaries or wages: Salaries or wages is one of the most important motivational factors. Reasonable salaries must be paid on time. While fixing salaries the organization must consider such as : 1. Cost of living 2. Company ability to pay 3. Capability of company to pay etc,  Bonus: It refers to extra payment to employee over and above salary given as an incentive. The employees must be given adequate rate of bonus.  Incentives: The organization may also provide additional incentives such as medical allowance, educational allowance, HRA, allowance, etc.  Special individual incentives: The company may provide special individual incentives. Such incentives are to be given to deserving employees for giving valuable suggestions. II. NON MONETARY FACTORS:  Status or job title: By providing a higher status or designations the employee must be motivated. Employees prefer and proud of higher designations.  Appreciation and recognition: Employees must be appreciated for their services. The praise should not come from immediate superior but also from higher authorities.  Delegation of authority: Delegation of authority motivates a subordinate to perform the tasks with dedication and commitment. When authority is delegated, the subordinate knows that his superior has placed faith and trust in him.  Working conditions: Provision for better working conditions such as airconditioned rooms, proper plant layout, proper sanitation, equipment, machines etc, motivates the employees.
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 Job security: Guarantee of job security or lack of fear dismissal, etc can also be a good way to motivate the employees. Employees who are kept temporarily for a long time may be frustrated and may leave the organization.  Job enrichment: Job enrichment involves more challenging tasks and responsibilities. For instance an executive who is involved in preparing and presenting reports of performance, may also asked to frame plans.  Workers participation: Inviting the employee to be a member of quality circle, or a committee, or some other form of employee participation can also motivate the work-force.  Cordial relations: Good and healthy relations must exist throughout the organization. This would definitely motivates the employees.  Good superiors: Subordinates want their superiors to be intelligent, experienced, matured, and having a good personality. In fact, the superior needs to have superior knowledge and skills than that of his subordinates. The very presence of superiors can motivate the subordinates.  Other factors: There are several other factors of motivating the employees: Providing training to the employees. Proper job placements. Proper promotions and transfers. Proper performance feedback. Proper welfare facilities. Flexible working hours.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation offers several importances to the organization and to the employees:          Higher efficiency. Reduce absenteeism. Reduces employee turnover. Improves a corporate image. Good relations. Improved morale. Reduced wastages and breakages. Reduced accidents. Facilitates initiative and innovation.

Money as a motivator It is normally believed that money acts as a motivator. In general the role of money as a motivator depends upon certain factors:  Money fails to motivate people, when there is no direct relationship between reward and effort.  Economic conditions of people influence the Importance of money. For poor person, the value of certain amount of money is quite high as compared to rich. Money is a significant motivator at lower level of employees level however money may not be a significant factor for senior executives who have already fulfilled their lower level needs.  Employees are concerned not only with the amount of money paid to them, but it should be fair and equitable as paid to that of other employees of same level or status.  Social attitudes towards money and wealth also decide the motivation to earn more and more.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Maslow's Theory of Motivation - Hierarchy of Needs
In 1943, Dr. Abraham Maslow 's article "A Theory of Human Motivation " appeared in Psychological Review, which was further expanded upon in his book: Toward a Psychology of Being. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality (1954), formally introduced the Hierarchy of Needs. The basis of Maslow's motivation theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization. Maslow's model indicates that fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higherlevel motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment.

LEVELS OF NEEDS Level 5 = Self-Actualization FULFILLMENT OF GOALS & DREAMS Need for self-fulfillment. Desire to realize your full potential and become the best you are capable of becoming. Level 4 = Self-Esteem SELF RESPECT & ACCEPTANCE Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Contains the desire to feel important, strong and significant. Level 3 = Love & Relationships COMMUNICATION & RESPONSE Need to be loved and to love. Includes the desire for affection and belonging.

Level 2 = Your Family & Work SOCIAL SAFETY & SECURITY Need to be safe from physical and psychological harm in the present and future, and trust in a predictable future. Level 1 = Your Body PHYSICAL SAFETY & SECURITY Need to stay alive! Biological and cultural imperatives to live. Includes having enough healthy food, air, and water to survive. Physiological Needs

MOTIVATION FACTORS Level 5 = Self-Actualization CREATIVITY Be a self-starter, have enthusiasm, be creative, be dedicated, enjoy challenges, love to accomplish results! Level 4 = Self-Esteem BRAINPOWER Display your talents and skills, have self-confidence, appreciate attention and recognition from others. Level 3 = Love & Relationships VALIDATION Join and be active in clubs and groups, be able to talk to others, contribute to society, marry and have a family. Level 2 = Your Family & Work SURVIVAL SKILLS Work, save for future, improve skills and talents, be responsible, and want an organized predictable world. Level 1 = Your Body SURVIVAL SKILLS Eat, sleep, and take care of your bodily needs, provide for clothing, shelter, comfort, be free from pain.

Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

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Air ,Water , Food

According to this theory, if these fundamental needs are not satisfied then one will surely be motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not recognized until one satisfies the needs basic to existence. Safety Needs Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:     Living in a safe area Medical insurance Job security Financial reserves

According to the Maslow hierarchy, if a person feels threatened, needs further up the pyramid will not receive attention until that need has been resolved. Social Needs Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs is social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with others and may include:
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Friendship, Belonging to a group, Giving and receiving love etc.

Esteem Needs After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators. Internally motivating esteem needs are those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and self respect. External esteem needs are those such as reputation and recognition. Some examples of esteem needs are:
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Recognition (external motivator) Attention (external motivator) Social Status (external motivator)
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y y

Accomplishment (internal motivator) Self-respect (internal motivator)

Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as:
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Truth, Justice, Wisdom, Meaning etc.

Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.

Motivation in theory - Herzberg two factor theory Frederick Herzberg's motivation theory is one of the content theories of motivation. This attempt to explain the factors that motivate individuals through identifying and satisfying their individual needs, desires and the aims pursued to satisfy these desires. Frederick Herzberg studied clinical psychology in Pittsburgh, researching work-related motivation of thousands of employees. He published his findings in "The Motivation to Work" (1959). Herzberg analyzed the job attitudes of 200 accountants and engineers who were asked to recall when they had felt positive or negative at work and the reasons why. From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-step approach to understanding employee motivation and satisfaction: Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include:  Company policy and administration  Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration  Quality of supervision
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 Quality of inter-personal relations  Working conditions  Feelings of job security Motivator Factors Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include:       Status Opportunity for advancement Gaining recognition Responsibility Challenging / stimulating work Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job

There is some similarity between Herzberg's and Maslow's models. They both suggest that needs have to be satisfied for the employee to be motivated. However, Herzberg argues that only the higher levels of the Maslow Hierarchy (e.g. selfactualisation, esteem needs) act as a motivator. The remaining needs can only cause dissatisfaction if not addressed.

ERG Theory of Motivation - Clayton P. Alderfer In 1969, Clayton Alderfer's revision of Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, called the ERG Theoryappeared in Psychological Review in an article titled "An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Need." Alderfer's contribution to organizational behavior was dubbed the ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align Maslow's motivation theory more closely with empirical research. To bring Maslows need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical research, Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms. He recategorized Maslows hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes of needs:

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 Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individuals physiological and physical safety needs.  Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individuals have for maintaining significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and recognition. Maslows social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need.  Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and advancement. Maslows self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.

Similarities to Maslow's Needs Hierarchy After the original formulation of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, studies had shown that the middle levels of Maslow's hierarchy overlap. Alderfer addressed this issue by reducing the number of levels to three. The letters ERG represent these three levels of needs:
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Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence motivators. Relatedness refers to the motivation we have for maintaining interpersonal relationships. Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development. Differences from Maslow's Needs Hierarchy

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PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Process theories of motivation are about a cognitive rational process and concentrate on the psychological and behavioural processes that motivate an individual. Put simply, this is all about how people's needs influence and drive their behaviour. People need to see what is in it for them and to sense that "fair play" is being exercised to all concerned. Clearly a basic understanding of this is foundational to the psychological underpinning of successful change management and the strategies for managing change that will deliver that. These theories also totally support and underpin the findings and practical observations of Goleman, Katzenbach, Pearson, Axelrod and others referred to in Inspirational Motivation and the research and thought leadership highlighted in Leading Change. The two main process theories of motivation are Expectancy Theory and Equity Theory.

Equity Theory.
Adams called personal efforts and rewards and other similar 'give and take' issues at work respectively 'inputs' and 'outputs'. Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in return. These terms help emphasize that what people put into their work includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people receive from their work includes many things aside from money. Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory. Adams Equity Theory goes beyond - and is quite different from merely assessing effort and reward. Equity Theory adds a crucial additional perspective of comparison with 'referent' others (people we consider in a similar situation). Equity theory thus helps explain why pay and conditions alone do not determine motivation. In terms of how the theory applies to work and management, we each seek a fair balance between what we put into our job and what we get out of it. But how do
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we decide what is a fair balance? The answer lies in Equity Theory. Importantly we arrive at our measure of fairness - Equity - by comparing our balance of effort and reward, and other factors of give and take - the ratio of input and output - with the balance or ratio enjoyed by other people, whom we deem to be relevant reference points or examples ('referent' others). Crucially this means that Equity does not depend on our input-to-output ratio alone - it depends on our comparison between our ratio and the ratio of others. We form perceptions of what constitutes a fair ratio (a balance or trade) of inputs and outputs by comparing our own situation with other 'referents' (reference points or examples) in the market place as we see it. In practice this helps to explain why people are so strongly affected by the situations (and views and gossip) of colleagues, friends, partners etc., in establishing their own personal sense of fairness or equity in their work situations. Adams' Equity Theory is therefore a far more complex and sophisticated motivational model than merely assessing effort (inputs) and reward (outputs). The actual sense of equity or fairness (or inequity or unfairness) within Equity Theory is arrived at only after incorporating a comparison between our own input and output ratio with the input and output ratios that we see or believe to be experienced or enjoyed by others in similar situations. This comparative aspect of Equity Theory provides a far more fluid and dynamic appreciation of motivation than typically arises in motivational theories and models based on individual circumstance alone. For example, Equity Theory explains why people can be happy and motivated by their situation one day, and yet with no change to their terms and working conditions can be made very unhappy and demotivated, if they learn for example that a colleague (or worse an entire group) is enjoying a better reward-to-effort ratio. It also explains why giving one person a promotion or pay-rise can have a demotivating effect on others. Note also, importantly, that what matters is the ratio, not the amount of effort or reward per se. This explains for example why and how full-time employees will compare their situations and input-to-output ratios with part-time colleagues, who very probably earn less, however it is the ratio of input-to-output - reward-to-effort - which counts, and if the part-timer is perceived to enjoy a more advantageous
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ratio, then so this will have a negative effect on the full-timer's sense of Equity, and with it, their personal motivation. Remember also that words like efforts and rewards, or work and pay, are an oversimplification - hence Adams' use of the terms inputs and outputs, which more aptly cover all aspects of what a person gives, sacrifices, tolerates, invests, etc., into their work situation, and all aspects of what a person receives and benefits from in their work and wider career, as they see it. The equity theory may be summarized as:

Suppose employee A gets a 20% raise and employee B gets a 10% raise. Will both be motivated as a result? Will A be twice as motivated? Will be B be negatively motivated? Equity theory says that it is not the actual reward that motivates, but the perception, and the perception is based not on the reward in isolation, but in comparison with the efforts that went into getting it, and the rewards and efforts of
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others. If everyone got a 5% raise, B is likely to feel quite pleased with her raise, even if she worked harder than everyone else. But if A got an even higher raise, B perceives that she worked just as hard as A, she will be unhappy. In other words, people's motivation results from a ratio of ratios: a person compares the ratio of reward to effort with the comparable ratio of reward to effort that they think others are getting. Of course, in terms of actually predicting how a person will react to a given motivator, this will get pretty complicated: 1. People do not have complete information about how others are rewarded. So they are going on perceptions, rumors, and inferences. 2. Some people are more sensitive to equity issues than others Some people are willing to ignore short-term inequities as long as they expect things to work out in the long-term The advantages of this theory are: This theory has generated extensive research, with many of the results being supportive; it also recognizes the influence of social comparison processes on motivation and lastly, this theory adopts a realistic approach to motivation. This theory also has its share of criticism. The central theme of the model is the judgment of fair treatment. The difficulty is that not everyone equally appreciates the concepts of fairness.

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they have certain expectations. This theory is about choice, it explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management. The expectancy theory of motivation suggested by Vroom, unlike Maslow and Herzberg, does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes. Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfill them, Vroom separates effort, which arises from motivation, performance, and outcomes.

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Vroom argues that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort to obtain a reward under three conditions: 1. The employee believes that his or her efforts will result in acceptable performance. 2. The employee believes that acceptable performance will lead to the desired outcome or reward. 3. The employee values the reward.

Vrooms Expectancy Theory is based upon three variables or beliefs that he calls Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality: Valence: Is the outcome I get of any value to me?. It refers to the emotional orientations which people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, free time, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards. Management must discover what employees appreciate. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Vrooms theory suggests that the individual will consider the outcomes associated with various levels of performance, from an entire spectrum of performance possibilities, and elect to pursue the level that generates the greatest reward for him or her. Whats the probability that, if I do a good job, that there will be some kind of outcome in it for me? Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of
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doing. Expectancy refers to the strength of a persons belief about whether or not a particular job performance is attainable. Assuming all other things are equal, an employee will be motivated to try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done. This expectancy of performance may be thought of in terms of probabilities ranging from zero (a case of I cant do it!) to 1.0 (I have no doubt whatsoever that I can do this job!). Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision the employees need. Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome. Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. In other words, it is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. The perception of employees whether they will actually receive what they desire, even if it has been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that. Instrumentality may range from a probability of 1.0 (meaning that the attainment of the second outcome, the reward, is certain if the first outcome, excellent job performance, is attained) through zero (meaning there is no likely relationship between the first outcome and the second). Commission pay schemes are designed to make employees perceive that performance is positively instrumental for the acquisition of money. The Expectancy Theory is also called Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory. Vroom says the product of these variables is the motivation and suggests that an employees beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically. In this way they create a motivational force, such that the employee will act in a way that brings pleasure and avoids pain. This force can be calculated via a formula: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy (Instrumentality). This formula can be used to indicate and predict things as: job satisfaction, occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job, and the effort that one might expend at work. Thus, this theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes.

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GOAL-SETTING THEORY
In the later 1960s, Dr Edwin Locke's article on "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives", stated that clear goals and appropriate feedback motivates employees. Dr. Edwin Locke was a pioneer in the study and research of the connection between setting goals and motivation. He formed the basic goal setting theory when he reached the conclusion that clear goals and subsequent feedback could motivate the employees greatly. They were enthused by the idea of collectively working towards the achievement of goals and it went a long way to improve their performance too. He also discovered that people were more ignited by goals that were challenging and specific as compared to goals that were easy and vague. Dr. Edwin Locke, in the later stages, worked with Dr. Gary Latham, who had done independent studies to corroborate Locke's findings. In the late 20th Century, they identified the five main characteristics that were essential to the success of goal setting. In random order these characteristics are clarity, commitment, feedback, challenge and task complexity. Clarity & Challenge An important characteristic of the goal setting theory is that the best goals are those that are productive, clear-cut, and measurable. Once the goal is explicit and a clear deadline has been set, there is less misunderstanding on what is expected of the employees. A vague goal has very little motivational value. At the same time, the goal has to pose sufficient challenge to the employees. If the difficulty level is too less, your employee may end up feeling like his potential isn't being exploited well enough by the company.

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Commitment If the employees are to see the goals through, commitment to it is extremely important. Employees are committed to the goal if they feel they have been active participants in its creation. Most companies encourage participative management which believes in involving the employees in the process of goal setting and decision making. Another factor that makes employees more committed towards attaining the goal is its difficulty level. If the goal is harder and more challenging, employees gain drive and inspiration from it, and show more commitment towards achieving it. Feedback The feedback process is crucial to goal setting. At regular intervals, you need to get together with your team and check on their progress. What have they achieved? Are they on the right direction? Did they face any problems? If yes, how did they solve them? Do they need any clarifications or additional resources to complete their goals? These are important questions that need to be answered every now and then. This activity will not only help you see where your team stands, but they will also be able to evaluate their own position. Task Complexity Task Complexity is that last characteristic in the goal setting theory. If your goals are extremely complex, you need to make sure that your employees aren't feeling too overwhelmed. If the task becomes too overwhelming for them, there are chances that your employees may feel a little bewildered or demoralized. Once that happens, the goal may seem frustrating and they may develop resistance towards attaining it. To avoid this, ensure that your team or employee is given a reasonable amount of time to achieve the target. It would also be a good idea to arrange for trainings or learning sessions where you can equip the employee with necessary skills and knowledge to tackle the task at hand.

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REINFORCEMENT THEORY:

B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishment actually leads to frustration and de-motivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization. Operant Conditioning is the term used by B.F. Skinner to describe the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior. There are four types of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen behavior while both Punishment and Extinction weaken behavior.
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Positive reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of getting goodies as a consequence of a behavior. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job; you get a bonus & a promotion. Negative reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of having a stressor taken away as a consequence of a behavior. Long-term sanctions are removed from countries when their human rights records improve. (you see how successful that is!). Low status as geek at Salomon Brothers is removed when you make first big sale. Extinction. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting no goodies when do a behavior. So if person does extra effort, but gets no thanks for it, they stop doing it. Punishment. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay docked for lateness.

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MORALE

MEANING OF MORALE
Though the organizations focus is always on performance, based on cost-benefit approach, it was felt imperative to consider the issue of morale in a wider perspective. From the institutional point of view, the problem of employee's morale is that of stimulating a feeling of togetherness, a sense of identification with the job. It is moreconducive to the achievement of institutional goals. It Is important because performance and efficiency of operation depends upon employee's morale. To attain these high standards of morale it is essential to enlist the feelings of employees and their abilities in the work. 'Morale' is an attitude of satisfaction with desire to continue in and willingness to strive for the goals of a particular organization. There are two important elements. Firstly, that the individual shares the purpose which gives him enthusiasm, energy and self-discipline. Secondly, the responsibility of the authorities to infuse the feeling of togetherness, a sense of identification and his consideration for other members of the institution. Further, morale is viewed as 'the capacity of a group to pull together persistently and ' consistently in pursuit of common purpose'. This capacity is subjective and differs from person to person depending upon the people's interest in a particular work. This capacity is inherent in every individual and is seen in their attitudes towards particular work. FACTORS EFFECTING MORALE There are four factors which effect the morale of the employees in an organization. They are as follows: i) The organization itself ii) Nature of work of employee iii) Supervisory techniques iv) Fellow employees Let us discuss each factor in a detailed manner. 1) The Organization As practical matter morale is based upon the understanding that an employee's future depends upon thesuccess of the organization, and that the efficient service leads to high pay, job security, and promotions. Employees morale cannot be exploited by authoritarian attitude of the organization. Employees
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morale must be won through, sound personnel policies. Through benevolent paternalism, employees can be made happy, loyal and grateful. To maintain employees morale every organization is required to ensure the following: a) A proper human relations programme b) Survey of employees attitude should be undertaken to initiate corrective action c) The findings of attitude surveys should be communicated to employees to gain their faith in the organisation d) Free flow of information to and from the employees and among employees. e) A reward system for good work. 2) Nature of Work Employees want jobs that match their needs, values and personalities. Studies have shown that employees who undertake a job that requires the use of skills derive a sense of competence from mastering. Employees will be happy when they believe themselves to be competent in performing meaningful work. Since most employees strive to master important activities of their lives, it is not surprising that mastery of skills performed on the job involved a certain amount of pride. Work, for most people, is the most important activity which influences their self-esteem. Tedious, boring and routine work will not contribute morale building. 3) Supervisory Techniques An important step in the morale-building programme is to instill in supervisors the need for applying human relations in supervision. Supervision must help the employees to enjoy the anticipation of future satisfactions of their drives rather than the whim of the movement. The major failure of poor supervision is the failure of supervisor to understand emotions. To boost up the morale supervisor should be democratic and allow participation of employees in running the departmental affairs. Supervisor should be fair and impartial in dealing with his assistants. He should also build up the pride of the employee in his work by explaining its importance and giving recognition for good work. He should learn to apply positive discipline, which corrects by showing right way and does not restrict the individual employee who is being brought into line. 4) Fellow-employees' Interaction In the socialization process of the institution, co-employees interaction influences employees' morale a lot. Formal training, institutional rules and regulations may not be sufficient for the new entrants in understanding their role expected by the institution. Co-employees' informal assistance, fraternity, cooperation will help the new comers in performing their work assigned by the institution. Fellow-employees'
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non-cooperation, jealous attitude, carelessness create undesirable work environment. Even the competitive spirit and undertaking of a work of challenge will arouse positive element among employees when there is interaction. It also raises the group morale.

EVALUATION OF MORALE
Whether of an individual or a group, the level of morale must be observed and expressed largely in terms of complex reactions. Most employers who are concerned with employee morale recognize the necessity for careful analysis of all expressions of employee reactions. There are several methods of survey of morale. Some of the methods are as under: Attitude Survey These surveys depend upon questionnaires, which are administered orally or in writing from any employees. By answering these questionnaires, employees indicate their attitude towards a wide range of conditions related to their work. Analysis of their replies provides a guide to general levels of morale as well as more specific indications of their likes and dislikes in the prevailing employment situation. Morale Interviews By frequent and periodic interviews with employees their morale can be assessed. In these visits, the interviewer encourages the employeeto speak freely and frankly in respect of his job, his supervisors, his fellow employees, and any other conditions affecting his employment without any fear or hazard to his status in the organization. Spies and Informers In earlier times the employers are used to hire spies and placed them in various departments for the specific purpose of finding out what employees thought of their jobs and of working conditions in the organization. After formation of employees unions and associations this practice was almost given up and it became outdated. Morale survey methods are varied from one organization to another. However, it all depends upon the nature of the work of employee, organization, authorities' outlook, and size of the organization etc.

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INDICES OF MORALE
Morale, as it is an attendant condition of an activity rather than an activity itself, can be measured only indirectly. The following are some of the indices of employee's morale. a) Absenteeism: Where there is high morale, employees make efforts to be on time and avoid absence. A high rate of absenteeism indicates poor morale. b) Turnover: Sometimes greater turnover of labour may be included in the indices of poor morale. It may not be true in all cases. Young employees in unskilled jobs have higher turnover rate than older employees in higher positions. c) Grievances: Some grievances may arise out of poor morale. d) Output Level: High level of output may indicate high level of morale but the output may be increased even by fear. The employees with higher level of morale may produce low output due to substandard tools or deliberate plan to restrict output. These may not be the proper measuring rods of morale. But the level of output will also exhibit the level of morale.

MEASURES TO IMPROVE MORALE

Morale is not static. It is subject to daily, or even to monetary fluctuations. It is also subject to long-term secular trends. It is useful to think of long-term morale trends as responses to pressures and supports. Usually policy on morale seeks to develop and maintain high levels of morale among employees through appropriate means. The following measures are suggested for morale building. Job Satisfaction: The personnel policy should make jobs as interesting and satisfying as possible; it tends to encourage a favorable and enthusiastic group action. Job Training: Job training, orientation, education, apprentice training and a broad variety of general educational efforts will help in building up employees' morale. Recognition of Aspirations: Recognition of individual aspirations and goals, and definite provision of means by which such goals can be achieved will go a long way in boosting morale. Unrest: A careful study must be made on various indices of employees unrest, with the ultimate objective of constructive guidance and action. Counselling Interviews: Counselling Interviews help to discover the feelings of employees. Opportunities: promising opportunities like good promotional avenues, good working conditions, satisfactory remuneration and other benefits for personal development.
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Relations: The supervisory staff should ensure, human relations, informal relations, fact finding and adopt participative and employee orientated attitude. Facilities: Apart from the above measures, the facilities like, transport, housing, health, family welfare, children's education, and other recreational facilities would also help in building up employees morale.

Effect of Employee's Morale onOrganization Performance

Theo Haimann defines morale as "a state of mind & emotions affecting the attitude & willingness to work which, in turn, affect individual and organizational objectives." The perception of employees about the organization, its philosophy, feeling towards co-workers and supervisors are some of the factors which affect employee morale. High morale leads to high degree of employee interest in the job and in the organization, willingness for the attainment of organizational objectives, loyalty to the organization etc. On the other hand low morale of an employee adversely affects the quantity, quality and cost of product. It deteriorates the initiative, enthusiasm, discipline and cooperative nature of employees, which leads to reduced productivity of an organization. This is not acceptable for any organization. Now question may arise, what is meant by productivity? Productivity is nothing but ratio of output to the input. Morale is theoretical concept. There is no direct method to measure or evaluate the morale of an employee. However by systematic observation of worker, surveys through questionnaires and records relating to the absenteeism, labor turnover, late arrivals, and work done by employees can give you clear idea about morale of an employee. Once management comes to know about the low morale of an employee, it is prime duty of the management to promote and maintain high morale. High morale is created by continuous motivation, good working environment, good leadership, employee's participation, rewards for new ideas, job evaluation for fixing higher wages and promotions, good recreational, canteen, transport, housing facilities etc. High morale of employee leads to better quality and quantity of the product, thereby increasing the overall performance and productivity of the organization. There are so many other parameters to increase the productivity but morale of an employee plays an important role in increasing the productivity of an organization.

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SELF-MOTIVATION
The concept of self-motivation at work is simple - push yourself to perform. The first step towards self-motivation is simple; accept the fact that there are a number of downs in life. We travel through many journeys in life as a child, parent, single person, colleague, employee, superior and there is a hundred percent that there are going to be ups and downs. These journeys are like riding on waves of the sea, you go up and you have to come down at some or the other point and this is exactly where you need self-motivation in the workplace. You will find several theoretical examples of self-motivation at work. Just look for the people who are happy, they are rather rare but they are happy. Now the reason that they are happy is that they accepted the drawbacks of life, and are ready to face them and resolve them. Self-motivation is the ability to satisfy a desire, expectation, or goal without being influenced to do so by another person. Self-motivation is the key to a paradigm shift or behavior changes amongst individuals. Many motivation courses or peak performance training mainly address this aspect but the cumulative effect is temporary and the key factor always is the presence of a constant reminder. Self-motivation is a difficult concept to grasp, though comparable to the key concepts and idealisms of many central religions and other such belief systems. Examples would be faith in Christianity, where "through God all things are possible." Taoism also expresses a similar concept through the realm of meditation and focus, where one draws energy from the universe and the world. Bushido also relies on a similar concept, focusing the warrior mind through intense meditations and practices, all of which are meant to bend the mind in such a way as to increase the warriors reaction time and skill. Each of these ideals teaches the person on how to become independent in order to better realize their tasks (though the 'through God' concept is dependent on God, it does require the individual to focus their own beliefs and energy). As mentioned in these ways of life, self-motivation is the act of calling an eternal "energy". By learning how to focus one's mind on his tasks, one can achieve much more with less strain than if one were unfocused, or distracted. A familiar term, "mind over matter", comes into play here; if the mind is in control of itself, the body will have better control over its own realm. So, in short, self-motivation is finding a way of transforming the energy within into energy without, allowing for one to accomplish difficult tasks, or express ideas more thoroughly.
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So, at the end I would like to finish project with a small funny but informative story which teaches an important lesson about life.

The story about the tiny frogs .

There once was a bunch of tiny frogs,...

who arranged a running competition. The goal was to reach the top of a very high tower. A big crowd had gathered around the tower to see the race and cheer on the contestants...

The race began...

Honestly: No one in crowd really believed that the tiny frogs would reach the top of the tower. You heard statements such as: "Oh, WAY too difficult!! They will NEVER make it to the top." or: "Not a chance that they will succeed. The tower is too high!"

The tiny frogs began collapsing. One by one...

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... Except for those who in a fresh tempo were climbing higher and higher...

The crowd continued to yell "It is too difficult!!! No one will make it!"

More tiny frogs got tired and gave up... ...But ONE continued higher and higher and higher... This one wouldnt give up!

At the end everyone else had given up climbing the tower. Except for the one tiny frog who after a big effort was the only one who reached the top! THEN all of the other tiny frogs naturally wanted to know how this one frog managed to do it?

A contestant asked the tiny frog how the one who succeeded had found the strength to reach the goal?

It turned out...

That the winner was DEAF!!!!

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The wisdom of this story is:

Never listen to other peoples tendencies to be negative or pessimistic...

cause they take your most wonderful dreams and wishes away from you. The ones you have in your heart!

Always think of the power words have. Because everything you hear and read will affect your actions! Therefore: ALWAYS be

POSITIVE!
And above all:

Be DEAF when people tell YOU that YOU can not fulfil YOUR dreams!

Always think: I can do this! Be Self Motivated .

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