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Introduction: In this tutorial I'll explain what electronic breadboards are, how to use them and why you

should be ashamed for not having at least one in your electronic arsenal yet! We'll learn how breadboards are layed out, some of the types of breadboards that exist, and how to wire up a simple circuit on a breadboard. What is a Breadboard? Breadboards are to the field of Electronics what calculators are to the field of Mathematics -- you don't *need* to use a breadboard, but like a calculator it certianly makes getting to the solution quicker. Let's first take a look at what breadboards are not..

Not Electronic Breadboards

Okay, now that we got that sillyness out of the way and you've realized the "bread board" in your kitchen isn't going to cut it, here are some electronic breadboards:

Electronic "Solderless" Breadboard

See the resemblance to the kitchen breadboard? Me neither..

Solderless breadboards like those pictured above are used to connect electronic components together. There's no soldering involved, just spring-loaded clips that are electrically connected throughout the breadboard and allow you to build circuits by simply pushing components into tie points (the little holes in the photos above). Some breadboards will have letters at the top and bottom of the columns and numbers beside the rows. These aren't absolutely needed, but useful when you have complicated circuits that take

up much of the board and make it hard to tell if you're in the right row/column when you're connecting components on the board. As you can see in the photos above, breadboards come in many different sizes. When you're looking to purchase a breadboard they will usually say something like "800 tie points" and that usually also gives a good indication of the size of the breadboard if you're buying online without a picture. You don't need every size breadboard, but having a few smaller ones for little projects and a large breadboard (like the middle photo above) allow you to work on multiple projects at once. Lets see how breadboards work..

How Do Breadboards Work? Solderless breadboards have rows of tie points that are electrically connected to eachother at various points. Try hovering over the image above to see where these tie points are electrically connected (in green). You'll probably want a breadboard "power rails" as in the picture above, as this makes it easier to tie into your power source. The tie points in the rails are connected the entire length of the rail and allow you to connect a power source to a single point on the rail and have access to the power at any other tie point on that rail. Many breadboards mark these rails with red and blue lines to show the tie points are connected the entire length of the rail. You can use the rails however you wish (ie. connect 5v power positive & ground to the left side, or 5v positive to the left and the negative to the ground, or 5v power/ground to one side and 3.3v power/ground to the other side). In the middle of the breadboard there are two rows of 5 tie points that are connected electrically (again, hover over the breadboard above to see this). You don't want to put all of a components leads into a single row of 5 tie points since they're electrically connected together and you would be creating a short circuit. Instead, you connect one lead of a component to one row of tie points and the other lead(s) to different rows of 5 tie points so they're electrically separated. Using the tie points you can create circuits on the breadboard, but you must know how these tie points are connected electrically so you don't short-circuit something. A breadboard does not tell you whether you hooked something up incorrectly, but if you're not using some caution the smoke coming from the component will help you figure that out! Let's Hook Up Something A while back I wrote a basic electronic tutorial on how to wire up a simple LED. We'll be creating that circuit on the breadboard, so if you haven't already, view the simple LED tutorial before going any further. Now that that's out of the way, lets wire it up! Here's the non-technical picture of the circuit we'll beuild on the breadboard:

Step 1: Connecting the Power Source You're going to need a DC power source of around 3v or more. I used a battery holder with 4 AA 1.5v batteries. This created a 6v power source. You can use a 9v battery or a 3v battery source, whatever you

have available, however the requirements of the resistor in the circuit may change depending on the battery source you're using. So that's why it's important to read the simple LED tutorial to find the resistor value you'll need.

Step 2: Connecting the LED LEDs are polarized, which simply means there's a right and wrong way to hook them up. There are two leads (metal wires) that come out of the LED. One is the anode (positive) and is usually the longer lead. The shorter lead is usually the cathod (negative). You can also tell polarity by looking for a flat side on many LEDs, which will be the cathode. You'll of course want the anode hooked into the postive power and cathode hooked into ground.

Notice in the picture above the LED's anode (positive as indicated with a PLUS "+") is oriented toward the positive power rail. Also, it's important to note that the LEDs leads staddle the two middle rows of the breadboard. This is because all 5 tie points (holes) in those rows are electically tied together. If the LED was inserted into two holes in the same row, it would create a short circuit and very likely damange components.

As shown in the picture above, this is what you DON'T want to do. Since the 5 holes in the two middle rows are all electrically connected, placing both of the LEDs leads into holes in the same row will create a short circuit. It would essentially be like twisting or soldering the LED's leads together. This example is useful for any component you'll be wiring into a breadboard. For an Integrated Chip that has 4 pins or 30 pins, the rules still apply. You each leg of the chip would want to be in a seperate row, so you'd straddle the two middle rows to achieve this. Let's add the resistor next.. Step 3: Add the Resistor The resistors important in this circuit cause I'm using a 6v power supply and need to bring the voltage down within spec of the LED to between 3.2-3.6v. If the resistors not in the circuit we risk burning up the LED.

Resistors don't have polarity, so can be oritented either way. Notice how in the picture above we are connecting into the same row of 5 tie points that the LED's cathode (negative) is hooked into with one of the

resistor's leads. The other resistor lead is then connected to the ground rail (which is then connected to the power source since the entire rail is electrically connected). That's how we tap into the 6v power supply. Step 4: Add A Jumper Wire To Finish The Circuit As it is right now, if you connected the batteries nothing would happen cause the positive power rail is not electrically connected at all to the middle row that the LED's anode lead is connected. So we could either move the LED's anode to a power rail tie point, or connect a jumper wire from the middle column to the positive rail.

The jumper wire (in purple) is now connecting the middle rows to the postive rail. So we've completed the full circuit. With these power rails, you can connect *anywhere* on the rail, but usually it's good to keep the jumper wires as short as possible and tie to the closest tie point on the rail to stay neat. Next we'll test it out.. Step 5: Connect The Batteries! It's all come down to this! Hook up the batteries and your LED should light up. If it doesn't, check the polarity of the LED, the value of your resistor (too high a value and you may not be getting enough voltage to the LED), and also be sure you're connected to the tie point holes as in the previous pictures. A typical LED requires around 3v to light up so if you don't have enough voltage due to too small a power source or too high a resistor, it may be causing you issues.

Here's a picture of mine connected:

Conclusion This is a very basic example of why solderless breadboards are useful. They are great for prototyping and being able to move components around at will without ruining them or having to desolder. There are also many other methods of connecting your circuit without solderless breadboards (wire wrapping, perf boards, etc) that weren't discussed, but those types of things are used as you get closer to a final design. For quick prototyping, solderless breadboards are indispensable! Other Resources Java Breadboard Simulator Don't have a breadboard of your own yet or want to experiment away from home? Check out the Java Breadboard Simulator by Nick Glass. It allows you to simulate the circuits too, so you could build the LED circuit from this tutorial on a "virtual breadboard". Pretty neat!

A breadboard is a rectangular plastic box filled with holes, which have contacts in which you can insert electronic components and wires. A breadboard is what you use to string together a temporary version of your circuit. You don't have to solder wires or anything else; instead, you poke your components and wires into the little contact holes arranged in rows and connected by lines of metal; then you can connect your components together with wires to form your circuit. The nice thing about breadboards is that you can change your mind and replace or rearrange components as you like. You typically create an electronics project on a breadboard to make sure that everything works. If it's a project you wish to save, you can create a more permanent version. If you want to create a permanent version of your circuit, you need to create a soldered or printed circuit board; see below to find out how to go about that. There are a few different sizes of breadboards and you can link breadboards to make a larger circuit.

Wires pull it all together


When you place components in a breadboard, you don't get much action until you connect those components with wire. Wire used in electronics is copper surrounded by a plastic insulator, usually called hookup wire. Hookup wire comes in various diameters referred to as a gauge. The standard gauge measurement used in the U.S. is American Wire Gauge, also referred to as AWG. Someone decided at some point that the smaller the gauge, the larger the diameter of wire. For example, 20 gauge wire is 0.032" in diameter, and 22 gauge wire is 0.025" in diameter. Don't ask why just memorize this fact! Use solid wire never stranded wire between components within a breadboard because stranded tends to separate when you try to insert it into the holes of a breadboard. You can buy hookup wire in spools containing 100 feet of wire. If you are starting with only a few projects, you can get smaller spools containing as little as 30 feet of wire. The insulating plastic that surrounds wire is made in different colors. Pick up a spool of red and a spool of black. Using different colors helps you to identify the purpose of different wires in your project. You might also consider buying an assortment of different lengths of prestripped and prebent 22 gauge wire jumpers. Jumper wires which are used to connect components in a breadboard save you a lot of time you might otherwise spend cutting small wires to length, stripping them, and bending the stripped wire when you're building a breadboard.

Connectors
Finally, terminal blocks are used to connect wires from components such as speakers, motors, and microphones to the breadboard. A terminal block is a small block of plastic that you mount on a breadboard. You insert the wires into the terminal block through a hole in the block and then tighten screws to hold the wire securely. When choosing terminal blocks, the diameter of the pin that inserts into the breadboard or circuit board is important. Some terminal blocks that work fine in circuit boards where the components are soldered in do not stay in place on breadboards.

Printed circuit boards


If you create a circuit on a breadboard and decide that it's worthy of immortality, you can make it permanent by soldering components in place on a printed circuit board. To do this, you have to get your hands on a universal printed circuit board. This is much like a breadboard except that you can solder all the connections you've made to keep them around. A universal printed circuit board has rows of individual holes throughout the board with copper pads around each hole and metal lines connecting the holes in each row, like in a breadboard. You mount parts on the face of the board and then pass leads through holes to the components. You can solder the leads to the copper pads on the bottom of the board. Universal printed circuit boards are available in a variety of patterns of contact holes and metal lines.

You can get custom printed circuit boards made for your circuit; this is typically done by submitting a drawing of your circuit to a printed circuit board company. These boards eliminate the need to solder jumper wires between components.

How to Clean Electronic Equipment


By an eHow Contributor

leaning electronic equipment is a task every user needs to take seriously to better maintain the integrity of the equipment. Dirty electronics can lead to early errors and a shortened lifespan of the unit. With a few pointers and ideas, cleaning electronic equipment can be simple.

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Things You'll Need

Soft cloth

Isopropyl alcohol Screwdriver Show (4) More

Instructions
1. o

1 2

Unplug any cables or power cords from the electronic equipment before working on them. Remove any component cables leading to other devices.
o

Wipe down the electronic equipment with a soft damp cloth starting at the top of the device and working downwards. Wipe away any accumulated dust, lint or dander.
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3 4 5

Use a small amount of isopropyl alcohol on a soft cloth to remove fingerprints from any CDs or DVDs. Work from the center of the media outwards. Do not rub too hard or in a circular motion.
o

Clean a LCD television or computer monitor screen by wiping a damp cloth gently across the screen once all power is disconnected. Wipe down the ventilation area to remove any dust. Clean the base with the same cloth.
o

Open a computer case by removing the screws that hold the side in place. Blow dust and debris from the interior with a can of compressed air. Start at the power supply and blow through the rear ventilation fan. Continue to dust the motherboard, component slots and case.
o

6 7

Insert a compact disc cleaning disc into CD and DVD players to better clean up these electronic devices from the inside. This cleans the interior lenses, removing dust accumulation that can lead to early device failure.
o

Rub down an MP3 player with a soft cloth and a small amount of ammonia-free glass cleaner. Use a cotton swab to get into crevices and hard to reach areas that trap debris.

Read more: How to Clean Electronic Equipment | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_2212916_cleanelectronic-equipment.html#ixzz1pQUb06LR

CHARACTERISTIC

Ideal for electrical & electronics students to learn the design of electrical, electronics and digital logic circuits. In order to provide an efficient way for learning, power supply, function generator and measurement unit are all included. All supply units are secured with over-load protection. With one main unit, user can choose the modules they need for different learning topics.
Description
KL-210 BASIC ELECTRICITY CIRCUIT LAB, is a complete independent system for general electricity learning. All devices required for the experiments are included in the main unit, and all essential important topics of electrical circuit learning are studied by different modules.

SPECIFICATIONS: MAIN UNIT (KL-22001) 1. DC POWER SUPPLY


(1) Fixed DC power supply a. Voltage range +/-5V+/-12V b. Max. current output 0.3A c. With output over-load protection (2) Dual DC power supply a. Voltage range +/-3V~ +/-18V, Continuously adjustable b. Max. current output 1A c. With output over-load protection

2. AC POWER SUPPLY

a. Voltage range 9V~0V~9V b. Max. current output 500 m A c. With output over-load protection

3. SINGAL GENERATOR

(1) Pulse generator (TTL level) a. Frequency range 1Hz~10KHz / 4 settings, continuously adjustable b. Fan out 10 TTL load (2) Pulse switches a. 2 independent output, TTL level b. With Q, Q output,pulse width > 5ms c. Fan out 10 TTL load (3) Data switches a. 8 sets independent control output,TTL level with De-bounce circuit. b. Fan out 10 TTL load

4. FUNCTION GENERATOR

(1) Output waveform Sine,triangle, square (2) Output frequency 10~100KHz/4 settings, continuously adjustable

(3) Output amplitude 18Vpp (open circuit) 9Vpp (50 O load)

5. TESTING AND DISPLAY


(1) 3 1/2 digital voltmeter/ammeter a. DC voltage range 2V200V b. DC voltage accuracy +/-(0.3% of reading +1 digit) c. DC current range 200

KL-200 LINEAR CIRCUIT LAB (2)-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT LAB


THE KL-200 LINEAR CIRCUIT LAB (2) ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT LAB is a comprehensive and self-contained system suitable for anyone engaged in electronic circuit experiments. All necessary equipments for electronic circuit experiments such as power supply, function generator, analog and digital meters are installed on the main unit. The 17 modules covers a wide variety of essential topics in the field of electronics circuit. It is a time and cost saving device for both students and researchers interested in developing and testing circuit prototypes. Ideal for electronic circuit experiments and designing exercises. Integrated experimental circuit and trainer, with complete electronic circuit experiment curriculum Complete supply and testing units for easy and efficient experiments. With universal breadboard for circuit designing and prototypes. All modules equipped with an 8-bit DIP switch for fault simulations. Individual storage case for all modules for easy carrying and storing.

SPECIFICATIONS
MAIN UNIT(KL-21001) j DC POWER SUPPLY A. Fixed DC Power Supply (1). Voltage Range (2). Maximum Current Output : 5V, 12V : 0.3A (3). With output overload protection. B. Dual DC Power Supply (1). Voltage Range : 3V~18V, continuously adjustable. (2). Maximum Current Output : 1A (3). With output overload protection.

KL-200 LINEAR CIRCUIT LAB (2)-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT LAB


k AC POWER SUPPLY (1). Voltage Range (2). Maximum Current Output : 9V~0V~9V : 500mA (3). With output overload protection.

l FUNCTION GENERATOR (1). Output Waveform (2). Output Frequency (3). Accuracy (4). Output Impedance (5). Output Voltage : Sine, Square and Triangle. : 10 Hz~100 KHz, 4 settings, continuously adjustable. : 5% of full scale value. : 50 : 18Vp-p (open loop); 9Vp-p (with 50load). m 3 1/2-DIGIT DIGITAL VOLTMETER/AMMETER A. DC Voltage Range B. DC Voltage Accuracy C. DC Current Range D. DC Current Accuracy : 2V, 200V : 0.3% of reading + 1 digit : 200A, 2000mA : 0.5% of reading + 1 digit n ANALOG METERS A. AC Current B. AC Voltage C. DC Current D. DC Voltage : 0 ~ 100mA ~ 1A : 0 ~ 15V : 0 ~ 100mA ~ 1A : 0 ~ 20V o SPEAKER one 8, 0.25W speaker with driver circuit. p VARIABLE RESISTORS A. 1K, 0.25W variable resistor with 3 terminals (A,B,C). B. 10K, 0.25W variable resistor with 3 terminals (A,B,C). C. 100K, 0.25W variable resistor with 3 terminals (A,B,C). D. 1M, 0.25W variable resistor with 3 terminals (A,B,C). q BREADBOARD (AC-90001) 1680 tie-point breadboard on top panel can be easily put into and taken off. r ACCESSORIES A. Connect Lead : 2mm-0.65mm, 300mmL 6pcs. B. User's Manual D. AC Cord C. Fuse E. Anti-Dust Cover EXPERIMENT MODULES
1. 17 modules each secured on to a solid-body plastic housing. 2. Each module is equipped with an 8-bit DIP switch for fault simulations. Students can practice trouble shooting by setting the DIP switch to different positions. 3. Detailed solution for the simulated faults are included in the Instructor's manual. 4. All terminals on the modules accept 2mm plugs. 5. Comprehensive experiment and instructor's manual. 6. Module dimension: 255x165x30mm.

MODULES AND THE EXPERIMENTS THEY PERFORM


KL-23001: Clipping & Clamping Circuits KL-23002: Rectifier, Differential & Integrator Circuits KL-23003: Transistor Amplification Circuits KL-23004: Field Effect Transistor (FET) Circuits

KL-200 LINEAR CIRCUIT LAB (2)-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT LAB


KL-23005: Multi-Stage Amplification Circuits KL-23006: OTL Amplifier Circuit KL-23007: OCL Amplifier Circuit KL-23008: Oscillator Circuits (1) KL-23009: Oscillator Circuits (2) KL-23010: Voltage Regulator Circuits KL-23011: Voltage Regulator & Amplitude Modulation (AM) Circuits KL-23012: Frequency Modulation (FM) & OP Amplifier Circuits KL-23013: OP Amplifier Circuits (1) KL-23014: OP Amplifier Circuits (2) KL-23015: OP Amplifier Circuits (3) KL-23016: OP Amplifier Circuits (4) KL-23017: OP Amplifier Circuits (5)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Characteristics of Diodes 1-1 Silicon Diode 1-2 Germanium Diode.. 1-3 Zener Diode. 1-4 Light Emitting Diode... 1-5 Optical Diode. . . KL-23001(A) KL-23001(A) KL-23001(A) KL-23001(E) KL-23001(E) 2. Clipping and Clamping Circuits with Diodes 2-1 Clipping Circuit (1) . . 2-2 Clipping Circuit (2) . 2-3 Clamping Circuit (1) .. 2-4 Clamping Circuit (2) .. KL-23001(B) KL-23001(C) KL-23001(D) KL-23001(D) 3. Rectifier Circuits 3-1 Half Wave Rectifier Circuit 3-2 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit 3-3 Bridge Rectifier Circuit . . . 3-4 Dual Power Supply Rectifier Circuit . 3-5 Voltage Magnifying Rectifier Circuit . KL-23002(C) KL-23002(C) KL-23002(C) KL-23002(C) KL-23002(B) 4. Differential and Integration Circuits 4-1 RC Direct Current Charge/Discharge Circuit. 4-2 Differential Circuit: Square Wave Input . . . 4-3 Differential Circuit: Sine Wave Input 4-4 Integrator Circuit: Square Wave Input . 4-5 Integrator Circuit: Sine Wave Input . . 4-6 RL Circuit. KL-23002(D) KL-23002(D) KL-23002(D) KL-23002(D) KL-23002(D) KL-23002(D) 5. Transistors 5-1 PNP Transistor 5-2 NPN Transistor... KL-23002(A) KL-23002(A) 6. Transistor Amplification Circuits 6-1 Common Emitter Transistor Amplification Circuit..

6-2 Common Base Transistor Amplification Circuit. 6-3 Common Collector Transistor Amplification Circuit... 6-4 Switching Type Transistor Circuit. 6-5 Darlington's Circuit. KL-23003(A) KL-23003(B) KL-23003(C) KL-23003(C) KL-23004(A) 7. Field Effect Transistors (FET) 7-1 Junction Type FET (JFET) ... 7-2 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) KL-23004(B) KL-23004(B) 8. FET Amplification Circuits 8-1 JFET Common Source Amplification Circuit: Self-Bias 8-2 JFET Common Source Amplification Circuit: Divide-Bias... 8-3 JFET Common Drain Amplification Circuit: Self-Bias.. 8-4 JFET Common Drain Amplification Circuit: Divide-Bias.. 8-5 MOSFET Amplification Circuit: Biased (1). 8-6 MOSFET Amplification Circuit: Biased (2) KL-23004(C) KL-23004(C) KL-23004(C) KL-23004(C) KL-23004(D) KL-23004(D) 9. Multi - Stage Amplification Circuits 9-1 RC Coupled Amplification Circuit . 9-2 Direct Coupled Amplification Circuit 9-3 Transformer Coupled Amplification Circuit . 9-4 Push-Pull Amplification Circuit. 9-5 OTL Amplification Circuit...... 9-6 OCL Amplification Circuit.. 9-7 IC Amplification Circuit.. KL-23005(A) KL-23005(A) KL-23005(B) KL-23005(C) KL-23006(B) KL-23007(A) KL-23006(A)

KL-200 LINEAR CIRCUIT LAB (2)-ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT LAB


10. Transistor Negative Feedback Circuits 10-1 Serial Voltage Negative Feedback Circuit. 10-2 Parallel Voltage Negative Feedback Circuit 10-3 Serial Current Negative Feedback Circuit.. 10-4 Parallel Current Negative Feedback Circuit KL-23007(B) KL-23007(C) KL-23007(B) KL-23007(C) 11. Transistor Positive Feedback Circuits 11-1 Low-Frequency Sine Wave Oscillating Circuit a.RC Phase-Shifting Oscillating Circuit.. b.Wine's Bridge Oscillating Circuit... 11-2 High-Frequency Sine Wave Oscillating Circuit a.Hartley's Oscillating Circuit.. b.Copy's Oscillating Circuit. 11-3 Crystal Oscillating Circuit . 11-4 Astable Oscillating Circuit 11-5 Monostable Oscillating Circuit 11-6 Bistable Oscillating Circuit . . 11-7 Blocking Oscillating Circuit. 11-8 Schmitt's Oscillating Circuit. 11-9 Sawtooth Oscillating Circuit . KL-23008(A) KL-23008(B)

KL-23008(C) KL-23009(A) KL-23009(A) KL-23008(D) KL-23009(B) KL-23009(C) KL-23009(D) KL-23010(A) KL-23010(B) 12. Regulated Voltage/Constant Current Circuits 12-1 Regulated Voltage Circuit with Zener Diode . 12-2 Regulated Voltage Circuit with Zener Diode/Transistor 12-3 Regulated Adjustable Voltage Circuit 12-4 Current-Limiting Regulated Voltage Circuit.. 12-5 Regulated Volatge Circuit with IC.. 12-6 Constant Current Circuit.. KL-23010(C) KL-23010(D) KL-23010(E) KL-23011(A) KL-23011(B) KL-23011(C) 13. Modulation and Demodulation 13-1 Amplitude Modulation Circuit (AM) 13-2 Frequency Modulation Circuit (FM) 13-3 Amplitude Modulation Detection Circuit.... 13-4 Amplitude Demodulation Circuit. KL-23011(D) KL-23012(A) KL-23011(E) KL-23012(B) 14. OP Amplifiers 14-1 Transistor Differential Amplification Circuit .. . 14-2 Characteristics of OP Amplifiers a. Input Impedance Measurement. b. Output Impedance Measurement.. c. Bandwidth Measurement . d. Slew Rate Measurement. e. Offset Voltage Measurement (1) f. Offset Voltage Measurement (2). KL-23012(C) KL-23012(D) KL-23012(D) KL-23012(D) KL-23012(D) KL-23012(D) KL-23012(D) 15. Basic Characteristics of OP Amplifier 15-1 Inverse Amplification... 15-2 Non-Inverse Amplification... 15-3 Voltage-Follower Circuit.. 15-4 Difference Amplification.. 15-5 Sum Amplification (Adder).. 15-6 Clipping Circuit.. 15-7 Constant Voltage Circuit.. 15-8 Constant Current Circuit.. 15-9 Differentiator Circuit. 15-10 Integrator Circuit. KL-23013(B) KL-23013(B) KL-23013(B) KL-23013(B) KL-23013(B) KL-23013(A) KL-23013(A) KL-23013(A) KL-23013(A) KL-23013(A) 16. Basic Characteristics of OP Amplifier (1) - Negative Feedback 16-1 Logarithm Amplification Circuit..

16-2 Exponential Amplification Circuit... 16-3 Peak Value Detection Circuit . 16-4 Precision Clipping Circuit 16-5 Voltage Adjustment Circuit. 16-6 Sampling/Hold Circuit.. 16-7 Instrument Amplification Circuit. KL-23014(A) KL-23014(A) KL-23014(A) KL-23014(A) KL-23014(B) KL-23014(C) KL-23015(B) 17. Basic Characteristics of OP Amplifier (2) - Negative Feedback 17-1 High Pass Amplification Circuit.. 17-2 Low Pass Amplification Circuit . . . 17-3 Band Pass Amplification Circuit. 17-4 RIAA Amplification Circuit . . . 17-5 Tone Controller Circuit. 17-6 Single Power Supply Inverse Amplification Circuit. KL-23015(A) KL-23015(A) KL-23015(A) KL-23016(A) KL-23016(A) KL-23016(B) 18. Basic Characteristics of OP Amplifier - Positive Feedback 18-1 Comparator 18-2 Schmitt Trigger. 18-3 Window-type Comparator 18-4 Monostable Multivibrator 18-5 Astable Multivibrator 18-6 Sine Wave Oscillation Circuit a. RC Oscillator... b. Wine's Oscillator. KL-23016(C) KL-23016(C) KL-23016(D) KL-23017(A) KL-23017(A) KL-23017(B) KL-23017(B)

ACCESSORIES (KL-28002)
A. Connect Leads: 2mm-2mm, 300mmL, 25pcs B. Connect Plugs: 2mm, 10mmL, 10pcs C. Experiment manual and Instructor's manual. D. Key: 1pc

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
A. Individual storage case for each module(205x295x65mm). B. Power Source : 110V/220V 10%, 50/60Hz C. Operating Temperature: 0C~50C D. Humidity : <90% relative humidity E. Dimension : 400 x 300 x130mm F. Weight : Approx 5.8kg

RF/TDR TRANSMISSION LINE TRAINER TLA05


Transmission Line Trainer TLA05 Features

* 30-300 Mhz sweep source with detector * Calibrated attenuator * Displays standing waves/maxima-minima on CRO * Uses actual coaxial lines rather than simulated ones. * Impedance matching. * Measures VSWR, reflection coefficient, characteristic impedance, velocity of propagation, dielectric constant and signal attenuation in TDR. * Measure parameters of 50, 75 and 300 Ohms cables * Study Time Domain Reflectometry. * Study location and nature ofdiscontinuities,Open/short, mismatched terminations, etc. * Offers a complete view of the transmission line in analog and digital domains, which is essential for complete understanding of transmission line behavior.

DETAILS

SPECIFICATION

FEATURES

VIDEO

TRANSMISSION LINE TRAINER TLA05, List of Experiments TDR 1. Introduction 2. To observe the open/short & terminated line. 3. To measure the characteristic impedance of a line. 4. To measure the velocity and dielectric constant 5. To measure the attenuation constant 6. To measure the VSWR, return loss 7. To observe the two sections joined with a connector 8. To observe the inductive coil Termination 9. To observe the t-line with a capacitor termination 10. To observe the t-line with a varying pulse width 11. To observe line with partial open and partial short 12. To observe the lossy transmission line List of Experiments FDR 1. To setup the standing waves and observe the maxima and minima on a CRO in real time. 2. To measure characteristic imped. &differentiate between the matched and unmatched lines. 3. To study the attenuation characteristic of signal along a transmission line and observe its variation with frequency 4. To study the effect of reactive loads 5. To study the difference between lossy and loss less 6. To study the physical dimensions & estimate its Zo 7. To study behavior of infinite and short lines. 8. To study the operation of balun transformer on 300 ohms parallel line. 9. To study dielectric constant of insulator. 10. To study velocity of propagation & wavelength.

* 30-300 Mhz sweep source with detector * Calibrated attenuator * Displays standing waves/maxima-minima on CRO * Uses actual coaxial lines rather than simulated ones. * Impedance matching. * Measures VSWR, reflection coefficient, characteristic impedance, velocity of propagation, dielectric constant and signal attenuation in TDR. * Measure parameters of 50, 75 and 300 Ohms cables * Study Time Domain Reflectometry. * Study location and nature ofdiscontinuities,Open/short, mismatched terminations, etc. * Offers a complete view of the transmission line in analog and digital domains, which is essential for complete understanding of transmission line behavior. Frequency range : 30-300 MHz typical LCD Display. Level : 100mV p-p Attenuator 50 Ohms : 0.5, 1, 2,4, 8,15 dB Output Impedance : 50 Ohms Scope out : X-Y output to scope Characteristic Imp. : upto 900 ohms Display : LCD PRR Short range : 10MHz typical Pulse width : <10ns typical PRR Long range : 100KHz typical Amplitude : 1V nominal Output Impedance : 50 Ohms Lengths of 50 ohms and 75 ohms coaxial cable, 300ohms parallel line, lossy line, Tee connectors, ,Standard load of 50 and 75 ohms, Various capacitive and inductive loads, shorts, Balun 1:1 & 1:4, Operating manual, Mains cord List of Experiments TDR List of Experiments FDR Dimensions: 56X41X18 cms. Weight: 7 kg. Warranty: 3 yrs. 1. Introduction 2. To observe the open / short & terminated line. 3. To measure the characteristic impedance of a line. 4. To measure the velocity and dielectric constant 5. To measure the attenuation constant 6. To measure the VSWR, return loss 7. To observe the two sections joined with a connector 8. To observe the inductive coil Termination 9. To observe the t-line with a capacitor termination 10. To observe the t-line with a varying pulse width 11. To observe line with partial open and partial short 12. To observe the lossy transmission line 1. To setup the standing waves and observe the maxima and minima on a CRO in real time. 2. To measure characteristic imped. &differentiate between the matched and unmatched lines. 3. To study the attenuation characteristic of signal along a transmission line and observe its variation with frequency 4. To study the effect of reactive loads 5. To study the difference between lossy and loss less 6. To study the physical dimensions & estimate its Zo 7. To study behavior of infinite and short lines.

8. To study the operation of balun transformer on 300 ohms parallel line. 9. To study dielectric constant of insulator. 10. To study velocity of propagation & wavelength.

Applications Polar Field Acoustic Measurements Loudspeakers, Microphones, Enclosures Polar Field EM & RF Measurements Antennas, Radiated EMI Testing 3D Model Scanning, Photography Industrial Automation & Process Control Sales/Marketing & Trade Show Displays Features Heavy Duty, Rugged, Construction Precise, Repeatable, Rotational Control High Rotational Resolution of 0.1 Computer, Digital, Analog Control Methods Operation in Any Position or Orientation High Torque with Programmable Capability Center Through Hole for Cable Run Irreversible Drive, Platter Position Locked Programmable Velocity 0.1RPM - 12RPM Controlled Acceleration/Deceleration Precision Worm Gear Drive System Microstepping Stepper Motor Control RS232 Control Interface USB Control Interface

High Performance Turntable The LT360EX is a rugged precision turntable designed for professional applications. It offers high precision, high strength, advanced interface and control capabilities, all at an affordable price. Multiple pre-tapped mount points are provided both on the platter and base for attachment of brackets, flanges, jigs, and other rigging. The LT360EXcan be mounted in any orientation for maximum flexibility. The load handling system is comprised of machined aluminum castings for both the platter and base. The central support hub utilizes a 125mm C2 ball bearing rated for 8,000 lbs. Large bidirectional axial thrust loads are easily handled along with substantial radial or unbalanced loads. The drive system features a steel worm gear for precision rotational control and maximum torque. The system is driven by a microprocessor controlled stepper motor yielding internal resolution of 0.0015625 degrees. Controlled acceleration and deceleration is provided automatically via microstepping to yield smooth movement with minimal load disturbance. Multiple control methods are supported which enable universal application. The LT360EX may be easily incorporated into almost any industrial automation

Analog Control Interface TTL Pulse Control Interface LR360 Remote Control Module Simple Platter/Base Mounting Low Profile, 1/2 Meter Square Chassis

environment by using one of the computer, digital, or analog interfaces. Advanced user control is conveniently achieved by using RS-232 or USB communication. A general purpose Win32 application program is provided, or the user can quickly create their own custom applications providing detailed operational control.

Applications Polar Field Acoustic Measurements Loudspeakers, Microphones, Enclosures Polar Field EM & RF Measurements Antennas, Radiated EMI Testing 3D Model Scanning, Photography Industrial Automation & Process Control Sales/Marketing & Trade Show Displays Features Heavy Duty, Rugged, Construction Precise, Repeatable, Rotational Control High Rotational Resolution of 0.1 Computer, Digital, Analog Control Methods Operation in Any Position or Orientation High Torque with Programmable Capability Center Through Hole for Cable Run Irreversible Drive, Platter Position Locked Programmable Velocity 0.1RPM - 12RPM Controlled Acceleration/Deceleration Precision Worm Gear Drive System Microstepping Stepper Motor Control RS232 Control Interface USB Control Interface

High Performance Turntable The LT360EX is a rugged precision turntable designed for professional applications. It offers high precision, high strength, advanced interface and control capabilities, all at an affordable price. Multiple pre-tapped mount points are provided both on the platter and base for attachment of brackets, flanges, jigs, and other rigging. The LT360EXcan be mounted in any orientation for maximum flexibility. The load handling system is comprised of machined aluminum castings for both the platter and base. The central support hub utilizes a 125mm C2 ball bearing rated for 8,000 lbs. Large bidirectional axial thrust loads are easily handled along with substantial radial or unbalanced loads. The drive system features a steel worm gear for precision rotational control and maximum torque. The system is driven by a microprocessor controlled stepper motor yielding internal resolution of 0.0015625 degrees. Controlled acceleration and deceleration is provided automatically via microstepping to yield smooth movement with minimal load disturbance. Multiple control methods are supported which enable universal application. The LT360EX may be easily incorporated into almost any industrial automation

Analog Control Interface TTL Pulse Control Interface LR360 Remote Control Module Simple Platter/Base Mounting Low Profile, 1/2 Meter Square Chassis

environment by using one of the computer, digital, or analog interfaces. Advanced user control is conveniently achieved by using RS-232 or USB communication. A general purpose Win32 application program is provided, or the user can quickly create their own custom applications providing detailed operational control.

Front Panel Features The front panel contains all of the connectors for the various interfaces including: USB (Type-B), RS-232 (DB9F), TTL Pulse Input (BNC), Analog Input (BNC), Analog Output (BNC), and the LR360 Remote (MiniDIN-6). The front panel also provides 8 pushbutton switches arranged in four color coded groups which are used for manual control of the turntable. A multi-function 4 digit LED display is also provided. The controls are recessed under the surface edge of the turntable to help prevent damage due to objects which might be dropped from above, since the turntable is often located on a floor surface. Most of the functions are self explanatory. The LT360EX supports both Unipolar (0 to 360 degree) and Bipolar (0 to 180 degree) formats. USB Interface This is a standard type-B connector providing connection to a USB bus. The USB interface of the LT360EX uses only Low-Speed connection speed. This is more than adequate for control of the turntable. RS-232 Interface The DB-9F connector is wired as a DCE device, so only a straight-through cable connection is required to the DTE host (computer). The LT360 does not require any handshaking, so only the RX and TX signals are used in addition to Ground.

Pulse Input This BNC connector provides a means to step the turntable via a TTL pulse. Each pulse will cause the turntable to rotate by the current step size, and in the direction of either CCW or CW. Triggering based on the Rising or Falling edge can be selected. Analog Input This BNC connector provides a means to control the location of the platter by analog voltage. The scale factor is 10mV/deg, and the resolution of the LT360EX is 0.1 degree. Analog Output This BNC connector provides a means to obtain an analog control voltage from the LT360. This can be useful if driving some other display, chart recorder, or other plotting device. The scale factor is 10mV/deg, and the resolution of the LT360EX is 0.1 degree. LED Display The four digit LED display is used primarily to give the current position of the platter. The readout can be either Unipolar or Bipolar as selected through the Win32 software or commands. However the display has many other purposes. When various switches are pressed the display will show Position (Degree), Step Size (DegPerStep), Velocity (RPM), Torque (%), or the Accel Function (#). Step CW / CCW (White switches) These two switches are mainly used to step the platter by the current step size, either clockwise (CW) or counter clockwise (CCW). When the switch is pressed, the platter will rotate by the current step size. These switches are also used with other switches to increment/decrement parameter values. Zero CW / CCW (Green switches) These two switches are used to move the platter to the origin (0.0) either by clockwise (CW) or counter clockwise (CCW) rotation. Set Origin (Blue switch) This switch is used to reset the origin to the current platter position. No platter movement occurs. Set Step Size DPS (Blue switch) This switch is used to change the step size. When this switch is pressed, the display will show the current step size. The step size can then be changed up/dn by pressing the White buttons. The minimum step size is 0.1 degree. Set Velocity RPM (Red switch) This switch is used to change the velocity in revolutions per minute. When this switch is pressed, the display will show the current RPM setting. The RPM can be changed up/dn by pressing the White buttons. The minimum RPM is 0.1 and the maximum is 12.00. Set Torque % (Red switch) This switch is used to change the motor torque in percent. When this switch is pressed, the display will show the current torque setting in percent. The torque can then be changed up/dn by pressing the White buttons. The max value is 100% and the min is 10%

Dynatron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the brand, see Dynatron Radio Ltd The dedicated dynatron vacuum tube was invented by Albert Hull in 1918[1]. It has three electrodes: a thermionic cathode, a perforatedanode, and a supplementary anode or plate, and its characteristic curves have a region exhibiting negative resistance, which is the property desired. Other early vacuum tubes with four or more electrodes not designed for the purpose had significant secondary emission from the anode, and, when operated with the anode at a lower voltage than another electrode, exhibited negative resistance and could be used as oscillatorsor for other functions. Later tubes had anodes treated to reduce secondary emission, normally an unwanted phenomenon, and were not suitable as dynatron devices.

[edit]Operation
In dynatron operation the supplementary anode is maintained at a lower positive voltage than the perforated anode. The secondary emission of electrons from the supplementary anode makes the dynatron behave as a true negative resistance, allowing it to be used to generate oscillations over a wide range of frequencies or as an amplifier. When a control grid was added between the cathode and the perforated anode, the device was called a "pliodynatron", with similar properties to a tetrode or pentode tube with significant secondary emission operated in dynatron mode. Operation with a tube not designed specifically as a dynatron is described in the article on the dynatron oscillator.

Amitec Microwave Propagation Training System MPT10 Amitec MPT10 Features


E-Manual: Installation DVD for ease of Learning Amitec Model MPT10 Microwave and Propagation Training System is a useful training system for theLaboratories. It helps student to learn Wave Properties and Propagation results. Concepts of Reflection, Refraction, Polarization, Interference, Standing waves,Interferometer can be understood very easily. The setup is mainly consists of MicrowaveTransmitter,Microwave Receiver,Goniometer scale. Alongwith this setup lot of accessories are provided to perform different experiments. A user friendly manual is provided with this system to help student in performing the experiments and to understand the topic theoretically. # A Complete set for Transmission, Reception and Measurement of Microwave Power.

# Digital displays are provided for relative strength measurement of microwave. # Accessories are provided in a carrying case. # Complete set of accessories for performing the experiments of Reflection, Refraction,polarization Interference etc. # Audio / Voice communication facility is provided. Provided with a detector probe for field detection.

Amitec MPT10 Technical Specifications


Frequency of Operation : 10 GHz (approx) Power of Transmission : 10 -15 mW Operating Voltage : 8 V (approx) Antennas for Transmission & Reception : Horn type Goniometer Scale : 0 - 360 Tone Generator : 1 KHz Frequency Transmitter and Receiver arm length : 50 cm each Power Display : Digital, Relative Measurements l Microwave Transmitter l Microwave Receiver l Transmitter Arm l Receiver Arm l Goniometer Main Unit l Detector Probe l Prism l Metal Plates of different dimensions l Partial Reflectors l Din Connectors Cables l Metal Plate holder l Polarization Grill l Prism Stand l Microphone To understand the Working of Transmitter and Receiver and setup. To study the Standing Waves and Measure the Wavelength of Microwave. To study the Reflection in Microwaves. To study the Refraction in Microwaves (Snell's Law). To study the Polarization in Microwaves. To study the double slit Interference in Microwaves. To study the Fabry-Perot Interferometer. To study the Voice Communication.
Specifications are subject to change due to constant innovation in technology. Accessories shown are not part of standard equipment.

Accessories List of Experiments Mfd by: Amitec Electronics Ltd. Regd. Off: 504, Nilgiri, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi-110001 Works: 4/32, Site-4, Industrial Estate Sahibabad, UP-201010

MICROWAVE PROPAGATION TRAINER MPT10


Mfd by: Amitec Electronics Ltd. Regd. Off: 504, Nilgiri, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi-110001

Works: 4/32, Site-4, Industrial Estate Sahibabad, UP-201010 amitec@rediffmail.com, www.amitec.co.in 91-120-4371276, 91-9811839949, 91-9810193153 amitecltd.amitecltd.com Amitec MPT10 Technical Specifications: Transmitter Receiver Goniometer
Frequency : 10.3GHz Dielectric Resonator stabilized MESFET source on microstrip Accuracy : 0.1% Modulation : CW/ASK(DC-15 KHz) Ext RF Level : 1mW /0dBm typical Output Z : 50 ohms with N connector Frequency : 10.3GHz Microwave receiver power meter Accuracy : 0.1% Sensitivity : -70dBm typical Resolution : 0.1dB Measure : Microwave power level in dBm & dBuV Demod : Digital out Input Z : 50 ohms with N connector Display : 16x2 backlit LCD for angular Position and power level Rotation : 0-359 degrees Control : Menu, Enter, Escape, Up & Down Angle : User selectable steps of 1, 5, 10, 45 degrees Memory : 1000 memories for storing positions and RF levels for quick recall Auto Mode : Automatic rotation in user steps with Datalogging facility. Indication : Beep on reaching the selected Position PC interface : RS 232 connectivity to PC Power Supply: 100-240V AC, 50-60 Hz Arm length : 45 cms each (4 arms) with mm& inch scale Extender : Arm 45 cms Turntable : Stepper motor for rotating Reflectors

Amitec Microwave Propagation Trainer MPT10 Amitec MPT10 Features E-Manual: Installation Video for ease of Learning
Amitec Model MPT10 Microwave Propagation Trainer is a useful training system for the microwave and optics Laboratories. It helps student to learn wave properties and propagation results and better able to visualize abstract concepts of optics due to use of larger wavelength of microwave. Concepts of Reflection, Refraction, Polarization, Interference, Standing waves, Interferometer can be understood very easily. The setup is mainly consists of Microwave Transmitter, Microwave Receiver, Goniometer scale. Along with this setup lot of accessories are provided to perform different experiments. A user friendly manual is provided with this system to help student in performing the experiments and to understand the topic theoretically. # A Complete set for Transmission, Reception and Measurement of Microwave Power. # Digital display provided for measurement of microwave power in dBm & dBuV with 70dB dynamic range and 0.1dB resolution. # Stepper turntable provided with 1 degree resolution # Complete set of accessories for performing the experiments of Reflection, Refraction, Polarization, Interference etc.

# Provided with a dipole probe for field detection. # Very low leakage of microwave signal, #High gain linearly polarised pyramidal Horn antennas with low beamwidth for precise results # Stable source with frequency, amplitude and phase stability # Accessories are provided in a carrying case.

Mfd by: Amitec Electronics Ltd. Regd. Off: 504, Nilgiri, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi-110001 Works: 4/32, Site-4, Industrial Estate Sahibabad, UP-201010 amitec@rediffmail.com, www.amitec.co.in 91-120-4371276, 91-9811839949, 91-9810193153 amitecltd.amitecltd.com

MICROWAVE PROPAGATION TRAINER MPT10


Accessories: List of Experiments
1. Stepper turntable 2. Pyramidal Horn -2 3. Open waveguide / Waveguide to Coax adapter 4. Goniometer with Four Arms 5. Slotted component Holder 6. Polarization adapter cube X4 7. Polarization Grill 8. Metal Reflector X2 9. Partial Reflector X2 10.Narrow Slit Spacer 11. Wide split spacer 12.Slit Extender 13. Clips X4 14. Ethafoam Prism 15. Polyethylene Pellets 16. Cubic Lattice with 100 metal Spheres 17. Microwave Dipole Probe 18. Flexible tube as fiber optic # Introduction of Transmitter and Receiver and setup. # Reflection # Standing Waves - Measuring Wavelengths # Refraction Through a Prism # Polarization # Double-Slit Interference # Lloyds Mirror # Fabry-Perot Interferometer # Michelson Interferometer # Fiber Optics at Microwave # Brewster's Angle # Bragg Diffraction Dimension : 58X48X48 cms. Weight : 21 Kg Warranty: 3 years

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating-currentelectric power generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type ofpolyphase system and is the most common method used by gridsworldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy loads. A three-phase system is generally more economical than others because it uses less
[1]

conductor material to transmit electric power than equivalent single-phase or two-phase systems at the samevoltage. The three-phase system was introduced and patented by Nikola Tesla in 1887 and 1888. In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at different times. Taking one conductor as the reference, the other two currents are delayed in time by one-third and two-thirds of one cycle of the electric current. This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor. Three-phase systems may have a neutral wire. A neutral wire allows the three-phase system to use a higher voltage while still supporting lower-voltage single-phase appliances. In high-voltage distribution situations, it is common not to have a neutral wire as the loads can simply be connected between phases (phase-phase connection). Three-phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems: The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate or reduce the size of the neutral conductor; all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for a balanced load. Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and motor vibrations. Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction, which simplifies the design of electric motors. Three is the lowest phase order to exhibit all of these properties. Most household loads are single-phase. In North America and a few other places, three-phase power generally does not enter homes. Even in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main distribution board and the individual loads are fed from a single phase. Sometimes it is used to power electric stoves and electric clothes dryers. The three phases are typically indicated by colors which vary by country. See the table for more information.
Contents
[hide]
[2]

1 Generation and distribution 2 Three-wire versus four-wire 3 Single-phase loads

4 Three-phase loads 5 Phase converters 6 Alternatives to three-phase 7 Color codes 8 See also 9 References

Generation and distribution

Animation of three-phase current flow

Left: Elementary six-wire three-phase alternator, with each phase using a separate pair of transmission wires.[3] Right: Elementary three-wire three-phase alternator, showing how the phases can share only three wires.[4]

At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the

currents vary sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave formsoffset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (120 or Thegenerator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, varying by country. Further information: Mains power systems Large power generators provide an electric current at a potentialwhich can be a few hundred volts or up to about 30 kV. At the power station, transformers step this voltage up to one suitable for transmission. After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network, the power is finally transformed to the standard utilization voltage for lighting and equipment. Single-phase loads are connected from one phase to neutral or between two phases. Three-phase loads such as larger motors must be connected to all three phases of the supply.
2

3 radians).

Three-wire versus four-wire


Three-phase circuits occur in two varieties. In one case, there are only three energized ("hot" or "live") wires; in the other case, there are three hot wires plus a neutral wire. Four-wire circuits offer flexibility, since a load may be connected "line-to-line" or "line-to-neutral"; three-wire circuits offer economy, since the neutral conductor is eliminated. Commonly, distribution voltage circuits are four-wire, while higher voltage transmission circuits are three-wire. Transmission lines often feature a ground wire, but this is solely for fault and lightning protection and is not connected to deliver electrical power.

Single-phase loads
Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase conductor to the neutral conductor. Single-phase loads should be distributed evenly between the phases of the threephase system for efficient use of the supply transformer and supply conductors. If the line-to-neutral voltage is a standard load voltage, for example 230 volt on a 400 volt three-phase system, single-phase loads can connect to a phase and the neutral. Loads can be distributed over three phases to balance the load. Where the line-to-neutral voltage is not the standard voltage for example 347 volts produced by a 600 V system, single-phase loads are connected through a step-down transformer. In a symmetrical three-phase system, the system neutral has the same magnitude of voltage to each of the three-phase conductors. The voltage between line conductors (Vl) is 3 times the phase conductor to neutral voltage (Vp). That is: Vl = 3Vp. In some multiple-unit residential buildings of North America, three-phase power is supplied to the building but individual units have only single-phase power formed from two of the three supply phases. Lighting and convenience receptacles are connected from either phase conductor to neutral, giving the usual 120

V required by typical North American appliances. In the split-phase system, high-power loads are connected between the opposite "hot" poles, giving a voltage of 240 V. In some cases, they may be connected between phases of a three-phase system, giving a voltage of 208 V. This practice is common enough that 208 V single-phase equipment is readily available in North America. Attempts to use the more common 120/240 V equipment intended for split-phase distribution may result in poor performance since 240 V heating and lighting equipment will only produce 75% of its rating when operated at 208 V. Motors rated at 240 V will draw higher current at 208 V; some motors are dual-labelled for both voltages. Where three-phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may still be split out into single-phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral generally supplies the standard single phase voltage to the circuit (either 120 V AC or 230 V AC depending on the regional standard). The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently. If the supply neutral of a three-phase system with line-to-neutral connected loads is broken, the voltage balance on the loads will no longer be maintained. The neutral point will tend to drift toward the most heavily loaded phase, causing undervoltage conditions on that phase and overvoltage on a lightly loaded phase; the lightly loaded phases may approach the line-to-line voltage, which exceeds the line-to-neutral voltage by a factor of 3, causing overheating and failure of many types of loads. For example, if several houses are connected through a 240 V transformer, which is connected to one phase of the three-phase system, each house might be affected by the imbalance on the three-phase system. If the neutral connection is broken somewhere in the system, all equipment in a house might be damaged due to over-voltage. A similar phenomenon can exist if the house neutral (connected to the center tap of the 240 V pole transformer) is disconnected. This type of failure event can be difficult to troubleshoot if the drifting neutral effect is not understood. With inductive and/or capacitive loads, all phases can suffer damage as the reactive current moves across abnormal paths in the unbalanced system, especially if resonance conditions occur. For this reason, neutral connections are a critical part of a power distribution network and must be made as reliable as any of the phase connections. Where a mixture of single-phase 120-volt lighting and three-phase, 240-volt motors are to be supplied, a system called high-leg delta is used.

Three-phase loads

A transformer for a high-leg delta system; 240 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. Single-phase lighting would be connected L1 or L2 to neutral (N). No loads would be connected from L3 (the high or wild leg) to neutral, since the voltage would be 208 V.

The most important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, conveyor drives, electric vehicles and many other kinds of motordriven equipment. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW) are uncommon. Threephase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions. Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected. These types of loads do not require the revolving magnetic field characteristic of three-phase motors but take advantage of the higher voltage and power level usually associated with three-phase distribution. Legacy single-phase fluorescent lighting systems also benefit from reduced flicker in a room if adjacent fixtures are powered from different phases. Large rectifier systems may have three-phase inputs; the resulting DC is easier to filter (smooth) than the output of a single-phase rectifier. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging,electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of DC motors. One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in steelmaking and in refining of ores. In much of Europe, stoves are designed for a three-phase feed. Usually the individual heating units are connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase supply. In many areas of Europe, single-phase power is the only source available.

Phase converters
Occasionally the advantages of three-phase motors make it worthwhile to convert single-phase power to three-phase. Small customers, such as residential or farm properties, may not have access to a threephase supply or may not want to pay for the extra cost of a three-phase service but may still wish to use three-phase equipment. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied (resynthesis) allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives are moving to multi-phase motors driven by such systems even though the incoming supply to a locomotive is nearly always either DC or single-phase AC. Because single-phase power goes to zero at each moment that the voltage crosses zero but three-phase delivers power continuously, any such converter must have a way to store energy for the necessary fraction of a second. One method for using three-phase equipment on a single-phase supply is with a rotary phase converter, essentially a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of three-phase equipment such as machine tools on a single-phase supply. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the mechanical inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft. A second method that was popular in the 1940s and 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, capacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an autotransformer was used to apply more power through fewer capacitors. This method performs well and does have supporters, even today. The usage of the name transformer method separated it from another common method, the static converter, as both methods have no moving parts, which separates them from the rotary converters. Another method often attempted is with a device referred to as a static phase converter. This method of running three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with motor loads though it only supplies power and can cause the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is involved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectifier-type loads. A three-phase generator can be driven by a single-phase motor. This motor-generator combination can provide a frequency changer function as well as phase conversion, but requires two machines with all their expense and losses. The motor-generator method can also form anuninterruptable power supply when used in conjunction with a large flywheel and a standby generator set. Some devices are made which create an imitation three-phase from three-wire single-phase supplies. This is done by creating a third "subphase" between the two live conductors, resulting in a phase separation of 180 90 = 90. Many three-phase devices can run on this configuration but at lower efficiency.

Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state inverters) are used to provide precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors. Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply. VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source for the motor. Digital phase converters are designed for fixed-frequency operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to control solid-state power switching components to maintain balanced three-phase voltages.

Alternatives to three-phase
Split-phase electric power is used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads. Two-phase electric power, like three-phase, gives constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current which is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors are not entirely linear, which means that despite the theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls which were installed in 1895 were the largest generators in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is basically obsolete. Special-purpose systems may use a two-phase system for control. Two-phase power may be obtained from a three-phase system (or vice versa) using an arrangement of transformers called a Scott-T transformer. Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small fraction (usually of the line voltage) winding which produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed. High-phase-order systems for power transmission have been built and tested. Such transmission lines use six (two-pole, three-phase) or twelve (two-pole, six-phase) lines and employ design practices characteristic of extra-high-voltage transmission lines. High-phase-order transmission lines

may allow transfer of more power through a given transmission line right-of-way without the expense of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line.

Color codes
Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for induction motors. Colors used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446, older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems. Ground/ protective earth

L1

L2

L3

Neutral

White (or Australia and New Zealand as per AS/NZS Red (or 1 3000:2007 Figure 3.2 (or as per IEC 60446 as 1 black) (prev. brown) yellow) approved by AS:3000)

Dark Black blue (or (or grey)1 blue)1

Green/yellow striped (green on very old installations)

Canada (mandatory)[5]

Red

Black

Blue

White

Green or bare copper

Canada (isolated three-phase installations)[6] Orange

Brown

Yellow

White

Green

European Union and all countries who use European CENELECstandards April 2004 (IEC 60446), Hong Kong from July 2007, Singapore from March 2009

Brown

Black

Grey

Blue

Green/yellow striped2

Older European (IEC 60446, varies by country3)

Black or Black or brown brown

Black or Blue brown

Green/yellow striped3

UK until April 2006, Hong Kong until April 2009, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore until Red February 2011

Yellow

Blue

Black

Green/yellow striped (green on installations before c. 1970)

Republic of India and Pakistan

Red

Yellow

Blue

Black

Green

Former USSR (Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan) Yellow and People's Republic of China (per GB 50303-2002 Section 15.2.2)

Green

Red

Light blue

Green/yellow striped

Norway

Black

White/Grey

Brown

Blue

Yellow/green striped, older may be only yellow or bare copper

United States (common practice)4

Black

Red

Blue

White, or grey

Green, green/yellow striped,7 or a bare copper wire

United States (alternative practice)5

Brown

Orange (delta), Yellow violet (wye)

Grey, or Green white

^1 In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used for all IEC or flex cables such as extension leads, appliance leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.

^2 The international standard green-yellow marking of protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the risk of confusion bycolor blind installers. About 7% to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground.

^3 In Europe, there still exist installations with older colors for protective earth but, since the early 1970s, all new installations use green/yellow according to IEC 60446.

^4 See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006. ^5 Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specified coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice in many regions to identify 120/208Y conductors as black, red, and blue. Local regulations may amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has color requirements for grounded conductors, ground and grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground than the other two ungrounded legs. Orange is only appropriate when the system has a grounded delta service, regardless of voltage.

^6 The U.S. National Electric Code does not specify coloring of phase conductors, other than orange for grounded delta. It is common practice in many regions to identify 277/480Y conductors as brown,

orange and yellow (delta) or brown, violet and yellow (wye), with orange always being the center phase. Local practice may amend the N.E.C. The US N.E.C. rule 517.160 (5) states these colors are to be used for isolated power systems in health care facilities. Color of conductors does not identify voltage of a circuit, because there is no formal standard. ^7 In the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an isolated ground.
[citation needed]

In most

countries today, green/yellow striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any other purpose.

See also
Three-phase AC railway electrification Charging station Frequency converter High-leg delta Industrial & multiphase power plugs & sockets International Electro-Technical Exhibition - 1891 John Hopkinson Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky Nikola Tesla Y- transform

References
1. ^ William D. Stevenson, Jr. Elements of Power System Analysis Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1975). ISBN 0070612854. Page 2. 2. ^ http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/2.html 3. ^ Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1260. 4. ^ Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1261. 5. ^ Rick Gilmour et. al, editor, Canadian Electrical Code Part I, Nineteenth Edition, C22.1-02 Safety Standard for Electrical Installations, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Ontario Canada (2002) ISBN 1553246-00-X, rule 4-036 (3) 6. ^ Canadian Electrical Code 19th edition, rule 24-208(c)

Direction finding
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Direction finding (DF) refers to the establishment of the direction from which a received signal was transmitted. This can refer to radio or other forms of wireless communication. By combining the direction information from two or more suitably spaced receivers (or a single mobile receiver), the source of a transmission may be located in space via triangulation.
Contents
[hide]

1 Antennas 2 Single channel DF

o o

2.1 Pseudo-doppler DF technique 2.2 Watson-Watt / Adcock antenna array

3 Usage

o o o o o o o

3.1 Radio navigation 3.2 Location of illegal, secret or hostile transmitters - SIGINT 3.3 Emergency aid 3.4 Avalanche rescue 3.5 Wildlife tracking 3.6 Reconnaissance 3.7 Sport

4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading

[edit]Antennas
Direction finding often requires an antenna that is directional (more sensitive in certain directions than in others). Many antenna designs exhibit this property. For example, a Yagi antenna has quite pronounced directionality, so the source of a transmission can be determined simply by pointing it in the direction where the maximum signal level is obtained. However, to establish direction to great accuracy requires much more sophisticated techniques.

The crossed-loops DF antenna atop the mast of a tug boat

A simple form of directional antenna is the loop aerial. This consists of an open loop of wire on an insulating former, or a metal ring that forms the antenna elements itself, where the diameter of the loop is a tenth of a wavelength or smaller at the target frequency. Such an antenna will beleast sensitive to signals that are normal to its face and most responsive to those meeting edge-on. This is caused by the phase output of the transmitting beacon. The phase changing phase causes a difference between the voltages induced on either side of the loop at any instant. Turning the loop face on will not induce any current flow: think of the radio wave slipping through the loop. Simply turning the antenna to obtain minimum signal will establish two possible directions from which the signal could be emanating. The NULL is used, as small angular deflections of the loop aerial near its null positions produce larger changes in current than similar angular changes near the loops max positions. For this reason, a null position of the loop aerial is used. To resolve the two direction possibilities, a sense antenna is used, the sense aerial has no directional properties but has the same sensitivity as the loop aerial. By adding the steady signal from the sense aerial to the alternating signal from the loop signal as it rotates, there is now only one position as the loop rotates 360 at which there is zero current. This acts as a phase ref point, allowing the correct null point to be identified, thus removing the 180 ambiguity. A dipole antenna exhibits similar properties, and is the basis for the Yagi antenna, which is familiar as the common VHF or UHF television aerial. For much higher frequencies still, parabolic antennas can be used, which are highly directional, focusing received signals from a very narrow angle to a receiving element at the centre. More sophisticated techniques such as phased arrays are generally used for highly accurate direction finding systems called goniometerssuch as are used in signals intelligence (SIGINT). A helicopter based DF system was designed by ESL Incorporated for the U.S. Government as early as 1972. See also: Radio direction finder

[edit]Single

channel DF

Single-channel DF refers to the use of a multi-antenna array with a single channel radio receiver. This approach to DF obviously offers some advantages and drawbacks. Since it only uses one receiver, mobility and lower power consumption are obvious benefits but without the ability to look at each antenna simultaneously (which would be the case if one were to use multiple receivers) more complex operations need to occur at the antenna in order to present the signal to the receiver. The two main categories that a single channel DF algorithm falls into are amplitude comparison and phase comparison. Some algorithms can be hybrids of the two.

[edit]Pseudo-doppler

DF technique

The pseudo-doppler technique is a phase based DF method that produces a bearing estimate on the received signal by measuring thedoppler shift induced on the signal by sampling around the elements of a circular array. The original method used a single antenna that physically moved in a circle but the modern approach uses a multi-antenna circular array with each antenna sampled in succession.

[edit]Watson-Watt

/ Adcock antenna array

Main article: Adcock antenna The Watson-Watt technique uses two Adcock antenna pairs to perform an amplitude comparison on the incoming signal. An Adcock antenna pair is a pair of monopole or dipole antennas that takes the vector difference of the received signal at each antenna so that there is only one output from the pair of antennas. Two of these pairs are co-located but perpendicularly oriented to produce what can be referred to as the N-S (North-South) and E-W (East-West) signals that will then be passed to the receiver. In the receiver, the bearing angle can then be computed by taking the arctangent of the ratio of the N-S to E-W signal.

[edit]Usage [edit]Radio

navigation

A portable, battery operated GT-302 Accumatic automatic direction finder for marine use

Radio direction finding, Radio direction finder, or RDF was once the primary aviation navigational aid. (Range and Direction Finding was the abbreviation used to describe the predecessor to Radar.[1]) Beacons were used to mark "airways" intersections and to define departure and approach procedures. Since the signal transmitted contains no information about bearing or distance, these beacons are referred to as non-directional beacons, or NDBin the aviation world. Starting in the 1950s, these beacons are generally being replaced by the VOR system, in which the bearing to the navigational aid is measured from the signalitself, therefore no specialized antenna with moving parts is required. Due to relatively low purchase, maintenance and calibration cost, NDB's are still used to mark locations of smaller aerodromes and important helicopter landing sites. Further information: Non-directional beacon

Similar beacons located in coastal areas are also used for maritime radio navigation, as almost every ship is (was) equipped with a direction finder (Appleyard 1988). Very few maritime radionavigation beacons remain active today (2008) as ships have abandoned navigation via RDF in favor of GPS navigation.

In the United Kingdom a radio direction finding service is available on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz to aircraft pilots who are in distress or are experiencing difficulties. The service is based on a number of radio DF units located at civil and military airports and certain HM Coastguard stations.[2] These stations can obtain a "fix" of the aircraft and transmit it by radio to the pilot.

[edit]Location

of illegal, secret or hostile transmitters - SIGINT

See also: High frequency direction finding and SIGINT In WW2 considerable effort was expended on identifying secret transmitters in the United Kingdom (UK) by direction finding. The work was undertaken by the Radio Security Service (RSS also MI8). Initially three U Adcock HF DF stations were set up in 1939 by the General Post Office but with the declaration of war, MI5 and RSS developed this into a larger network. One of the problems with providing coverage of an area the size of the UK was installing sufficient DF stations to cover the entire area to receive skywave signals reflected back from the ionised layers in the upper atmosphere. Even with the expanded network, some areas were not adequately covered and for this reason up to 1700 voluntary interceptors (radio amateurs) were recruited to detect illicit transmissions by ground wave. In addition to the fixed stations RSS ran a fleet of mobile DF vehicles around the UK. If a transmitter was identified by the fixed DF stations or voluntary interceptors, the mobile units were sent to the area to home in on the source. The mobile units were HF Adcock systems By 1941 only a couple of illicit transmitters had been identified in the UK but they were German agents that had been 'turned' and were transmitting under MI5 control. But many illicit transmissions had been logged

emanating from German agents in occupied and neutral countries in Europe. The traffic became a valuable source of intelligence and the control of RSS was subsequently passed to MI6 who were responsible for secret intelligence originating from outside the UK. The direction finding and interception operation increased in volume and importance until 1945. The HF Adcock stations consisted of four 10m vertical antennas surrounding a small wooden operators hut containing a receiver and a radio-goniometer which was adjusted to obtain the bearing. MF stations were also used which used four guyed 30m lattice tower antennas. In 1941 RSS began experimenting with Spaced Loop direction finders developed by the Marconi company and the UK National Physical Laboratories. These consisted of two parallel loops 1 to 2m square on the ends of a rotatable 3 to 8m beam. The angle of the beam was combined with results from a radiogoniometer to provide a bearing. The bearing obtained was considerably sharper than that obtained with the U Adcock system but there were ambiguities which prevented the installation of 7 proposed S.L df systems. The SL systems involved the operator being located in a metal tank underground directly below the antennas. 7 underground tanks were installed but only two SL systems were installed at Wymondham, Norfolk and Weaverthorp in Yorkshire. Problems were encountered resulting in the remaining 5 underground tanks being fitted with U adcock systems. The rotating SL antenna was turned by hand by the operator in the underground tank which meant successive measurements were a lot slower than turning the dial of a goniometer. Another experimental SL station was built near Aberdeen in 1942 for the Air Ministry and this involved a semi-underground concrete bunker but this too was abandoned because of operating difficulties. By 1944 a mobile version of the spaced loop had been developed and was used by RSS in France following the D-Day invasion of Normandy. The US military used a shore based version of the Spaced Loop DF in WW2 called "DAB". The loops were placed at the ends of a beam, all of which was located inside a wooden hut with the electronics in a large cabinet with cathode ray tubedisplay at the centre of the beam and everything being supported on a central axis. The beam was rotated manually by the operator. The Royal Navy introduced a variation on the shore based HF DF stations in 1944 to track U-boats in the North Atlantic. They built groups of 5 df stations so that bearings from individual stations in the group could be combined and a mean taken. Four such groups were built in Britain at Ford End, Essex, Gonhavern, Cornwall, Anstruther and Bowermadden in the Scottish Highlands. Groups were also built in Iceland, Nova Scotia and Jamaica. The anticipated improvements were not realised but later statistical work improved the system and the Goonhavern and Ford End groups continued to be used during the Cold War. Arguably the most comprehensive book on wireless direction finding was written by Roland Keen who was head of the engineering department of RSS at Hanslope Park during WW2. The DF systems mentioned here are described in detail in his exhaustive treatment of the subject in the 1947 edition of his book Wireless Direction Finding.[3]

At the end of WW2 a number of RSS DF stations continued to operate into the cold war under the control of GCHQ the British SIGINT organisation. Most direction finding effort within the UK now (2009) is directed towards locating unauthorised 'pirate' FM broadcast radio transmissions. A network of remotely operated VHF direction finders are used mainly located around the major cities. The transmissions from mobile telephone handsets are also located by a form of direction finding using the comparative signal strength at the surrounding local 'cell' receivers. This technique is often offered as evidence in UK criminal prosecutions and, almost certainly, for SIGINT purposes. [4]

Modern dead drop techniques

[edit]Emergency

aid

Main article: Radio direction finder There are many forms of radio transmitters designed to transmit as a beacon in the event of an emergency, which are widely deployed on civil aircraft. Modern emergency beacons transmit a unique identification signal that can aid in finding the exact location of the transmitter.

[edit]Avalanche

rescue

Avalanche transceivers operate on a standard 457 kHz, and are designed to help locate people and equipment buried by avalanches. Since the power of the beacon is so low the directionality of the radio signal is dominated by small scale field effects[5] and can be quite complicated to locate.

[edit]Wildlife

tracking

Location of radio-tagged animals by triangulation is a widely applied research technique for studying the movement of animals. The technique was first used in the early 1960s, when the technology used in radio transmitters and batteries made them small enough to attach to wild animals, and is now widely deployed for a variety of wildlife studies. Most tracking of wild animals that have been affixed with radio transmitter equipment is done by a field researcher using a handheld radio direction finding device. When the researcher wants to locate a particular animal, the location of the animal can be triangulated by determining the direction to the transmitter from several locations.

[edit]Reconnaissance
Phased arrays and other advanced antenna techniques are utilized to track launches of rocket systems and their resulting trajectories. These systems can be used for defensive purposes and also to gain intelligence on operation of missiles belonging to other nations. These same techniques are used for detection and tracking of conventional aircraft.

[edit]Sport
Main article: Amateur Radio Direction Finding Events hosted by groups and organizations that involve the use of radio direction finding skills to locate transmitters at unknown locations have been popular since the end of World War II.[6] Many of these events were first promoted in order to practice the use of radio direction finding techniques for disaster response and civil defense purposes, or to practice locating the source of radio frequency interference. The most popular form of the sport, worldwide, is known as Amateur Radio Direction Finding or by its international acronym ARDF. Another form of the activity, known as "transmitter hunting", "mobile T-hunting" or "fox hunting" takes place in a larger geographic area, such as the metropolitan area of a large city, and most participants travel in motor vehicles while attempting to locate one or more radio transmitterswith radio direction finding techniques.

[edit]See

also

Amateur Radio Direction Finding Amplitude monopulse Cardioid Elephant Cage Geolocation Phase interferometry Radio direction finder Signals intelligence TDOA Traffic analysis HF/DF Wullenweber FLR-9

[edit]References

1. 2.

^ "Radar (Radio Direction Finding) - The Eyes of Fighter Command". ^ Smith, D.J. (2005). Air Band Radio Handbook (8th Edition). Sutton Publishing. pp. 104105. ISBN 07509-3783-1.

3.

^ {Keen R, Wireless Direction Finding(8th Edition), 1947, Iliffe, London

4.

^ deRosa, L.A. (1979). "Direction Finding". In J.A. Biyd, D.B. Harris, D.D. King & H.W. Welch, Jr.. Electronic Countermeasures. Los Altos, CA: Peninsula Publishing. ISBN 0-932146-00-7.

5.

^ *J. Hereford and B. Edgerly (2000). "457 kHz Electromagnetism and the Future of Avalanche Transceivers" (
Scholar search

).International Snow Science Workshop (ISSW 2000).

[dead link]

6.

^ Titterington, B.; Williams, D. and Dean, D. (2007). Radio Orienteering - The ARDF Handbook. Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN 9781-9050-8627-6.

[edit]Further

reading

Appleyard, S.F.; Linford, R.S. and Yarwood, P.J. (1988). Marine Electronic Navigation (2nd Edition). Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 6869. ISBN 0-7102-1271-2.

Radio Direction Finding Applications Literature (RDF Products) Why You Can't Track Your Stolen GPS Time (magazine) April 28, 2008

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