Chapters From Geology

CHAPTERS FROM GEOLOGY
Edited by Zoltn Pspki
1 100
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Surface, uppermost crust
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Sediments Weathering Resedimentation Weathering Magmatic rocks
Diagenesis
Sedimentary rocks Parametamorphism
Metamorphic rocks
Crust
Solidification
Olivine
Ortometamorphism Ultrametamorphism Magma (indifferentiated)

Anorhite-Bytownite
Pyroxenes
Magma (differentiated)
Labradorite Pyroxenes Andesine Amphiboles Oligoclase Biotite Albite Quartz (Zeolites) 14.0 - 14.4 A
Chapters from Geology
Chapters from Geology
for Geographers, Geography teachers and Biologists
Edited by Zoltn Pspki
University of Debrecen
Authors
McIntosh, Richard William Pspki, Zoltn PhD Rzsa, Pter PhD
Revised by English text revised by Native reviewer
Csorba, Pter PhD Mller, Pl DSc Semsei-Szekeres, Edit McIntosh, Richard Duncan
Supported by
Ministry of Education World Language Programme

Oktatsi
Minisztrium
Tempus Public Foundation

TEMPUS KZALAPTVNY
Terra-Mina Ltd.
CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION (TO GEOLOGY?).....................................................7

1.1 CLASSICAL GEOLOGICAL BRANCHES .............................................................................. 7 1.2 APPLIED GEOLOGICAL SUB-DISCIPLINES ......................................................................... 8 1.3 THE ROCK CYCLE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES .................................................................... 9
2. IGNEOUS ROCKS (PTER RZSA) .........................................................12

2.1 THE NATURE OF MAGMA .............................................................................................. 12 2.2 OCCURRENCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ................................................................................ 13 2.2.1 Types of intrusions............................................................................................... 13 2.2.2 Types of extrusions .............................................................................................. 15 2.3 STRUCTURE AND CRYSTALLISATION OF ROCK-FORMING SILICATE MINERALS .............. 17 2.4 PRINCIPAL TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS .................................................................... 22 2.4.1 Principal textures of volcanic rocks .................................................................... 23 2.4.2 Principal textures of hypabyssal and plutonic rocks ........................................... 23 2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ............................................................................ 24 2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS .............................................................. 28 2.7 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN IGNEOUS ROCK TYPES ............................................. 29 2.7.1 Plutonic rocks (figure 12).................................................................................... 29 2.7.2 Volcanic rocks ..................................................................................................... 30
3. PLATE TECTONICS (RICHARD WILLIAM MCINTOSH) ..........................32

3.1 THE CONCEPT OF PLATE TECTONICS ............................................................................. 32 3.2 DIVERGING MARGINS: RIFTS, MID OCEANIC RIDGES AND OCEANIC BASINS ................... 34 3.2.1 Formation of the rift systems ............................................................................... 34 3.2.2 Magmatic processes ............................................................................................ 34 3.2.3 Structural and global tectonic consequences ...................................................... 36 3.3 CONVERGING MARGINS: SUBDUCTION OF THE OCEANIC CRUST; ISLAND ARC SYSTEMS 37 3.3.1 Development of the converging margins ............................................................. 37 3.3.2 Magmatic processes ............................................................................................ 38 3.3.3 Forearc Region.................................................................................................... 39 3.3.4 Island arc............................................................................................................. 39 3.3.5 Back-arc Region .................................................................................................. 40 3.4 COLLISION, OROGENE REGIONS .................................................................................... 40 3.4.1 Development of orogene regions ......................................................................... 40 3.4.2 Magmatic and metamorphic processes................................................................ 41 3.5 TRANSLATIONAL PLATES ............................................................................................. 42 3.6 EVOLUTION TRENDS OF THE LITHOSPHERE ................................................................... 42
4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (ZOLTN PSPKI) ........................................45

4.1 ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ......... 45 4.1.1 Formation of sediments and sedimentary rocks .................................................. 45 4.1.2 Classification and general characteristics of sedimentary rocks ........................ 46 4.1.3 The main sedimentary environments (sedimentary basins) ................................. 46
4.1.4 Bedding................................................................................................................ 47 4.2 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICICLASTIC ROCKS ........................................... 49 4.2.1 Determination and interpretation of grain size distribution................................ 49 4.2.2 Analysis and interpretation of grain morphology................................................ 55 4.2.3 Mineralogical composition of siliciclastic sediments .......................................... 57 4.3 WEATHERING OF SILICATE STRUCTURES ...................................................................... 58 4.3.1 The concept of weathering................................................................................... 58 4.3.2 Way and control of the alteration of silicate structures....................................... 60 4.3.3 Place and products of weathering ....................................................................... 61 4.4 CARBONATE ROCKS AND CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS ........................ 64 4.4.1 Chemical and textural components of carbonate rocks....................................... 64 4.4.2 Classification of carbonate rocks ........................................................................ 65 4.4.3 The main environments of carbonate deposition ................................................. 67 4.5 ORGANIC MATERIALS COAL AND HYDROCARBON DEPOSITS ......................................... 71 4.5.1 Classification and lithology of coals ................................................................... 71 4.5.2 Palaeoenvironmental conditions of the coal deposites........................................ 72 4.5.3 Formation and migration of hydrocarbons ......................................................... 73 4.6 EVAPORITES ................................................................................................................. 75
5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS (ZOLTN PSPKI).......................................77

5.1 PROCESS AND CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHISM ..................................................... 77 5.2 THERMAL METAMORPHISM .......................................................................................... 78 5.2.1 Terminology of the thermal metamorphism......................................................... 78 5.2.2 Processes and mineral associations in the thermal metamorphism .................... 78 5.3 DYNAMOTHERMAL METAMORPHISM ............................................................................ 79 5.3.1 Classification and processes of the dinamothermal metamorphism mineral facies............................................................................................................................. 79 5.3.2 Stages of the dynamothermal metamorphism ...................................................... 80 5.4 THE UPPER BOUNDARY OF THE METAMORPHISM - ULTRAMETAMORPHISM ................... 83
1. INTRODUCTION (TO GEOLOGY?) (Dont skip over; it has been difficult to write!)
Student A: What on Earth is a Geologist? Student B: Maybe something like a Theologian. Student A: You mean he works on the phenomena of the soul? Student B: And creates contact between the Earth and Heaven. Teacher: Boys, the difference between a Geologist and a Theologian is like that between the Earth and Heaven.
Geology tries to summarise the material and energy transport processes of the Earth, especially of the earth crust, appearing in the geological past and leading to the present face of our globe. In this relation geology has to be able to describe the materials of the earth, the processes producing these materials, and the history framing these processes. To get a clear view of the most important fields of geology it is worth giving the list of the main geological sub-disciplines with short explanations on their main purposes. 1.1 Classical geological branches Elementary fields (describing any organisation level of the material of the earth crust): Crystallography describes the chemical and physical-chemical characteristics of the crystals and so the minerals Mineralogy describes chemical variations, forming and appearance of the different minerals Petrology describes the mineral assemblages (rocks) considering their appearance (petrography) and formation (petrology) Sedimentology as a further-developed part of petrology focusing on sedimentary rocks it also touches upon their formation and the description of palaeogeographic conditions Structural geology analyses the structural elements and processes of the earth crust on micro-, meso- and macro(global) scales Paleontology in close connection with some fields of biology (e.g. taxonomy, comparative anatomy) it describes the living creatures of the geological past
Synthesizing fields (creating reconstructions for the development of the earth crust) Stratigraphy defines the relative or real age of the different materials of the earth crust. Depending on its method it may be e.g. relative stratigraphy (based on the relative position of different formations), biostratigraphy (based on the evolution lineages), radiometric chronology (depending on physical characteristics half-period of radioactive elements) Historical geology compiles the results of elementary fields and stratigraphy giving complex model for the development of a certain part of the earth crust. There are some very important applied fields of geology not only to help the development of the economy, but also inspiriting the development of the classical fields and so promoting us to understand our relationship with the natural circumstances. 1.2 Applied geological sub-disciplines Economic geology examines the formation of raw materials (ore and non-ore deposits) to determine the economic and environmental risks of mining Engineering geology determines the stability of the earth crust and shallow geological formations (soils) to predict the technological risks of building and mining operations Hydrogeology describes the amount, quality and movements of the subsurface waters to determine the opportunity and limitations of water mining Environmental geology determines the geological hazards on human activities and anthropogenic (human) risks on the natural environments e.g. geological aspects of waste management Agro geology describing the mineralogical characteristics of soils to determine the optimal (natural) ways to increase soil fertility So we can see that in order to understand the main aspects of geology we need a great deal of courses like in the case of biology from taxonomy through molecular biology to ethology (only to mention some distant fields of this very important discipline).
1.3 The rock cycle and its consequences In this short course we have no opportunity to give a general outline of geology, we would like to clear only some general fields of it that can help us to understand the most important processes of the earth crust. To understand the materials of the earth crust we have to see that the main chemical elements of the earth crust are oxygen, silica and aluminium, together with iron, magnesium, potassium, sodium and calcium. These elements form the different crystals of silicate structures, which are the most important minerals of the earth crust. So if we would like to know the most important minerals of the Earth, we can ignore diamond and ruby and have to focus on silicate structures. To summarize the most common processes of the earth crust we have to know and understand the rock cycle (in the frame of plate tectonics) (figure 1). We have to see that the material in the rock cycle is more or less the same throughout the entire cycle. We can see the alteration of the silicate structures according to the continuously changing physical factors (especially pressure, temperature, and chemical content referred to as P, T, C conditions). The principal constituent of the magma is silica (SiO2) ranging from 35 to 75 % (see later) so with the cooling and solidification (crystallization) of the magma, rock forming silicate structures will be formed and will form minerals assemblages called igneous rocks. Under superficial conditions the rock forming minerals of igneous rocks will be unstable phases and will be destroyed by the processes of weathering. The previous silicate structures will be altered into different ones becoming stable under superficial conditions. Sedimentary rocks (except some special forms like limestones, evaporates and organic materials) can be regarded as assemblages of these newly formed weathered silicate structures. Under increasing pressure and temperature the silicate structures become unstable phases again. They loose their natural water content, and change their crystal structure becoming stable phase under the changed PT conditions. Their alteration (called metamorphism if it takes place in solid phase) leads to the formation of metamorphic rocks as assemblages of metamorphic minerals. There are some short circuits in the rock cycle (can be seen in figure 1) which have no important roles from the aspect of this introduction.
Surface, uppermost crust
Crust
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Weathering -disintegration -chemical decomposition -transportation -deposition Sediments Resedimentation Weathering Magmatic rocks Sedimentary rocks Parametamorphism -recrystallization Metamorphic rocks Orthometamorphism -recrystallization Magma (indifferentiated) Magma (differentiated) Diagenesis -compaction -cementation -loss of porosity Solidification -crystallization -formation of amorphous phase Ultrametamorphism -partial melting -ion exchange
Figure 1 Stages, places and processes of the rock cycle
In conclusion we can state that the main materials of the earth crust are the silicate structures, these minerals form mineral assemblages (rocks) and the processes of the earth crust lead to the alteration of silicate structures and so to the alteration of rocks. In this relation the rock cycle can be regarded as the cyclic life of silicate structures and the history of the earth crust forming rock cycles can be regarded as the history of the silicate structures in the earth crust. From this aspect we hope everybody can accept that to give a short introduction to geology (materials and processes of the earth crust) we had to choose the level of petrology. Since the rocks can be regarded as mineral assemblages we can state follows: Rocks enclose minerals and not randomly but keeping the law of associations that within the same association we can see members tolerating similar conditions (PTC conditions in geology) The mineral associations (rocks) in their pattern and minerals content can perfectly reflect the results of their forming processes. To discuss the stages of these alterations we chose the order of the rock cycle so the chapters will be about Igneous rocks (followed by the plate tectonic model) Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks
So finally we wish you a satisfying excursion into the fields of geology and if you become attached to geology our work has not been in vain. the authors
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2. IGNEOUS ROCKS 2.1 The nature of magma Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten or partly molten mobile material termed magma. The nature of magma cannot be directly observed because it originates from the partial melting of the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth, usually at depths between 50 and 200 km below the surface. Our understanding of the magma is based on observations of volcanic activity, analyses and studies of different igneous rock types, and on laboratory experiments made on synthetic magma-like melts. Most magmas are not entirely liquid but a complex mixture of liquid, solid and gaseous materials. Magmas may contain crystals in a large portion and this mixture moves slowly and sluggishly. Dissolved gases (mainly water and carbon dioxide) usually constitute a small percentage of the magma, however, they may reach as much as 14 % of the volume. These volatiles are important because they strongly determine the viscosity and the explosive characteristics of volcanic eruptions. Volatiles tend to decrease the viscosity (hence to increase the fluidity) of the magma. Magmas rich in volatiles tend to erupt more violently. The principal elements of the magma are O, Si, Al, Ca, Na, K, Fe, and Mg, however, the principal constituent of the magma is silica (SiO2) ranging from 35 to 75 %. The silica content also strongly influences the viscosity of the magma: the higher the silica content is, the greater the viscosity will be. As a consequence, basaltic magmas containing about 50 % SiO2 are characteristically fluid, whereas granitic magmas, which contain 6070% SiO2, are thick and viscous. Changes of principal elements (mainly silica and alkalies) in igneous rocks show more or less distinct trends. A group of rock types that reflects similar chemical tendency is called rock suite or rock series. - Alkaline rocks consequently show a high concentration of alkalies (Na, K) with respect to Ca and silica. The most common alkaline rocks belong to the olivine basalt group. - Calc-alkaline rocks Na+K exceed Ca only at the silicic end of the series (SiO2 higher than 60%). This series comprises the common volcanic basalt-andesite-dacite-rhyolite and plutonic gabbrodiorite-granodiorite-granite associations. - Tholeiitic rocks are characterised by considerable iron enrichment. There are some correlations between rock series and plate tectonic settings. The general pattern is shown in table 1.
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Table 1 General relationship between plate tectonic settings and igneous rock series
Plate tectonic settings Oceanic rift Continental rift Subduction zone Intraplate Igneous rock series Mainly tholeiitic, marginally alkaline Tholeiitic, alkaline Calc-alkaline, tholeiitic Alkaline, tholeiitic
2.2 Occurrence of igneous rocks Igneous rocks may form below and/or at ground level. Intrusive igneous rocks solidify in pre-existing rocks beneath the surface in the form of so-called intrusions, whereas extrusive igneous rocks are formed by flow of lava or deposition of volcanic clasts on the surface. Intrusive rock bodies are usually divided into two further groups: shallow-seated intrusive rocks are called hypabyssal, and deep-seated intrusive rocks are referred to as plutonic. 2.2.1 Types of intrusions There are several types of intrusions, and transitional ones may also occur (figure 2a). - Sills are tabular bodies of approximately uniform thickness and are relatively thin compared to their lateral extent because they are emplaced essentially parallel to the bedding or the foliation of the country rock. - Laccoliths are commonly mushroom-shaped intrusions that dome up the overlying rocks; they occur in relatively undisturbed sediments at shallow depths. - Lopoliths are large, lenticular, centrally sunk basins or funnelshaped intrusive masses that are generally found in unfolded or gently folded regions; their thickness is usually much less than their width (one-tenth to one-twentieth). - Phacoliths are associated with folded rocks. Following the crest of an anticline and the depression of a syncline, they have the shape of a double convex lens in cross section. - Dykes are tabular intrusions that cut across the foliation or bedding of adjacent rocks. They may occur alone or in swarms, and are typically emplaced into pre-existing joint systems. Dykes may also be associated with other shallow intrusions or volcanic necks. 13
- Batholiths are large intrusive bodies, typically lacking any known floor. Batholiths are usually composed of silicic rocks, and the size of their outcrops ranges from one hundred to several thousand square kilometres. Figure 2 Forms of intrusive and extrusive magmatism
A Forms of intrusions
laccolith phacolith
sill lopolith dyke
B Forms of extrusions
shield volcano composite volcano or stratovolcano
caldera dome
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2.2.2 Types of extrusions Extrusive rocks represent a wide variety of forms, depending on the nature of the erupted material. Magma of low gas content and of relatively low viscosity produces lava flows, while that of high gas content and of relatively high viscosity tends to produce pyroclasts. The basic types of lava flows are as follows (figure 3). - Pahoehoe lavas have glassy, smooth, and occasionally rope-like surfaces. The shape of the upper surface often resembles irregular fold in cloth. - Aa lavas have rough, fragmented surfaces. The fragments are extremely rough and very irregular in shape. - Block lavas are composed of relatively smooth fragments. The surface of a block lava flow is quite irregular. - Pillow lavas consist of ellipsoidal or pillow-shaped bodies. Each pillow has a glass crust and shows radial jointing. This type of lava is the most abundant of the types of flows because it is the most common one on the sea floor. Lava may emerge from either a long narrow fissure or a central eruption. Fissure eruptions may form lava plateaus (in the case of fluid basaltic magmas) or chains of volcanoes (in the case of less fluid lava). Eruptions from a central vent may build a variety of volcanic forms, depending on the fluidity of the magma and on the amount of the pyroclastic material. Fluid basaltic lavas may form a broad cone around the vent called a shield volcano (figure 2b). These volcanoes have a wide base (often more than 100 km in diameter) and gentle slopes. Their internal structure consists of innumerable thin basalt flows with little ash. The higher the viscosity of the magmas is, the more explosive and violent the volcanic activity will be. Consequently, the more silicic the magma is, the greater the amount of pyroclastic material will be. The alternating layers of tephra (accumulated volcanic ash) and lava produce a composite volcano, or stratovolcano, characterised by a high, steep-sided cone. The summit area sometimes collapses and a large, basin-shaped depression called a caldera may form. Extremely silicic magma is so viscous that it forms massive plugs or bulbous domes over the volcanic vent.
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Figure 3 Some types of appearance of extrusive rocks
pahoehoe flow
volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/ Pglossary/pahoehoe.html
aa flow
volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/ Pglossary/aa.html
block lava
library.thinkquest.org/17457/ volcanoes/ hazards.lavaflow.php
pillow lava
volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/ Pglossary/PillowLava.html
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2.3 Structure and crystallisation of rock-forming silicate minerals For igneous rocks the basic rock-forming minerals are the silicate ones. Beside this, these minerals are by far the most abundant group of minerals in the Earths crust. The basic building block of all silicate minerals is the so-called silicon tetrahedron (figure 4), in which the relatively small Si4+ cation fits in tetrahedral coordination with four O2anions, i.e. oxygen anions occupy the corners of a tetrahedron with a Si4+ in the centre. Each O2- has one of its two valence charges satisfied by bonding with the Si4+ at the centre, therefore an isolated silica tetrahedron has 4 charges. This pattern, however, has another consequence: the silicon tetrahedra may polymerise because the remaining 1 charge of the oxygen anions is available to bond with a Si4+ in the centre of another tetrahedron. Figure 4 Structure and polymerization of the silicon tetrahedron
silicon tetrahedron: connection with other elements:
O O Si O
SiO4
4-
O O Si O O Mg O
O Si O O
polymerization:
depleted oxygen
O O Si O
O O
connection with common oxygen
O Si O O
The degree of polymerisation (that is the degree to which the oxygen anions are shared between tetrahedra) provides the basic structural classification of the silicate minerals (table 2).
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Table 2 Silicate Classification

Silicate Class Orthosilicates Disilicates Ring silicates Chain silicates Single chain Double chain Sheet silicates Framework silicates Number of O2Shared per Tetrahedron 0 1 2 2 2 or 3 3 4 Si:O Ratio 1:4 2:7 1:3 1:3 4:11 2:5 1:2 Structural Configuration Isolated tetrahedra Double tetrahedra Rings of tetrahedra Chains of tetrahedra Double chains of tetrahedra Sheets of tetrahedra Framework of tetrahedra
The orthosilicates (nesosilicates) show no polymerisation. The silicon tetrahedra form isolated structural entities, and their negative charge is balanced by bonding with other cations such as Mg2+, Fe2+, and Ca2+ (figure 5a). The most common igneous rock-forming orthosilicate mineral is olivine ([Fe,Mg]2SiO4). The disilicates (sorosilicates) show the least degree of polymerisation in which a single O2- anion is shared between two silicon tertahedra (figure 5b). In the ring silicates (cyclosilicates), each tetrahedron shares two O2anions, and they form rings with three, four or six members. Ring silicates of six members are the most frequent (figure 5c). The chain silicates (inosilicates) may be divided into two subgroups: in the single chain group two O2- per tetrahedra are shared; in the double chain group half of the tetrahedra share two O2-, the other half of them share three (figure 5d and e). The most common igneous rock-forming chain silicate groups of minerals are pyroxenes (single chain) and amphiboles (double chain). In the sheet silicates (phyllosilicates), three O2- per tetrahedra are shared to form continuous sheets (figure 5f). The most important igneous rock-forming sheet silicate minerals are biotite (K[Mg,Fe]3[AlSi3O10][OH]2) and muscovite (KAl2[AlSi3O10][OH]2). The framework silicates (tectosilicates) show the highest degree of polymerisation: all O2- anions of each tetrahedron are shared to form a threedimensional framework (figure 5g).
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Figure 5 Classification of silicate structures

a b c
SiO4
Ortho- (neso-) silicates
Si2 O7
Di- (soro-) silicates
Si6 O18
Group (soro) silicates
Si4 O16
Si4 O14
Si4 O12 Explanation:

oxygen
e
Si4 O11
oxygen with silicon below two oxygens and two silicons at the same axe
Si2 O6
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
Chain (ino) silicates
Double chain silicates
elementary cell
Si4 O12
Si4 O11
Si2 O5
SiO2
Sheet (phyllo) silicates
Framework (tecto) silicates
Si4 O10
Si4 O8
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However, except for quartz (SiO2) and its polymorphs, Al may occupy some tetrahedral centres in the structure. These tetrahedra have a net negative charge, therefore, cations such as Na, K, and Ca are required to balance charges. The most common igneous rock-forming framework silicate minerals are quartz and its polymorphs (SiO2), potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8) and plagioclase feldspars (continuous solid solution series of albite [NaAlSi3O8] and anorthite [CaAl2Si2O8]) (figure 6). Figure 6 Geochemical system of feldspars
Potassium feldspar Orthoclase K[AlSi3O8]
Alk ali fel ds pa rs

Anorthoclase Oligoclase
Sa nid ine
Albite
Andesine
Labradorite
Bytownite
Anorthite
Albite Na[AlSi3O8 ]
Plagioclase feldspars
Anorthite Ca[Al2Si2O8]
The process by which a single homogeneous magma is able to produce a variety of different igneous rocks is called differentiation. The most important process of differentiation is fractional crystallisation. During this process the crystals are completely or partially prevented from reacting with the melt. The mechanism of magmatic differentiation by crystal fractionation is summarised in Bowens reaction series. The American petrologist N.L. Bowen was the first who, as a result of laboratory experiments and field studies, emphasised that there was a single parent magma of basaltic composition from which all the magma types evolved. Although it is known that all igneous rocks are not derived by differentiation from a basaltic magma, the processes suggested by Bowen are of great
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significance in relating the crystallisation order of rock-forming silicate minerals and the origin of igneous rock types. Bowens reaction series consists of two branches (figure 7). On the right side the plagioclases form a so-called continuous reaction series, as plagioclases may grade into each other. During crystallisation the crystals react continuously with the melt, changing their composition toward the albite (NaAlSi3O8) end member. Minerals of the left branch are compositionally and structurally distinct and form a so-called discontinuous reaction series. Reaction between crystals and melt occurs only during certain portions of the cooling sequence. There cannot be a solid solution between olivine and pyroxene, pyroxene and amphibole, amphibole and biotite. Minerals at the upper part of both branches of the series, such as olivine and calcic plagioclase, crystallise at high temperature and are characteristic of basalts. Minerals at the lower part of the series, such as pyroxene, amphibole, calcic-alkalic or alkalic-calcic plagioclase, crystallise at lower temperature and are characteristic of intermediate (andesitic) rocks. Minerals at the bottom of the series, such as biotite, alkalic plagioclase, potassium feldspars, quartz, crystallise at the lowest temperature and are characteristic of granitoids. Figure 7 Bowens reaction series
Olivine
decreasing crystallization temperature
Anorhite-Bytownite
increasing Si content
Pyroxenes
Labradorite
Pyroxenes
Andesine Oligoclase
Amphiboles Biotite Albite Quartz (Zeolites)
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2.4 Principal textures of igneous rocks Texture is the geometrical aspect of the component particles of a rock, including size, shape and arrangement. Besides the chemical composition the cooling rate of magma is the principle factor that determines the texture of the igneous rocks. Textures of igneous rocks are basically controlled by the following factors: - the chemical composition of the magma; - the cooling rate of the magma; - the mechanism of magma emplacement; - the thermal differences between the magma and its surroundings (upper mantle, crust, open air, water); - the nature and relative proportions of the volatile constituents. These variables may act simultaneously during crystallisation and important variations in texture may exist within the same magmatic body. Perhaps the most important factor of crystallisation is the cooling rate. Slow cooling of a melt may provide sufficient time for complete crystallisation. However, when cooling rate is extremely fast the melt may solidify without crystallisation and this results in the formation of glass. Differences in the cooling rate of the various portions of the magma produce differences in grain size, too. Changes in cooling rate during crystallisation produce a rock having crystals of different size. Magma starts to cool slowly at greater depths and then it is extruded (or intruded at a higher level). There it cools more rapidly and the remaining liquid solidifies as a fine-grained aggregate or as glass. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts and the rock is called porphyritic (figure 8). Figure 8 Some textures of igneous rocks
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The first-formed crystals are often able to develop well-formed crystal faces. Such crystals are described as euhedral. As crystallisation proceeds, the crystals may have only a partial development of faces (called subhedral) or no faces (called anhedral). 2.4.1 Principal textures of volcanic rocks Volcanic textures that consist of more than 90 % of amorphous or recrystallised glass: - vitreous texture has essentially no crystalline structure, it can be regarded as amorphous material; sometimes it may contain concentrated cracks (so called perlitic structure); - vitro-clastic texture contains X or L shaped glass splinters and often has innumerable cavities. Textures of volcanic rocks having less than 90 % of amorphous or recrystallised glass: - microlitic texture composed of phenocrysts and microlites (crystal laths of 10-20 m in lengths) included in an amorphous groundmass; microlites may show flowing pattern; - trachytic texture is characterised by less than 10 % of glass in which oriented microlites or feldspar phenocrysts can be found; - felsitic texture composed of phenocrysts and microlites included in a groundmass of fine grains of re-crystallised glass; - spherulitic texture may occur in microlitic rocks; it contains spherules (radiating fibres) which may form due to the recrystallisation of glass or to the rapid late-magmatic crystallisation of acicular microcrystals; 2.4.2 Principal textures of hypabyssal and plutonic rocks - Granophyric texture is characterised by fine-grained intergrowth of quartz and alkali feldspar. - Microgranulitic texture is composed of phenocrysts included in granular groundmass. - Microholocrystalline texture consists of fine-grained crytallised mineral constituents of approximately the same size. - Granitic or granular texture refers to coarse- and medium-grained, granular rocks in which nearly all of the mineral constituents are anhedral (xenomorphic) or subhedral and of approximately the same size.
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2.5 Classification of igneous rocks Three principal discriminant features are used in the classification of igneous rocks: grain-size characteristics, modal parameters and chemical composition. The basic classification systems were established by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. On the basis of the grain-size of the common igneous rocks, the IUGS classification distinguishes phaneritic and aphanitic rocks. Grains in phaneritic rocks are sufficiently coarse to be individually distinguishable and these rocks are classified as plutonic. Grains in aphanitic rocks are too small to be individually distinguishable and these rocks are classified as volcanic. Within these categories the rocks are named on the basis of modal (mineral) and/or chemical composition. To classify igneous rocks based on modal composition the following parameters can be determined: Q = quartz, trydimite, cristobalite; A = alkali feldspars, including orthoclase, microcline, perthite, anorthoclase, sanidine and sodic albite (anorthite is less than 5 %); P = plagioclase (anorthite is more than 5%); F = feldspathoids (foids) including nepheline, leucite, sodalite, etc; M = all other minerals (mainly mafic minerals) such as micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, opaque minerals, accessory minerals, primary carbonates, etc. The sum of Q, A, P, F and M must be 100 %, however, minerals belonging to Q and F are mutually exclusive. The common rocks are best shown in a triangular arrangement. The triangle permits classification of igneous rocks containing mafic constituents less than 90 %. For each rock, QAP or APF must be recalculated so that their sum is 100 %. For example, a rock with Q = 10%, A = 30%, P = 40% and M = 20% would give recalculated values as follows: Q = 100 x 10/80 = 12.5% A = 100 x 30/80 = 37.5% P = 100 x 40/80 = 50.0% These values can be plotted onto the QAP diagram. The plutonic and the volcanic rocks are named on the basis of triangular arrangements similar to each other (figure 9a and 9b). However, distinction between basalt and andesite is made mainly on the basis of silica content: a rock containing more than 52 % SiO2 is andesite, and a rock with less than 52 % SiO2 content is basalt. 24
a plutonic rocks Quartz

90
b volcanic rocks Quartz
60 60
quartz-richcoarse-grained -rock
granitic-rock rhyolitic-rock
20
daciticrock
20
dioritic-rock
lkali feldspar 65
A
anorthositic-rock
feldspar 10
syenitic-rock
gabbroic-rock
andesiticrock
Plagioclase
lkali feldspar
trachytic-rock
65
basalticrock
Plagioclase
feldspar
10
foid-dioritic-rock foid-syenitic -rock foidgabbroic-rock phonoliticrock tephritic-rock
60
60
foidolitic -rock
Mafic>90
peridotite
90
foiditicrock
Mafic>90
ultramafite
Feldspatoid
Feldspatoid
Figure 9 Classification of plutonic and volcanic rocks according to their mineral content (Streckeisen 1976, 1979)
25
Rocks with more than 90 % mafic minerals are regarded as ultramafic rocks and these rocks are classified according to their mafic mineral content. Two diagrams can be used for classification, one for rocks that contain pyroxene and olivine (figure 10a), and another for rocks that contain pyroxene, olivine and hornblende (figure 10b). Figure 10 Classification of igneous rocks according to their mafic mineral content (IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks)
Olivine
a
90
dunite
rzb urg ite
ite erl wh
40
ha
lherzolite
oliv
rth op yro xe nit
ine no cly
olivine websterite
ite en rox py
10 orthopyroxenite
oliv in
eo
websterite
clynopyroxenite
Orthopyroxene
Clynopyroxene
Olivine
b
90
dunite
rnb ho
eri do tite
de len
ep
py rox en
pyroxenehornblende peridotite
pe te ot i rid
40
oliv py rox en ite ine le rnb ho
oliv
olivinehornblende pyroxenite
olivinepyroxene hornblendite
ine
ite nd
10 pyroxenite
hornblende pyroxenite
pyroxene hornblendite
hornblendite
Pyroxene
Hornblende
26
As igneous rocks crystallise from melts, the magma is becoming oversaturated with a particular mineral. This concept is mainly used for silica. Thus a rock may be described as silica-oversaturated if it contains quartz (or an equivalent SiO2), or as silica-undersaturated if it contains silica deficient minerals that cannot exist in the presence of quartz (feldspathoids, olivine). Another approach comes from the idea that igneous rocks are the crystallisation products of silicic acids. Thus a rock can be called an acid rock (with silica content higher than 63%), an intermediate rock (with silica content between 52 and 63%), a basic rock (with silica content between 45 and 52%), or an ultrabasic rock (with silica content lower than 45%). The chemical classification of igneous rocks is based on the socalled TAS (total alkali and silica) diagram recommended by the IUGS (figure 11). This classification requires only the values of Na2O + K2O and SiO2. Analyses of rocks that weathered, altered, metasomatised, metamorphosed should be used with caution. It can be regarded as a general rule that only analyses with H2O+ less than 2% and CO2 less than 0.5% should be used. Before using the TAS classification all analyses must be recalculated to 100% on an H2O- and CO2-free basis. Figure 11 Total Alkali Silica (TAS) diagram (Le Bas et al 1986)
16 14 12 10
Na2O + K2O w%
Phonotephrite
Fo idi te
Phonolite
Tephriphonolite Trachyte
8 6 4 2
e nd ya ch a Tr
e sit
Rhyolite
Tephrite Trachybasalt
Dacite Basalt
Basaltic Andesite
Andesite
Picrobasalt
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
65
69
73
77
SiO2 w%
27
2.6 Classification of volcaniclastic rocks The general term volcaniclastic was introduced in the early 1960s and redefined in the early 1990s. This term includes the entire spectrum of clastic materials composed in part or entirely of volcanic fragments and formed by pyroclastic, hydroclastic, epiclastic, autoclastic, etc. mechanisms. It is suggested that a rock classified as volcaniclastic must have more than 10 % of volcanic debris. There are two basic types of volcaniclastic fragments: pyroclastic fragments and epiclastic fragments. Fragments that are formed by volcanic activity and perhaps reworked by sedimentary processes can be considered as pyroclastic fragments. Fragments whose origin, as fragments, is a direct result of sedimentary processes should be considered as epiclastic fragments. Rocks that contain less than 25 % pyroclastic fragments are called volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks and sediments; rocks containing pyroclastic fragments of 25 to 75 % are named as tuffites; rocks with more than 75 % of pyroclastic fragments are pyroclastic rocks and sediments. The classification of pyroclasts includes three basic variables: (1) their mode of origin, (2) their size, and (3) the composition of the component fragments. Regarding the mode of origin the following types of pyroclastic fragments can be distinguished: - pyroclasts (crystals, crystal fragments, glass and rock fragments) are formed directly from magma; - hydroclasts are chilled particles formed by magma-water interactions during subaqueous or subglacial extrusion; - autoclasts are formed by mechanical friction of moving lava flow; - cognate fragments are formed during earlier volcanic activity, but are ejected with other pyroclastic debris; - accidental fragments are generally derived from the subvolcanic basement. Considering their size pyroclastic fragments are distinguished in the following categories (table 3): - bombs: generally rounded fragments with a mean diameter of more than 64 mm; - blocks: angular or subangular fragments with a mean diameter of more than 64 mm; - lapilli: fragments of any shape with a mean diameter of 2 to 64 mm; - ash: fragments with a mean diameter of less than 2 mm. The composition of the component fragments can be characterised by their mineralogical and/or chemical composition. In this way terms such as basaltic, andesitic, rhyolitic, etc. agglomerate (or tuff) can be used. 28
Epiclasts are fragments (crystals, crystal fragments, glass and rock fragments) in volcaniclastic rocks that are liberated from consolidated volcanic or non-volcanic rock by weathering or erosion and transported by gravity, air, water or ice. Volcaniclastic rocks and sediments which consist of pyroclastic fragments ranging from 25 to 75% are called tuffite. The prefix tuffaceous should be used with the standard root names for sediments and sedimentary rocks, e.g. tuffaceous-sand, tuffaceous-mud, tuffaceous-sandstone, etc. Table 3 Classification and nomenclature of pyroclastic fragments and wellsorted pyroclastic sediments and rocks (after Schmidt, 1981)
Fragment size in mm 64 2 0.032 fine ash grain fine ash fine tuff Dominant pyroclastic fragment bomb, block lapillus coarse ash grain Pyroclastic sediments bomb-tephra block-tephra lapilli-tephra coarse ash Pyroclastic rocks agglomerate pyroclastic-breccia lapillistone coarse tuff
2.7 Short description of the main igneous rock types 2.7.1 Plutonic rocks (figure 12) Ultramafic rocks. Ultrabasic igneous rocks composed of mafic mineral constituents. Dunites have olivine as the essential mineral. Peridotites have olivine as the dominant constituent with some other mafic minerals (mainly pyroxene and hornblende). Pyroxenites and hornblendites are composed essentially of pyroxene and hornblende, respectively. Gabbros. Coarse or medium grained basic igneous rocks composed of Ca-rich plagioclase feldspar and mafic constituents (pyroxene, olivine, hornblende, biotite) of a considerable percentage. If the Ca-rich plagioclase content exceeds 90 % the rock is called anorthosite. The texture of gabbros is usually subhedral-granular. Diorites. Medium to coarse grained intermediate igneous rocks composed of Ca-bearing plagioclase of intermediate composition. Diorites have a considerable percentage of mafic mineral constituents mainly biotite, hornblende and pyroxenes. The typical texture of syenites is subhedralgranular. The hypabyssal equivalents of diorites are called microdiorites. 29
Syenitic rocks. Medium to coarse grained intermediate igneous rocks composed of alkali feldspars with or without subordinate Ca-bearing plagioclase and with some mafic constituents (usually biotite and hornblende). Peralkali syenite has only alkali feldspars, and syenite has both alkali feldspars and intermediate Ca-bearing plagioclase. In most cases the texture of syenites is subhedral-granular. Granitic rocks. Holocrystalline, medium to coarse grained silicic igneous rocks that are composed essentially of quartz and one or more feldspars, with micas (biotite and muscovite) and amphibole (hornblende). Potassium feldspars are usually orthoclase or microcline; plagioclase is rich in albite. These minerals are usually anhedral. Besides quartz and some mafic constituents, alkali granites consist of alkali feldspars only. Granites have both alkali feldspars and calcium-bearing plagioclase. In granodiorites Ca-bearing plagioclase is the dominant mineral constituent, the alkali feldspars are subordinate. The hypabyssal equivalents of granits are termed microgranites. 2.7.2 Volcanic rocks Basalts. Basalts are the volcanic equivalents of gabbros. Basalts are usually very fine grained. The characteristic minerals are Ca-rich plagioclase, pyroxene, iron ore and olivine. Tholeiitic basalt contains pyroxene as the main mafic constituent, olivine is absent or present only in a small amount. However, alkali basalt has olivine as an essential constituent. Calc-alkali basalt has Ca-rich plagioclase as the most prominent mineral constituent. The hypabyssal equivalent of basalt is termed dolerite which is coarser grained than basalt. Andesites. Andesites are volcanic equivalents of diorites. The main mineral constituent is plagioclase feldspar that is found as phenocrysts as well as laths in the groundmass. Composition of plagioclase feldspar may show considerable variation. The characteristic mafic minerals of andesites are pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. The more basic basaltic andesites may have olivine, too. Trachytes. Trachytes are volcanic equivalents of syenites. The most important phenocryst is sanidine. The other common phenocryst is biotite. Hornblende is less frequent. Trachytes often have a so-called trachytic texture characterised by feldspar laths oriented more or less parallel to each other. Silicic volcanic rocks. These very fine grained or glassy igneous rocks are the volcanic equivalents of granitic rocks. Rhyolites have a groundmass that is more or less crystalline and composed of feldspar and silica minerals (quartz, tridymite, crystobalite). The most common phenocryst is feldspar (mainly sanidine). Phenocrystal quartz may also be 30
present. The mafic minerals are subordinate, the most important is biotite; hornblende is rarer. If the cooling rate of silicic magma is very rapid it will solidify as glass, with or without some phenocrysts, and the rock is termed a rhyolite-obsidian. Rhyolite-pitchstones are also glassy silicic volcanic rocks but they have a considerable proportion of water (up to a maximum of 10 percent). Dacites are volcanic equivalents of granodiorites. Consequently, their dominant mineral constituent is albite-rich plagioclase feldspar; quartz and sanidine are present in a lower proportion. The main mafic constituents are biotite and amphibole and pyroxene may also occur. Selected titles for further reading BARTH T. F. W.: Theoretical Petrology. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York 1962. EHLERS, E. G. & BLATT, H.: Petrology. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1980. Dictionary of Geological Terms. Anchor Press, New York, 1975. HAMBLIN, W.K.: The Earth Dynamic Systems. Burgess Publishing, Minneapolis, 1985. MACKENZIE, W.S., DONALDSON, C.H., GUILFORD, C.: Atlas of igneous rocks and their textures. Longman, 1984. NESSE, W. D.: Introduction to Mineralogy. Oxford University Press, New YorkOxford, 2000. NOCKOLDS, S.R., KNOX, R.W.OB., CHINNER, G.A.: Petrology for students. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
31
3. PLATE TECTONICS 3.1 The concept of plate tectonics Scientists with wide knowledge suggested the idea that the continents were once connected to each other way back in the 17th century. However, the concept of Continental Drift was first published and introduced into geology by Alfred Wegener, an Austrian meteorologist in the year of 1912. The theory of the way continents could drift relative to each other was proposed by Arthur Holmes, a Scottish geologist in the 1930s suggesting that convectional currents in the Earths mantle drift the oceanic crust. Two American geologists, namely Harry H. Hess and Robert Dietz, who proposed the idea of sea floor spreading in 1960 and 1961 respectively, took the third and final step towards a global plate tectonic concept. Finally the concept of plate tectonics was accepted by the scientific public at a conference on The history of the Earths crust held in New York in 1966 and the term plate tectonics was first used by W. J. Morgan in 1968. The concept of plate tectonics means that first the Earths lithosphere is divided into 7 major and several smaller lithospheric plates and then these lithospheric plates are in constant motion relative to each other. This motion can be imagined as a rotation around a common rotational axis that is the rotational axis of the Earth itself. Figure 12 outlines the 7 major lithospheric plates namely the Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, Pacific, North American, South American and Antarctic and also some of the smaller plates (Philippine, Fiji, Cocos, Nazca and Caribbean, Arabic). The crust and the upper, solid part of the mantle form the so-called litosphere, which is 50-100 km thick under continents and reaches 35 km in thickness under oceans. The crust of the litospheric plates may be basic and denser (3 g/cm3) oceanic crust, which is usually thin (6-10 km) or may consist of a lower and denser basic and an acid (granitic) less dense (2,7 g/cm3) upper part called as continental crust. The latter migth be 30-35 km thick. Some plates have no continental crust (Pacific) and consist of only oceanic crust. The shelf region, which is covered by water is the part of the granitic continental crust. The heat differences in the mantle induce energy and material flow producing convectional currents under the lithosphere. The lithospheric plates float in the semi-molten material of the mantle driven by the energy of the convectional currents. These currents build up so called convectional cells in the mantle. The material is moved upward as it is heated in the ascending part of the cell and subsides when cooled in the descending part of the cell. 32
Eurasian North American Pacific

Arabian Caribbean Philippine Cocos
Pacific African
Nazca
Fiji
South American
Indo-Australian
Figure 12 Major and small plates of the Earths lithosphere
Antarctic
33
The geologically most active zones of the lithospheric plates especially from the aspect of the magmatic processes are the plate margins, which due to the movements induced by the convection currents can be grouped as follows: 1. Diverging margins 2. Converging margins 3. Translational margins 3.2 Diverging margins: rifts, mid oceanic ridges and oceanic basins 3.2.1 Formation of the rift systems Above the ascending part of the convection cells heat energy is transported and accumulated under the continental crust. This heat slowly burns through the crust and results in the formation of a trench called rift valley. As the rift widens the newly separated lithospheric plates are moved away from each other by the convection currents. In this dilatational stress field numerous tension joints develop parallel with the main rift valley and create a step-like appearance on both sides of the trench (figure 13). 3.2.2 Magmatic processes The heat flux is measured to be very high along the rift systems suggesting that hot mantle material is rising into the space developed between the diverging plates. This ultrabasic, so called tholeiitic mantle material arriving from a depth of around 35 km gives the source of the magma that accumulates in several deeper magma chambers, where it undergoes relatively high pressure fractional differentiation. In the course of this differentiation a series of ultra basic and basic rocks is produced that is called the ophiolite series. At the bottom of the ophiolite series i.e. in the deeper parts of the rift the least differentiated magma material crystallises into peridotites with very high ultra basic mineral and metal content. Then as the SiO2 content of the magma increases and basic silicate minerals like olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and basic plagioclases are produced gabbros lherzolites and harzburgites are formed. Then the magma is trapped in shallow magma chambers at a depth of around 2-5 km where it undergoes low-pressure crystal fractionation resulting in the formation of olivine phyric rocks. Other magma chambers receive periodic infusions of magma from greater depths, or primitive magma directly from the mantle resulting in the mixing of magmas. The gabbros are overlain by dolerites. Finally basalts are produced representing the top of the ophiolite series. The basalt lava entering the surface due to its low viscosity flows all over the surroundings 34
of the ridges to produce floodbasalts. However, the drop-like solidification of the basalt rocks producing pillow basalts (see figure 3) is also very frequent. Basalt lava may flow into and solidify in the tension joints filling them producing and basalt dykes. Therefore as oceanic crust is formed along the rift valleys it is built up primarily of intrusive gabbros and extrusive basalts. Occasionally, the magma intruding into the tension joints may be trapped in small pockets and undergoes extreme fractionation and SiO2 accumulation resulting in the production of granite rocks (A type granite). Figure 13 Structure and magmatism of a rift system
Pillow lava+ veins
Sheeted dykes
Isotropic gabbro magma
Gabbro cummulate
mafic cum
mulate
ultramafic cumm
ulate
harzburgite, restite
melt+residue
35
3.2.3 Structural and global tectonic consequences As magma continuously ascends and oceanic crust is formed, the rift valleys are in a restless widening process of becoming mid oceanic ridges. So all mid oceanic ridges are former rift valleys representing the border of diverging lithospheric plates today. The complete length of the mid oceanic ridges on the Earth is 75000 km. These areas are very active regarding both volcanism and shallow seated earthquakes (hypocentre is less than 30 km deep) as oceanic crust is continuously being formed here. Pillow basalts may form several hundred metres high and 500-1000 m wide basalt ridges. This is one of the reasons why mid oceanic ridges rise 2000-3000 m above the ocean floor. The other reason is thermal expansion. It is relatively rare, however, that mid oceanic ridges reach the surface of the ocean as in the case of Iceland. The explanation for the extreme uplift of the northern part of the Mid Atlantic Ridge is found in global tectonics. As was mentioned before, mid oceanic ridges separate two diverging lithospheric plates but in the case of Iceland, global tectonic trends are reversed and Eurasia is moving to the Northwest as Africa is pushing it, while North America remains static as the Pacific plate is not consumed on its eastern side. Thus the northern part of the Mid Atlantic Ridge is under compressional pressure that uplifts it above the surface of the Atlantic. The volcanism along mid oceanic ridges is limited to the central trench and to the closest joints. The basic igneous rocks are stuck to the edge of the diverging plates. This process is called accretion. The rate of the accretion seems to be about the same as the velocity of divergence. This divergence, accretion and the resulting increase of the oceanic lithosphere are the process called sea floor spreading. The primary evidence of sea floor spreading was found by palaeomagnetic investigations. As oceanic crust is formed along mid oceanic ridges the magnetic minerals turn towards the magnetic poles of the Earth as they are oriented at the time of the crystallisation of the rocks. Based on this, belts of rocks with different magnetic orientations can be observed parallel with the main trench of the mid oceanic ridges on their both sides. The magnetic orientation can be normal when oriented as it is today and reverse when oriented the opposite way. Scientists determined the age of every polarity change detected in the stripes of the oceanic basin. Therefore the rate of sea floor spreading and thus the rate of divergence could be reconstructed. It was discovered that the velocity of divergence has been variable both in space and time. However, its average rate is between 2 and 20 cm/year. As the divergence of two lithospheric plates can be regarded as 36
rotation with opposite directions the break of the mid oceanic ridges is inevitable. This break occurs as transform faults along which significant tectonic activity can be observed. Based on palaeomagnetic, biostratigraphic and radiometric age data the age of the oldest oceanic crust is found to be not older than 170 million years. 3.3 Converging margins: subduction of the oceanic crust; island arc systems 3.3.1 Development of the converging margins The reason why oceanic crust older than 170 million years cannot be found on the Earth is that the oceanic crust is consumed at several places namely where the lithospheric plates are converging. As a lithospheric plate is normally composed of a continental and an oceanic crust, usually it is the oceanic crust that is broken when two such plates converge. The exact place where the oceanic crust breaks depends on the blocking effect of the continental crust. The greater the continental crust is, the further away from the continent the oceanic crust will be broken. Once the oceanic crust is broken the denser will be pushed underneath the other one into the upper part of the mantle. This part of the oceanic crust is called the descending slab. As the ascending slab is pushed deeper and deeper into the mantle, its initial heat and gravity anomalies vanish and it takes up the physical properties of the mantle. This consummation of the ascending slab is called subduction. The plane along which subduction takes place is called the Benioff zone. This zone holds the vast majority of the hypocentres of the earthquakes produced by the subduction (figure 14). The angle at which the subduction mainly happens depends on the speed of the subduction i.e. the relative velocity of the converging plates. The angle of the Benioff zone is low when the velocity of the subduction is high. This is the case when the converging plates move in opposite directions. And the angle of the subduction is high when the plates move in the same direction but one of them moves faster so they are still considered as converging plates. However, usually the angle of the Benioff zone is detected to be around 45.
37
Figure 14 Structure and magmatism of an island arc system

Accretionary prism
du ct in g
3.3.2 Magmatic processes The maximum depth to which the subducting slab is pushed is observed to be 700 km. Beyond this depth the subducting oceanic crust cannot be detected. There are several reasons for the subducting oceanic crust to become molten: the Astenosphere is much hotter than the oceanic crust frictional heat is produced while the oceanic crust descends the altered basalt in the top layer of the oceanic crust contains a significant amount of water that decreases the melting point of the minerals that make up the subducting crust The molten material of the subducted crust gives the source of the magma material formed at the place of consummation. The magma is accumulated in magma chambers where it undergoes fractional differentiation for the second time in its tectonic life. However, in this case the parent material of the magma is not ultra basic mantle material but the basic rocks of the oceanic crust. Therefore differentiation will produce melts dominated by neutral silicate minerals such as amphiboles and neutral plagioclases (labradorite and andesine) that together with pyroxenes and basic plagioclases make up neutral intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks as diorite and andesite respectively.
38
Be ni of
fz on e
Su b
sla b
Deep sea trench
Backarc basin
Forearc basin
Island arc
Continent
The volcanoes produced by this volcanism build up alongside the edge of the continents in a curved shape forming the island arcs when reaching the surface of the ocean. The island arc system is composed of three parts, namely: - Forearc region - Island arc - Backarc region 3.3.3 Forearc Region The forearc region is situated between the deep sea trench and the island arc. The deep sea trench is usually an elongated, slightly curved, very narrow asymmetric depression that represents the deepest parts of the Earth's crust. As the subducting slab descends the majority of the pelagic deep sea sediments on the top is scraped off and thrust under the edge of the opposing lithospheric plate. Due to this underthrusting the sediments will form strongly deformed imbricated nappe systems that are stuck to the edge of the other plate. This process is called accretion and the resulting strongly deformed fan like wedge of deep sea sediments is called the accretionary prism. Due to the underthrusting the vergence of the imbricated structure of the accretionary prism points towards the island arc. The oldest sediments are found in the top of the accretionary prism and their angle of dip is the greatest. The forearc basin is found between the accretionary prism and the island arc. This is normally characterised by coarse unmatured terrigenous sediments eroded from the volcanic arc. The form of the basin is greatly dependant on the sedimentation rate and the deepening of the basin. Fast sediment accumulation may fill up the basin in which case it forms a wide shelf. The rocks that build up the forearc basin are situated in belts. High pressure low temperature blueschist facies metamorphic rocks and melange characterise the oceanward side while metamorphosed volcanics and batholits are found on the continentward edge. 3.3.4 Island arc The island arc is always situated right above the Benioff zone on the continentward side of the deep sea trench to which it is parallel. The line of island arcs may be several thousand km long but their width is around only 200 km while the particular belt that is characterised by active volcanism may be only 50 km wide. The position of the igneous arc is determined by the outline of the Benioff zone. Considering a subducting slab that descends along a plane that has an angle of 45 the igneous arc may be as far as 200 km from the deep sea trench. 39
The island arc is built up mainly of the neutral igneous rocks that are produced by the differentiation taking place under the arc. However, acid and basic igneous rocks can also be found in the arcs. The amount of acid and basic igneous rocks is determined by the material of the crust upon which the arc is developed. As island arcs may form on either continental or oceanic crusts that contaminate the ascending magma, acid-neutral rocks can be formed like dacites and granodiorites. Usually the island arcs are characterised by strato volcanoes that are built up by subsequent strata of lava rocks and pyroclasts. 3.3.5 Back-arc Region There are different back-arc regions on the different sides of the Pacific plate. On the western side of South America the back-arc region consists of former basins that formed in the course of formerly ceased subductions. In contrast, one of the most characteristic features of the eastern Pacific is the complex system of back-arc or marginal basins. The development of back-arc basins is associated with local rifting. The cause of this local rifting is that the subducting slab induces local disturbances in the asthenosphere under the back-arc basin therefore local convection currents will develop. Thus back-arc basins normally have oceanic crust. 3.4 Collision, orogene regions 3.4.1 Development of orogene regions When the converging movement of two lithospheric plates lasts for a long time and the oceanic crust between the two continental crusts is nearly completely consumed there can be several parallel island arc systems developed. And when the oceanic crusts are consumed between the island arcs these arcs will be compiled onto each other due to the compressional stress, to form highly deformed nappe structures with a vergence pointing opposite to the direction of the principal stress axis i.e. where the maximal force is coming from (figure 15). The final phase of the convergence is when two continental crusts collide. In this case neither of them will be pushed down into the asthenosphere due to the great difference in density. Instead the two continents will move upwards, while the strongly broken and folded structures will form interfingering with each other. Some parts of the denser crust, however, will be underthrust the less dense one thus uplifting it even higher. The results of this process are the strongly folded mountain ridges like the Alps, the Carpathians and the Himalayas that contain the highest points on the Earth. Where the enclosure of the oceanic crust that is between the colliding continents happens, some parts of the oceanic crust is not 40
subducted but obducted. These obducted basic ophiolite rocks represent the line of the so called suture along which the two continents collide. This collision zone between two continental crusts with strongly folded and jointed island arc remnants, obducted ophiolites and fracturing and elevating continental crust materials forming high mountain ridges is called the orogene region. 3.4.2 Magmatic and metamorphic processes When two continents collide the material of the continents and the material of the enclosed former island arcs is re-melted at a relatively shallow depth, 8-12 km deep in the root of the orogene due to the frictional heat. When the rocks are only partially re-melted the process is called anatexis and when they are completely re-melted it is called palingenesis. This re-melting of the orogene material results in the forming of shallow seated magma chambers. Figure 15 Structure and magmatism of an orogene system
suture
nappe system foreland basin molasse sediments
In these magma chambers the magma material undergoes fractional differentiation for the third time in its tectonic life producing acid magma material. This is also mixed with the material of the surrounding rocks forming extra acid igneous rocks named granitoid rocks. When the magma is the result of the re-melting of mainly igneous rocks I-type granites are formed while the re-melting of mainly sedimentary rocks produces S-type granites. The material of the continental crust is formed in these orogene regions.
41
Due to the high compressional pressure acting when two continents collide dynamo metamorphic rocks also form. And due to the re-melting of both igneous and sedimentary rocks ortho- and parametamorphic rocks are formed respectively (see metamorphism). 3.5 Translational plates There are lithospheric plates that move parallel to each other. Their movement takes place along a strike-slip fault. This movement results in neither the development of deformed structures of folded mountain ridges nor the formation of magma chambers and resultant volcanoes. However, strong tectonic activity is indicated by heavy earthquakes as in the case of the San Andreas Fault in California. 3.6 Evolutionary trends of the lithosphere Summarising the chapter we have seen that an ultra basic mantle material goes through a global tectonic evolution in the course of plate tectonics involving a series of fractional differentiations. In this relation the evolution means the increasing of silicon content of the material (figure 16). The global tectonic evolution starts with the rift valleys where the ultra basic material of the mantle through the first fractional differentiation forms the basic ophiolitic series of the ocean floor which among the lithospheric plates can be regarded as the less differentiated one (undifferentiated). In the island arc systems the basalt and gabbro of the subducting oceanic plate due to the second fractional differentiation turn into neutral andesites and diorites. So the island arc systems can be regarded as more differentiated parts of the lithosphere if they are not independent plates. Because of the strong selectivity of the weathering (see later at the concept of weathering) sedimentary processes also promote the geochemical changes of the material and since these changes also tend to increase the silicon content, they can be regarded as the sedimentary differentiation of the material. In the root of the orogene regions neutral rocks mixing with sediments and metamorphic rocks re-melt and become acid-neutral dacites and granodiorites and acid rhyolites and especially granites (see ultrametamorphism). These acid igneous and metamorphic rocks form the acid parts of the continental lithosphere that in this relation can be regarded as the end product of the global tectonic evolution.
42
Silica % 30
Komatiite Peridotite Ultrabasic Basalt Gabbro Basic
Mafic
(Ca-rich) Plagioclase Amphibole Biotite (Na-rich) Muscovite
45
Andesite Diorite Intermediate
Intermediate Felsic
Orthoclase
52
Rhyolite Granite Acid
63
80
Extrusive Intrusive Composition

Colour Ultramafic
Mineral Composition
Olivine Pyroxene
Quartz
Island arc Rift Oceanic crust Orogene Craton
Geodynamic Position and

melting of the mantle
Figure 16 Relationship between the igneous rocks, rock forming processes and global tectonic events
Rock forming processes
fractional differentiation
melting of the "crust" (ultrametamorphism)
43
Selected titles for further reading PARK, R. G.: Geological Structures and Moving Plates. Blackie USA Chapman and Hall, New York 1988. RAMSAY, J. G. & HUBER M. I.: The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology I-II. Academic Press Limited, London 1989. SUPPE, J.: Principles of Structural Geology. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 1985.
44
4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 4.1 Origin, classification and general description of sedimentary rocks 4.1.1 Formation of sediments and sedimentary rocks Formation of sedimentary rocks is directly related to the superficial processes of the earth crust. The most important stages in their development are disintegration (decomposition), transportation, accumulation (sedimentation) and diagenesis. Disintegration includes several processes of the physical and chemical decomposition. Physical processes can be as follows -insolation can be related to the frequent changes of the near-surface temperature in the course of which dilating stress may develop between the differently expanding minerals (e.g. silicate structures) -frost shattering means that the infiltration of fluid water into the small joints and cavities of the rocks which in the course of the solidification (freezing) fragment the enclosing material by the expansion -weathering summarizes the chemical processes (hydrataion and hydrolyses) of the superficial alteration -biogenic disintegration means that the growing plants mainly with their roots can crack the rocks -salt crystallization means that the pressure of the growing crystals can also lead to the disintegration of the rocks Transportation is dominantly induced by superficial vertical unevenness due to tectonic events like elevation and subsiding and determined by gravitation. It can be characterised mainly on the basis of the transporting agents, which can be gravitation itself (slope debris, flysch) or air (wind) resulting in so-called wind-blown sediments, water (rivers, marine currents) resulting in fluvial and marine sediments and ice (glaciers and continental ice sheets) resulting in tillites. Accumulation of the sediments is determined by the (palaeo)environment, mainly by its physical, chemical and occasionally by its biological effects. The most important environments of the accumulation can be grouped as marine and terrestrial ones, with a great number of special environments within them. Diagenesis includes the processes of compaction, desiccation and cementation.
45
4.1.2 Classification and general characteristics of sedimentary rocks The classification of sedimentary rocks is based on the main forming processes and consequently on their main geochemical characteristics. In this way we use the terms of siliciclastic, carbonate, biogenic rocks, evaporites and argillaceous rocks as the result of the weathering of silicate structures. 4.1.3 The main sedimentary environments (sedimentary basins) In the course of transportation sediments are eroded, transported and deposited in deeper parts of the earth surface, which are therefore frequently called sedimentary basins and frequently but not necessarily filled with water. Based on the actual superficial conditions the sedimentary basins can be grouped into marine and terrestrial basins. The most important ecological environments of the marine region are the deep oceanic basin (pelagic conditions), the continental slope (hemipelagic conditions), the shelf and the shore zone. The main sedimentary systems in the marine region are the siliciclastic and the carbonate systems. The combination of the two aspects can lead to the most important marine sedimentation systems as the siliciclastic or carbonate shore zones, shelves, continental slopes and deep basins. The ecological environments in the terrestrial region can be grouped into wet and dry terrains such as rivers, lakes and marshes contrary to soil systems. Both the wet and dry terrestrial systems are relatively unstable places of the sediment accumulation, since due to subsequent elevation the temporally deposited sediments will be redeposited (reworked) towards a deeper local sub-basin of the area till they reach the marine region. (Note that dry terrains can not be the place of the stable and important sediment accumulation since due to erosion this area is just the source area of reworked sediments.) Within these ecological environments and sedimentation systems smaller, so-called facies appear with well defined environmental factors (water depth, sedimentation rate, current conditions, biogenic activity etc.). Some examples from the marine region are the delta complex of a river within a siliciclastic system, or a reef complex within a carbonate shelf zone etc. In a given fluvial system of the dry terrain a facies may be the point bar or the channel bar. These facies mean the elementary units of the sedimentation where the defined environmental, especially ecological factors directly determinate the lithological characteristics of the forming sediments. Therefore the recognition of facies has essential importance in the (palaeo)ecological reconstructions. The main purpose of sedimentology is just to describe these facies and define the relationship between the environmental factors and the 46
lithological characteristics of the forming sediment and/or sedimentary rock. From this aspect the sedimentary rocks can be regarded as the essential tools in the reconstruction of the geological past in the surface of the earth crust. 4.1.4 Bedding Possibly the most common nature of the sedimentary rocks is that they are usually bedded. One bed represents and so describes one complete chapter i.e. one elementary period of the development under permanent palaeoconditions. The changing of the environmental conditions (change of water depth, sedimentation rate, current etc.) generates changes of the sedimentation, initiating the development of a subsequent bed on the surface of the previous one. In this relation a given bed can be characterised by its underlying and overlying associates, separated from them by its lower and upper bedding surfaces. The morphology of the bedding surfaces reflects essential data on the energy of the palaeoenvironment. The bedding surface can be e.g. straight and wavy, reflecting undisturbed or disturbed conditions. Figure 17 shows the most important types of bedding surfaces. Some extremely various forms can be regarded as the result of compaction simultaneous with or subsequent to the sedimentation (convolute bedding) or in the course of or after the diagenesis (stylolitic structures). Figure 17 Main types of bedding (after Campbell 1967 and Allen 1977)
horizontal bedding
ripple lamination
irregular bedding
trough bedding
convolute bedding
stylolitic bed surface
The next informative character of the bedding is the thickness of the beds. The thickness is determined by the intensity of the sedimentation and by the stability of the (palaeo)conditions. In case of extremely low sedimentation rate (e.g. deep marine environments only a few mm per 1000 years) or in case of extremely frequent changes of sedimentation conditions like the seasonal changing in lacustrine environment laminar bedding can 47
be produced with only a few millimetres of bed thickness. Contrary to this in case of the shelf environments due to the relatively high rate of sedimentation within relatively stable sedimentary conditions rather thick layers of sedimentary rock can be formed. They are called well or thick bedded rocks. There are some processes that can destroy the bedding like bioturbation which refers to the mixing activity of the animals living and feeding within the sediments (benthic living creatures). A special form of bedding is the cross-lamination or cross-bedding. The definition refers to beddings where the bedding surfaces are connected with secondary surfaces called foresets. The foresets are positioned at sharp angle to the bedding surface, their morphology can be sinuous or straight. The formation of cross-lamination is related to the accumulation in a current (wind or water) and the dip of foresets is one of the most important tools in determining the existence, the strength and also the orientation of the palaeocurrents. Presumably this is the main reason why the terminology of cross lamination, the basis of which was established by ALLEN (1963), is rather diverse and frequently used. Some important forms of the cross lamination can be seen in figure 18. Figure 18 Some examples for cross stratification (after Allen 1963)
According to the shape of the foresets
angular
tangential
sigm oidal
According to the shape of the foreset sets
tabular
wedge-shaped
trough
According to the 3D m odel of the stratification
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4.2 Descriptive characteristics of siliciclastic rocks The main descriptive characteristics of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are grain size distribution, grain size morphology and mineral composition. Below we show the most important aspects of determination and interpretation of them only to illustrate how much information on rock forming (palaeo)environments can acquired by the simple analysis of the simultaneously formed sedimentary rocks. 4.2.1 Determination and interpretation of grain size distribution The grain size distribution of a sediment or a sedimentary rock is basically related to the conditions of the transportation, especially to the viscosity and current characteristics of the transporting material. Large blocks together with extremely small particles can be transported by ice (e.g. huge erratic blocks were transported by continental ice sheets in North America and North Europe in the Pleistocene) while the wind-blown sediments can not be coarser than 0,2 mm. So the grain size distribution of the sediment was found to be one of the most important descriptive characteristics of the texture of the sedimentary rocks. The terminology in sedimentology is related to the most important categories of the particles. Based on ATTERBERG 1903, UDDEN 1914, WENTWORTH 1922 we use special terms for these categories like gravel (commonly above 2 mm), sand (to 0,02 or 1/8 possibly 1/16 mm), silt (to 0,002 or 1/128 or possibly 1/256 mm) and clay (under 0,002 or 1/128 or possibly 1/256 mm). In the course of designating a given sedimentary rock we use the name of the dominant category (gravel, sand, silt or clay), together with the secondary and even with tertiary fraction as indicative terms. In case of sand with silt as subdominant fraction we use the term silty sand. The ratio between these main categories became one of the most important descriptive factors and determined the terminology of the sediments and sedimentary rocks. The mixing of three adjacent fractions (gravel-sand-silt or sand-siltclay) can be regarded as a common, natural case since a perfect selection of similar fractions requires special conditions. This is the main reason why in sedimentology the comparative analysis of sediments is frequently made by using ternary diagrams, some examples of which (e.g. SHEPARD 1954, FOLK 1968) can be seen in figure 19.
49
Figure 19 Ternary diagrams for indicating the ratio of sand, silt and clay (according to Shepard 1954 and Folk 1968)
sand clay
sa nd yc lay
sandy silty clay

cla ye ys an d ilt ys ye cla
y cla ty sil
fine clayey silty sand sand
silty sand
silty clayey sand
sandy clayey silt
sandy clay
sandy fine silt
sandy silt
sand
silty sand
sandy silt
silt
clay
fine silt
silt
If a detailed (descriptive or comparative) analysis of the sedimentary rock is required for example to differentiate similar but slightly different plaeoenvironments or to give an adequate description of the texture (e.g. the rate of the effective porosity), a detailed statistic analysis of the grain size distribution has to be produced. The gravel and sand fractions can be fractioned into sub-populations using sieve-series, the silt and clay ones can be fractioned and measured by sedimentation methods based on Stocks law. The separated fractions can be measured by analytical pair of scales and represented in grain size distribution diagrams. A common property of these diagrams (figure 20) is that the number of particles in a given fraction is expressed by weight percent. The grain size is indicated on the abscissa in millimetres or on phi () scale. (Phi is the negative logarithmic value to base 2 of the millimetre value, so 1/2 millimetre is 1, 1/4 millimetre is 2, 1/8 millimetre is 3 while 1/16 millimetre is 4 in phi etc.) The millimetre scale must be logarithmic while the phi scale can be equidistal because of its logarithmic base. The percent of frequency is indicated on the ordinate axis. The indication of categories can be made by histograms, by frequency and by cumulative curves (figure 20). The first represents the real results of the analysis, the second is suitable for quick statistic interpretation of the given distribution, while the third allows the quick and easy determination of the grain size category for given frequency percent values (e.g. d5, d10, d15, d50, d60, d85, d90, d95) after the interpolation of the data. Since these values have great importance for the graphic statistic
50
analysis of the grain size distribution diagrams the latter method became the most widely used in sedimentology in the 20th century. Figure 20 Grain size distribution histogram and curves in mm and phi scale
1 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
phi
75
50
25
0 1
0,
0,
0,
0,
06
0,
02
0,
01
0,
00
0,
00
0,
00
mm
1
In a statistical interpretation of the grain size distribution curves (figure 21) the most important parameters are modality, mean, median, standard deviation, and skewness of the distribution. The grain size distribution of the sediment may be uni-, bi- or oligomodal and polymodal. The dominance of one grain size population refers to a strongly selective (palaeo)condition which initiated the accumulation of one favoured particle type. The existence of two grain size populations may refer to the two different ways of sediment transport considering same transporting material (e.g. suspended silt in the water mass and saltated sand in the bed surface of a river) while the two and oligomodal curves can refer to a reworking and mixing of two or more originally different sediments. Polymodal curves refer to sediments without any separation as in the case of the ice transported tillites. The mean and the median refer to the dominant strength of the transporting material regarding that its real position in the x axis indicates the dominant grain size population in the sediment (clay, silt, fine or coarse sand or even pebble). Nowadays the importance of the mode value is greater than that of the mean.
51
52
unimodal symmetric bimodal high value of the standard deviation and the kurtosis low value of the standard deviation and the kurtosis asymmetric (with positive or negative skewness) polymodal
modality
relationship between median and mode
Figure 21 Some important distributions in sedimentology
standard deviation and curtosis
The standard deviation of the distribution refers to the selective effects and in this way primarily to the viscosity of the transporting material and secondarily to the current conditions of the transporting processes. So the value of the standard deviation is rather low in sand-blown sediments and extremely high in the ice transported materials depending on the low and high viscosity of the air and the ice. At the same time it is relatively low in well sorted shallow marine sediments transported by strong marine currents; while relatively high in deep marine sediments where the selective effect of the marine currents can not be recognised. The existence of skewness refers to the fact that the mode and the mean of the distribution is not the same point on the x axis. From the aspect of the sedimentary processes it means the extreme concentration of the fine or coarse grain size population in the sediment. Based on (MASON AND FOLK 1958) this can be seen in the case of the shallow marine sandy sediments to the advantage of the coarse part of the distribution and in the open marine sediments to the fine portion. Other investigations pointed out that at the background of the skewness, a concealed bimodality can be detected. So the importance of the skewness is behind that of the modality, the mean, the median and the standard deviation. Based on the determination of statistic parameters of sufficient amount of sediment samples taken from recent marine and terrestrial environments a great series of variation diagrams and associated sedimentary models were developed to separate the samples from different sedimentary (palaeo)environments. Some examples (FOLK 1968, PASSEGA 1964) are shown in figure 22a and 22b. The detailed description of the diagrams can not be given in the frame of this course but is easily traceable in the significant work of BALOGH (1991) on sedimentology. The usefulness of these models is unquestionable, but the utilization of the diagrams requires great caution since the applicability of them is limited mainly to similar environments. So the correct interpretation of sedimentary rock should be based on simultaneous analysis of the bedding, the grain size distribution and the undermentioned grain morphology and mineralogical composition.
53
Figure 22 Variation diagrams for sedimentological analyses (according to Folk 1968 (a) and Passega 1964 (b))
a
1
stal coa
sha llow ma rin e
pebble
sand
silt
clay
-4
Mz()
12
b M (med)
01 0, 02 0, 0, 04 06 08 1 0, 0, 0, 2 0, 4 0, 6 8 0, 0,
10 8 6 4
C (> 1%)
rounded particles and suspended material together
IX
III
II
VII
pelagic suspension
sorted suspension
1 0,8 0,6 0,4
IV
0,2
VIII
subdominantly sorted suspension
VI
0,02
0,1 0,08 0,06
0,04
54
4.2.2 Analysis and interpretation of grain morphology The size of the particles of the siliciclastic sediments can be investigated from two aspects: sphericity and roundness (figure 23). The first can indicate the mechanism of transportation and the second can refer to the scale of it. Figure 23 Determination of morphology of clastic sediments (according to Sloss 1963)
0,9
sphericity
0,7
0,5
0,3 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 0,9
roundness
The sphericity refers to the similarity of the particle to an ideal sphere or to an ideal ellipsoid with two or even three axes. There are published observations that the rounded pebbles of the tidal environments have ellipsoid forms with two axes in contrast to the fluvial pebbles which have ellipsoid forms with three axes. The reason for the differences may be the different orientation of the currents and so the different mechanisms of the transportation. In the first case the pebble is moved back and forth by the tidal currents turning round the same axis. Contrary to this, in the latter case the pebble is transported on the bed surface of the river, its longest axis is parallel with the river axis, the second is horizontal perpendicularly with the main current, and the shortest one is vertical. In this case the pebble is polished by the suspended material, which maintains the original shape of the pebble.
55
Roundness means the superficial micromorphology of the pebble. In this case the surface of the pebble is investigated and the ratio of the concave convex and plane parts is determined. There is a negative correlation between the ratio of the concave parts and the way of transportation since in the course of the transportation the ratio of the plane and convex parts increases. The scanning electronmicroscopic (SEM) investigation of the surfaces of small (sand) particles may be also very useful in case of distinguishing tidal, fluvial or even aeolian circumstances. In the case of tidal sands well rounded, well polished particles are common contrary to the regularly splintered particles of the fluvial sands (figure 24). In the case of the aeolian sands the well rounded and polished particles are regular similarly to the tidal ones, but small impact craters on the surface of the polished particles initiated by frequent collisions of the saltated particles are also characteristic. Figure 24 SEM photographs of sand particles - beach at left, fluvial at right and aeolian below (photos were made by Borsy)
56
4.2.3 Mineralogical composition of siliciclastic sediments The mineralogical composition of the siliciclastic rocks is determined by microscopic analysis in the course of the micromineralogical investigation. The first stage of the analysis is the separation of the light and heavy minerals and the determination of the ratio between the two fractions. The definition is based on the density of the rock forming minerals, the separation is made by any kind of heavy liquids such as bromoform (CHBr3, its density is 2,9 g/cm3). The floating light minerals can be collected on the surface of the liquid while the sinking heavy minerals can be collected by filtering. Light minerals have a dominant role in the formation of siliciclastic rocks. Their ratio is regularly more than 90 percent. The most important light minerals are quartz (the dominant), feldspars and muscovite. Some characteristic minerals from the heavy fractions are the tourmaline, garnets, zircon, hornblende, pyroxenes, sphene, rutile, apatite. The dominant mineral in sandstones is the quartz because of its great resistance to weathering (see later). If the feldspar becomes an important mineral in the light fraction the term arkosic sandstone is used. Considering that the feldspars cannot resist the long-term weathering these materials can be regarded as non-matured sediments with short transportation and fast covering. If rock fragments (connecting groups of not less than three specimens of minerals) can be seen in the sandstone the term litarenite is used proving also short transportation (figure 25). Figure 25 Ternary diagrams showing mineral composition of sandstones (according to Folk 1968 and Krynine 1948)
quartz
silica sand subarkose sublitharenite
quartz, chert
silica sand
r pa ds fel in or ar sp po eld ke nf ac hi uw ric ke gra ac
uw gra
arkos rock fr e with agmen ts
ark os e
feldspar
rock fragment
ark os e
e nit are lith

feldspar kaolin
atic feldsp ite n lithare
mixed arkose
clay, mica, chlorite
57
4.3 Weathering of silicate structures 4.3.1 The concept of weathering The earth crust is dominantly built of magmatic and metamorphic rocks, the main components of which are different groups of silicate structures ortho, chain, double-chain, sheet and framework silicate structures depending on the silicon content of the given material (rock or mineral association) (See chapter 2). These silicate structures were formed under high pressure (several thousand atmospheres) and high temperature (regularly higher than 700 C, which is the lower boundary of the main crystallization phase). Therefore it is easy to realize that they may not be thermodynamically stable phases under surface conditions the most important physical factors of which are the extremely low pressure (one atmosphere), low temperature (0-20 C) and a relatively great concentration of water. The weathering of the silicate structures means a geochemical decomposition of these rock forming minerals and at the same time the formation of phases i.e. silicate structures which can be stable under surface conditions. The stability of the silicate structures is greatly determined by the level of polymerization. Ortho and chain or double-chain silicate structures prove to be essentially unstable structures similarly to feldspars and feldspatoids. In contrast the sheet silicate structures and especially the quartz can successfully resist even the long-term weathering. (This phenomenon is the main reason why the dominant mineral among the light minerals in sandstones is the quartz.) The main causes of this resistance are the relatively compact structure of the sheet and ideal framework silicate structures and the stability of the quartz structure under low temperature and pressure (see the late phase of the hydrothermal crystallization). The generic stable silicate phase (i.e. structure) of the surface environments is a special group of the sheet silicate structure, the special physical characteristic of which is that it can build in a great amount of water in the crystal lattice without any decomposition or even any disorganisation. This group of the silicate structures is composed of different forms of clay minerals, which are in this way as dominant representatives of the surface environments and sedimentary rocks as the rock forming minerals of the Bowen series in the formation of magmatic rocks. The clay minerals are not only stable phases under the superficial conditions (low pressure and temperature) but their existence and even their formation is mainly limited to these circumstances, while under increasing pressure and temperature they alter into mica structures (see the metamorphism).
58
In the family of clay minerals (figure 26) three- and two-layered forms are also known. The more organized three layered sheet silicate structure near to the mica structure is represented by the structure of the illite. The more disordered three layered sheet silicate structure with greater water content and at the same time with much greater flexibility is the montmorillonite. The latter can be expanded by enclosing a significant amount of water. The two layered sheet silicate structure is represented by the kaolinite. The size of the clay mineral crystals is regularly lower than 0,002 mm so their investigation can be made primarily by X-ray diffractometer (XRD). Figure 26 Structure and classification of sheet silicate structures (after Weaver 1989)
K+
7.1 - 7.3 A
9.1 - 9.4 A
9.6 - 10.1 A
Kaolinite-Serpentine
Talc-Pyrophyllite
Mica
14.4 - 15.6 A
14.0 - 14.4 A
Smectite (Montmorillonite)
oxygen hydroxyl group
Chlorite
octahedral cation (Al, Fe, Mg) tetrahedral cation (dominantly Si)
oxygen + hydroxyl group (in projection)
59
4.3.2 Way and control of the alteration of silicate structures In the case of the dominance of quartz the weathering processes become blocked at the initial stage of the alteration but in other cases a decomposition of the silicate structures proceeds towards the formation of clay minerals as stable end stages of the silicate weathering. The environmental factors of the weathering can determine the effective final product of the alteration. If the way of the weathering is interpreted as a special example of the successive developments, the three above mentioned representatives of the clay mineral group should be regarded as three main stages of the alteration. The less altered sediments are regularly composed of the original silicate structures together with illite (and with some other clay minerals of the primitive weathering). The second stage of the alteration is represented by the significant formation of montmorillonite (with remnants of illite) while the strong alteration is indicated by the appearance of kaolinite. Since the dissolution of the silicon-oxide is extremely poor under acidic pH conditions, in the way of clay mineral formation slightly acidic circumstances should be postulated. This stage of the alteration is called siallitic weathering referring to the connected appearance of silicon and aluminium in the same geochemical systems (i.e. crystal lattices). (Note that due to the aluminium substitution of the silicon in the tetrahedral positions the connected appearance of the silicon and aluminium is one of the most common phenomena in the silicate structures.) Under extreme conditions like the slightly alkaline pH conditions of the tropical weathering crusts the complete decomposition of the silicate structures has also a rather great importance. Under such conditions the silicon-oxide has high solubility while the aluminium-oxide precipitates at the place of the decomposition of the silicate structure (figure 27). Because of the separation of the two regularly connected elements this way of the alteration is called allitic weathering referring to the accumulation of the aluminium at the place of the weathering (i.e. silicate decomposition).
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Figure 27 Relationship between the pH conditions and solubility of the main silicate forming elements (Si, Al)
Al2O3
10 9 8 7 millimol/l 6 5 4 3 2 1 SiO2 1 2 3
10 pH
4.3.3 Place and products of weathering The environments of the alteration may be marine and terrestrial conditions, and based on the rock cycle the source rocks of the weathering may be volcanic (such as rhyolite tuffs), metamorphic (e.g. granitoid rocks) or even sedimentary rocks. The initiative factor of the alteration may be the superficial position directly, but it might be catalysed by other geological processes (e.g. volcanic hydrothermal effects). The developing clay minerals can form a nearly homogenous (monomineralic) sedimentary rock, the name of which can be illite (with the dominance of illite), bentonite (with that of montmorillonite) and kaolin (with kaolinite). Clay mineral depositions of submarine or volcanic (hydrothermal) origin are also well known even in the area of North Hungary. The most important places of silicate weathering are the exposed surfaces of dry terrains, which are at the same time the effective place of soil formation. Silicate weathering can be regarded as the dominant process in the development of soils. The forming clay minerals as the end products of the weathering are the most important soil forming minerals. The nonorganic part of soils is mainly made of clay minerals, the colloidal appearance, the water accumulation and the ion exchange capacity of which basically determine the same characteristics of the forming soil.
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Tundra
ex t re all me itic ly w ea z w on eat the e he rin re g d
62
Temperate Mediterranean and sub-tropical climate climate Arid climate Savannah Equatorial climate amorphous silicon content kaolinite structure
7.1 - 7.3 A
Taiga
smectite structure (montm.)
ly ng d tro here s t a e we zon
14.4 - 15.6 A
sli wea ghtly the zon red e

9.1 - 9.4 A
illite structure
be d
ro ck
Figure 28 Climatic control on formation of soil-forming (clay) minerals (after Strakhov 1967)
mica structure
9.6 - 10.1 A
The successive characteristic of the weathering is well traceable in the formation of soils of different climatic belts, since the clay mineral association in a given climate related soil can be regarded as an analogy of the plant association in a climate related biocoenosis. This regularity was magnificently recognized and described by STRAKHOV (1967), who proved the connection between the forming soil and the predominating climate (figure 28). Considering the most common trends we can conclude that the soils of cold areas are determined by remnant fragments of the original minerals with subordinate appearance of illite. Under cold temperate climate the importance of illite increases significantly. In the temperate climates illite and montmorillonite are the dominant soil forming minerals, while in the sub-tropical soils the appearance of kaolinite refers to the more intensive weathering. In tropical conditions in the area of deserts the intensity of weathering is extremely low so the formation of clay minerals is a subordinate process. In the area of the savannahs the soil forming clay mineral is again the montmorillonite, while in the area of tropical forests the total decomposition of the silicate structures can be seen within the frames of allitic weathering. This latter case is how the tropical laterite soils form with strong concentration of the residual aluminium and remnant bulks of kaolinite. The diagenesis of laterite (at the place of weathering or after any way of reworking) can lead to the formation of bauxite.
63
4.4 Carbonate rocks and carbonate depositional environments 4.4.1 Chemical and textural components of carbonate rocks The main chemical components of carbonate rocks are the different combinations of the [CO32-] divalent anion, so the most important rock forming minerals are calcite and aragonite (CaCO3) and occasionally dolomite ((Ca, Mg)CO3). The origin of the CaCO3 can be biogenic or chemical (precipitation) and regularly both components can be traceable in the same rock so the carbonate rocks (like limestones) can be regarded as chemical-biogenic sedimentary rocks. The texture of a carbonate rock contains two main parts of the rock forming components, the micrite and the patite, the appearance of which has an essential role in the classification of the carbonate rocks. Micrite is the dominant, enclosing matrix of the limestones, the material of which is CaCO3, the particle size is regularly smaller than 0,005 mm (carbonate silt). Based on its origin it might have direct biogenic origin (biomicrite) or might have been reworked (allomicrite). The patite is the crystallized cement of the material, which regarding its chemical components might be calcite or dolomite (dolopatite) and based on the size of the crystals, which does not exceed 0,02 mm, might be coarse or micropatite. Other, frequently macroscopic components (i.e. grains) of the texture might be e.g. bioclasts, ooliths, pisoliths, oncoids, intra- and extraclasts. Bioclasts are the definable reworked remnants of living creatures (gastropods, molluscs, formaninifers etc.) enclosed into the fine micrite. The ratio of these fossils can change from a few percent to the dominant ratio as one of the most important aspect of the classification. Ooliths are spherical or subspherical rock particles which have grown by accretion around a nucleus, so the inner structure of the grain is regularly concentric. Their size is between 0,2-2 mm. Pisoliths are similar to the ooliths but their size is bigger than 2 mm. Oncoids are spherical and concentric components as well, but the form of the concentric spheres is undulatory. Their size ranges from millimetre to centimetre; their origin is in connection with the biogenic activity of algae. Intraclasts are the fragments of the given material which have been torn up from the bottom by any sudden occasion (e.g. a storm) and 64
then reworked into the same material, so its age is nearly the same as the enclosing matrix. The extraclasts are significantly older than the enclosing material and have been reworked into the given carbonate sediment from an outer space (extrabasinal origin).
4.4.2 Classification of carbonate rocks The petrographic classification of carbonate rocks is based on the investigation of the textural particles identifiable under optical microscope. There are several systems to describe the basic and intermediate types of the textures (e.g. FOLK 1959, DUNHAM 1962) (figure 29). Folks system is based on the ratio of the matrix and cement distinguishing the micrite (dominantly with matrix) and patite (dominantly with cement) types of the limestones as basic categories. The basis of the further classification is the type of the enclosed frequently macroscopic particles (grains) such as ooids, ooliths etc. So the name of a given limestone in Folks system may be e.g. oomicrite referring to the ooliths enclosed into micrite or oopatite referring to ooliths cemented by patite. Similarly the bioclastic patite or extraclastic micrite can also be seen. Dunhams system refers to the relationship between the macroscopic components (grains as bioclasts, ooliths, oncoids etc.) and the enclosing matrix (micrite) and/or cement (patite) of the texture but contrary to that of Folk it basically neglects the genetic type of the grains. If the grains are in contact with each other and the inter-grain space is filled up with patite, the texture is called grainstone while if the infilling material is micrite, the name of the texture is packstone. If the grains are not in contact with each other but their ratio exceeds 10 percent the name of the texture is wackestone, if the ratio of the grains is less than 10 percent the name is mudstone. Comparing the two systems it can be seen that while Dunhams system focuses on the ratio and distribution of the grains, Folks system emphasizes their genetic type. Nowadays the facies studies combine the two aspects rather frequently. So in the special literature we can see the combined nomenclature such as bioclastic patite grainstone referring to a grainstone after Dunham with bioclasts as grains in it or such as extraclastic micrite wackestone referring to a texture with extraclasts in it, the ratio of which is more than 10 percent according to Dunham.
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ooids
according to the enclosed grains
bioclasts
66
Folk
according to the enclosing material
dominantly with cement (patite) dominantly with matrix (micrite) filled with patite
Dunham
grains are in contact with each other
filled with micrite
grainstone oopatite oomicrite
packstone
grains are not in contact with each other

grains > 10 % grains < 10 %
Figure 29 Denomination of carbonate textures after Folk 1959 and Dunham 1962
biopatite
biomicrite
wackestone
mudstone
4.4.3 The main environments of carbonate deposition The main environment types of the carbonate formation can be grouped as terrestrial and marine environments. The latter has much more significant extension under the recent environmental circumstances and similarly had much greater importance in the geological past. Based on comparison of recent carbonate depositional environments and fossil carbonate facies a generic sedimentological model has been developed to summarize the most important marine belts with special carbonate development (WILSON 1975). The so called standard facies belts of Wilson are numbered from I to IX and range from the deep oceanic basin to the tidal zone extending over the continental slope and shelf region as well. Below we give a short list of the belts partly to show the most important characteristics of the model but primarily to describe the main characteristics of the sediment processes in the marine region (figure 30). 1. Wilsons I facies zone, deep oceanic basin. Within these conditions the basement is frequently deeper than the depth of the so-called carbonate compensation depth (CCD). The CCD is formed by the phenomena that the deep oceanic water is unsaturated with carbonate, so the sinking carbonate skeletons of the living creatures are dissolved and cannot reach the bottom. The only depositing sediments are the sinking remnants of the planktonic organisms of siliceous skeleton (e.g. radiolarians, diatoms) and the finest sediments coming from terrestrial regions, the terrigenous clay minerals which can be floated from the tidal region to the open ocean. The sedimentation rate is very low (a few mm per 1000 years) so the forming sedimentary rocks (red shales, siliceous shales, radiolarites) are laminated. 2. Wilsons II facies zone, the lower part of the continental slope (open shelf - periplatform). The continental slope connects the nearly uniform basement of the ocean with the elevated and dissected continental margins, the submarine region of which is called shelf zone. The angle of dip along the continental slope is about 5 degrees, which allows the development of mass movements in the oversaturated and unconsolidated fine submarine sediments. The mixed material of water and solid particles is transported by gravitation as slurry towards the lower parts of the slope. These materials contain upward fining beds reflecting the sudden transportation and the subsequent slow sedimentation of the material from time to time. The repeated appearance of upward fining beds on each other is called grading while the sediments with gradation are named turbidites referring to the current circumstances in the course 67
of the sudden transportation. Turbidites might be proximal (coarse, near the source) and distal (fine, far from the source) and are rather general on the submarine slopes like on the continental slopes as well. Graded sediments related to orogenic events are frequently called flysch and are rather frequent in the Carpathian region. In the lower part of the continental slope the distal turbidites are common frequently changing with carbonate sediments. Here the CCD can appear only temporarily so sediments with high and low carbonate content can form a varied series with changing beds of limestones, marls and shales. The limestones are typical pelagic limestones, mudstones and wackestones with bioclasts of planktonic organisms. 3. Wilsons III facies zone, the middle part of the continental slope (open shelf - periplatform). Similar to the previous one, but it is continuously above the CCD so the formation of the pelagic limestones is general and permanent as well. In the material of the bioclastic mudstones and wackestones the traces of slide can be seen also frequently reflecting the gravitational instability of the material on the submarine slope. 4. Wilsons IV facies zone, the upper part of the continental slope (the front of the shelf - periplatform). This zone is situated above the socalled aragonite compensation depth (ACD). The ACD is formed by the fact that the aragonite is a less stable form of CaCO3 than the calcite, so the remnants of living creatures with aragonite skeleton are more quickly dissolved than those of the species with calcite skeleton. This way the appearance of fossils of organisms with aragonite skeleton (e.g. ammonites) can be regarded as a sensitive depth indicator and can provide a good tool to distinguish the upper part of the continental slope from the deeper ones. In this region of the continental slope a great amount of reworked fragments coming from the eroded reef can be deposited so the limestones are frequently grainstones and packstones with fragments of reef-forming species (corals, crinoids etc.) properly enclosing the maintained fossils of open marine species (e.g. ammonites). Because of the uneven morphology mass movements of the unconsolidated material may also appear reflected by intraclastic structures. 5. Wilsons V facies zone, the reef of the shelf margin. On the outer margin of the shelf, extended reefs built from reef-forming organisms are frequent. These reefs are rather complex systems with encrusting forms (e.g. red algae) towards the open sea because of the strong swell of the sea and with patch reefs towards the inner belt of the shelf. The in situ cemented material of the reef-forming organisms forms the special facies type of the limestone the name of which is boundstone in the facies system of Dunham. 68
6. Wilsons VI facies zone, calcarenite piles of the shelf margin. A part of the strongly fragmented material of the reef is frequently deposited directly at or near its basement. Because of the short transportation the dominant grain size of the material is greater than the common size of the carbonate silt and it is equal to that of sand (arenite), so frequently called calcarenite. 7. Wilsons VII facies zone, the open shelf lagoon. The main belt of the carbonate accumulation is the shelf zone. Contrary to the oceanic basin, the sedimentation rate is very high, it reaches or occasionally even exceeds 100 cm per 1000 years. The main source of the carbonate formation and deposition is the biogenic activity of the plankton algae vegetation in the upper zone of the sea water, which can lead to the formation of floating carbonate silt clouds. The main carbonate fraction depositing at the bottom of the lagoon is micrite, so the main facies type is the mudstone and the wackestone. Due to the intensive accumulation and the associated relatively stable ecological conditions the forming sedimentary rocks are well and thickly bedded. The enclosed grains (e.g. bioclasts) prove the extremely diverse form of the marine fauna and flora. The common limestone types are frequently named after the enclosed index fossil (foraminifers, shells, gastropods, algae etc.). Because of the occasional occurrence of strong bottom currents, intraclastic textures can also appear. 8. Wilsons VIII facies zone, the closed lagoon and tidal plain. Towards the beach zone the lagoon becomes shallower and anoxic conditions can appear frequently. Due to the organic matter content the colour of the forming limestone is frequently dark grey, blackish grey or black. The material is well bedded patite or micrite frequently with oncoids. Micrites with algae laminate can also occur. Because of the strong effect of small sea-level changes short-scale cyclic series of limestone types frequently with interbedding palaeosoil horizons can be seen. 9. Wilsons IX facies zone, sabkha salina. Near the beach zone the terrigenous effect of the dry terrain become more and more dominant. Because of the strong evaporation the geochemical characteristic of the forming carbonates is frequently dolomitic and typical evaporates (salt, anhydrite) can also appear in the limestone or between the limestone beds. The limestone is frequently poorly bedded micrite because of the strong effect of bioturbation of benthic species (e.g. crustacean forms), which can destroy the original bedding. Special biogenic forms of the tidal zones are the stromatolite structures, which are special patch reefs formed by cyan bacteria, while the special sedimentary structures are the small scale cross-beddings after the ripple marks formed within the tidal current conditions. 69
70
inner shelf - platform continental slope - outer shelf - periplatform oceanic basin standard facies zones IX sabkha - salina VIII closed lagoon, tidal flat VII open lagoon with currents VI calcarenite V bioherms (reef)
aragonite compensation depth (ACD)
IX. VIII. VII. IV. III. continental crust II. VI.
V.
IV foreslope III deep shelf margin
calcite compensation depth (CCD)
I.
II I
open shelf basin
older sediments
Figure 30 Facies belts of the marine carbonate depositional environments
oceanic crust
4.5 Organic materials coal and hydrocarbon deposits 4.5.1 Classification and lithology of coals Coals are solid rocks formed by the alteration of plant remnants. The starting point for coal formation is usually partially decayed vegetation matter. By process of compaction and slight heating during burial, the material is converted into coal. So the main environmental factors determining carbonization are the pressure, the temperature and the time of the alteration. The different levels of the carbonization (coalification) are peat, lignite (brown coal), sub-bituminous, bituminous coal (black coal), subanthracite, anthracite with gradually increasing carbon content. Peat and lignite are light brown coal forms. They are rich in cellulose and well identifiable plant remnants (xilite) can be seen in their texture. The colour of brown coal is brownish black and well identified plant remnants are rare. The material is frequently fragmented by desiccating cracks. The surface is lustreless its streak colour is brown. The colour of the black coals is black, and plant remnants can be seen in the texture only after special preparation. Conchoidal fracture is typical. Anthracite has black colour and conchoidal fracture as well. The three important factors (temperature, pressure, time) of coalification determine the way and intensity of the alteration together. However, time has an essential role, since although the development may be fast under extreme temperature or pressure, the geologic time can lead surely to an alteration of the organic matter. This is the main reason why the old coal deposits are regularly black coals (e.g. Carbon West Germany, East USA, Lower Jurassic Mecsek Mts.) the relatively old deposits are usually brown coals (Eocene Trans Danubian Mountain Range, Miocene Ngrd Basin, Borsod Basin) while the young deposits are frequently lignite (Pannonian southern foreland of the Bkk and Mtra Mts.). The individual chemical components of coals are macerals, the three main groups of which are vitrinite (gelous form of humine), exinite (aliphous hydrocarbons) and inertinite (oxidized form of humine). The form and amount of the macerals can determine the luminosity of the coal (vitrinite reflection), which is the base of the identification of coals and so the determination of the level of coalification (figure 31).
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Figure 31 Levels of coalification according to the change of the gas content and vitrinite reflection (after Wallacher 1993)
Vitrinite reflection
(International anthracological scale)
Level of LOM coalification
Gas %
(Suggate 1959)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Brown coals
Black coals
45 40 35 30 25 20 15
0,5
1,0 1,5 2,0
Semianthracite
10 2,5 5
Anthracite
LOM: Level of Organic Metamorphism (Hood et al 1975)
4.5.2 Palaeoenvironmental conditions of the coal deposits The most important ecological conditions of coal formation are the marsh environments with rich vegetation and great sediment accumulation rate. The first is the source of the organic material, the second initiates the occurrence of reductive geochemical conditions. Marsh environments may be in connection with lakes (lacustrine) or with marine lagoons along a beach zone (paralic).
72
Sedimentary basins with marshy conditions can be formed primarily by tectonic events frequently combined with relative or general (eustatic) sea-level changes. The deepening of the continental area together with the relative increase of the sea-level may lead to the shifting of tidal and shallow marine belts towards the inner part of the former dry terrain (transgression). The newly flooded area may turn to marshes with intensively spreading vegetation. Because of the proceeding transgression the marshy region develops to a shallow marine area and the deceased plant remnants will be buried by fine marine sediments. In this way as a result of the permanent transgression anaerobic conditions with relatively high pressure and increasing temperature are provided for the progressive processes of the coalification. Since the tectonic events and transgression processes are usually periodical, the formation of coal deposits is usually a rhythmic phenomenon with several repetitions of coal seams above each other (figure 32). The elevation of a terrestrial area or a decrease of the sea-level can lead to the shift of the tidal zone towards the inner part of the basin (regression). It can lead to the formation of marshy conditions, and marshy deposits on the surface of the formerly deposited shallow marine sediments. However, because of the lack of subsequent burying, this situation, contrary to a transgression, does not lead to the formation of significant coal deposits. Figure 32 Model for development of complex coal deposits
geological processes
progradation facies shifting
beach forest marsh
inner lagoon
outer lagoon sea
algae
floating plant sapropelite fragments
transgression 3
progradation
transgression 2
progradation
transgression 1
progradation
4.5.3 Formation and migration of hydrocarbons The naturally occurring liquid hydrocarbons are named crude oil (or petroleum) the gaseous forms are called natural gases. The two forms of the hydrocarbons are frequently associated with salt water and sometimes with solid hydrocarbon forms (bitumen, asphalt) in the same deposit. 73
The formation of hydrocarbons is essentially related to deep marine environments where, because of the lack of marine currents, the sea water cannot be mixed. In this case the sinking decayed organic matter of the deceased living creatures (dominantly plankton organisms) is accumulated within anaerobic conditions. The so formed decaying fine, dominantly silty sediment in the course of the diagenesis changes into oil shale, which can be regarded as oil-source rock. Because of the increasing pressure and temperature the organic matter frequently segregates from the siliceous solid phase and as the fluid or the gaseous phases emigrate from the oil-source rock along the effective porosity of the enclosing rocks, usually horizontally or upwardly towards the lower pressure. The migration of hydrocarbons proceeds until the front of the migrating material reaches an impermeable zone. Here the oil and the gas can be trapped and accumulated forming hydrocarbon accumulation (figure 33). The impermeable zone may be a clayey intercalation (cap rock) as overlying bed with anticlinal form (stratigraphic trap), a tectonic fault where a thick sand body and clayey material can be in contact laterally (structural trap) or frequently even the combination of the two cases (combined trap). The term oil pool is used for an area with oil bearing reservoir rocks below the cap rock. The reservoir rocks are frequently sandstone or limestone with high effective porosity. Figure 33 Some examples of petrolepum accumulation (oil traps)
Anticlinal Unconformity
Facies
Tectonic
Explanation: Impermeable rock Other rock
Gas bearing Oil bearing Water bearing
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4.6 Evaporites There are cases when the soluble matter in the water (marine, lake or even groundwater) is precipitated due to the evaporation of the solution beyond the saturation point of the dissolved salt. One of the most typical examples can be a separated lagoon under arid climate. During the evaporation the order of the precipitation is determined by the solubility of the dissolved material. The crystallization starts with carbonate compounds as the less soluble phases. Depending on the concentration of cations calcite (CaCO3) or dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3) can appear with carbonate (CO3-) anion at the bottom of the lagoon. The next anion complex is the sulphate (SO42-) usually together with Ca as cation, forming gypsum (CaSO42H2O) or in the case of loosing the water content of the crystal lattice anhydrite (CaSO4). Then halite (NaCl) is precipitated followed by potash salts such as sylvite (KCl) with magnesium (e.g. carnallite KClMgCl26H2O) at last. These evaporate sediments regularly lie on each other depending on the order of the precipitation i.e. forming the under- and overlying associates of each other (figure 34). Figure 34 Distribution of the salt concentration and evaporation in a lagoon with open circulation (after Krumbein and Sloss 1963)
dune
1 ,2 0 m g /c
3
1 ,1
m g /c
1 ,1
m g /c
1 ,0
m g /c
open sea
chl ori de beach sand
dune
sulphate
carbonate
The ideal order of the precipitation can be disturbed by outside processes. It can happen for example that the barrier between the lagoon and the open marine is destroyed by storm events or because of transgression (sea-level increasing) the sea water intrudes into the lagoon. In these cases the actual stage of the evaporation can stop and the concentrated (hypersaline) water of the lagoon will mix with less saline marine water. This can lengthen the actual (e.g. sulphate or halite) precipitation or can reject the evaporation to an earlier stage of the development (from the halite stage back to the sulphate one). These disturbances can cause the formation of extremely thick beds or sedimentary mixing or interfingerings of the different evaporate materials.
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Selected titles for further reading BOUMA, A. H.: Methods for the Study of Sedimentary Structures. WileyInterscience, New York, 1969. CARVER, R. E.: Procedures in Sedimentary Petrology. Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971. GALLOWAY, W. E. & HOBDAY, D. K.: Terrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983. PETTIJOHN, F. J. & POTTER P. E.: Atlas and Glossary of Primary Sedimentary structures. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1964. TWENHOFEL W. H.: Principles of sedimentation. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York 1950.
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5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS 5.1 Process and classification of metamorphism Mineral phases both siliceous and non-siliceous ones represent the stable crystalline phase of their chemical composition under the pressure (P) and temperature (T) conditions of their forming processes. Under changing PT conditions these crystalline phases become unstable and thus take part in the processes of metamorphism, which means a well defined recrystallization of the crystal lattice. Metamorphic processes take place in the solid state of a rock, so its melting (even partial) and its solution cannot be regarded as a part of the metamorphism. The end products of metamorphism are the metamorphic rocks representing interaction between the metamorphic agents and the parent (pre-metamorphic) rocks. Geologists distinguish three main types of metamorphism from the aspect of the dominant metamorphic agencies. In the case of thermal metamorphism (thermometamorphism) the main factor is the heat without significant pressure effects, usually associated with igneous intrusions. In these cases a contact aureole can be formed along the boundary of the igneous mass and the enclosing rocks, so the term contact metamorphism is also frequently used. The term dynamic metamorphism refers to the dominant effect of pressure, when any kind of localised stress can lead to a significant change of the material frequently under relatively low temperature conditions. This type of metamorphism can characterize e.g. the elongated belts of the obduction zones along the outer belts of island arcs. Dynamothermal metamorphism means joint effects of increasing pressure and temperature, producing a wide range of new minerals. This form of metamorphism is usually connected with orogenic belts and its effect can be traced along hundreds of kilometres wide and thousands of kilometres long zones. The widespread character of this metamorphism is indicated by its regional- term. According to the characteristics of the parent rock we can talk about orthometamorphism when the pre-metamorphic rock is igneous and about parametamorphism when it is sedimentary. In the case of the renewed metamorphism of a previously metamorphosed rock we talk about polymetamorphic rocks. Metamorphic processes are classified as isochemical when there are no significant differences in the chemical composition of the parent and that of the metamorphic rocks. If any important change in the chemical composition can be observed the term allochemical metamorphism is used.
77
5.2 Thermal metamorphism 5.2.1 Terminology of the thermal metamorphism When the hot magma rises into the crust it forms a contact zone with the rock of its immediate surroundings (wall rock). The contact zone in the terminology of mining is called skarn (figure 35). Its width can range from a few metres to 2-3000 m depending mainly on the extension of the inclusion. The enclosing rocks regarding their main geochemical component usually can be siliceous (e.g. other igneous rock, sandstone etc.) or carbonaceous (e.g. limestone, dolomite). In the former case we talk about silicate-silicate skarn while in the latter one about lime-silicate skarn. The skarn and the metamorphic alterations are extended to both the igneous and the wall rocks. The igneous belt of the contact aureole is called endoskarn, the encrusting belt within the wall rocks is the exoskarn. In the zone of the contact aureole with higher temperature the zone of pyroxene hornfels, while in the zone of lower temperature the amphibole hornfels are formed. Figure 35 Main forms of the contact metamorphism
ck all ro tic w clas i silic
exoskarn silicate-silicate skarn endoskarn
water emigration (contact metasomatism)
k oc ll r wa te na rbo ca
igneous intrusion
lime-silicate skarn
5.2.2 Processes and mineral associations in the thermal metamorphism Because of the increasing heat decarbonisation and dehydration can appear in the contact aureole as essential metamorphic processes. Some of the characteristic forming metamorphic minerals in the hornfels are pyroxenes (e.g. diopside, enstatite) and amphiboles, orthosilicate structures (forsterite, garnets e.g. grossularite), cyclosilicates (cordierite)
78
sheet silicate structures (flogopite, biotite), and aluminium minerals (corundum). If the intruding magma has a significant water content, due to the emigrating water solutions contact metasomatism can become an important accompanying process of the contact metamorphism. It means the substitution of any cation with another or the complete replacement of one mineral by another without losing the original texture. Contact metasomatism can lead to the formation of industrially perspective metalliferous ore deposits such as copper ores of Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. If the magma intrudes into sedimentary rocks rich in pore water, the thermal effect can lead to the appearance of migrating hot water solutions. In this way hydrothermal phenomena can also accompany the thermal metamorphism leading to the formation of subdominant hydrothermal mineral associations even causing the alteration of the intruding magma. If the mass of the intruding magma is not large enough to keep a long-lasting thermal effect and both the magma and the wall rock are too dry to induce metasomatic or hydrothermal processes, the phenomena of the thermal metamorphism are subdominant. Nevertheless even in these cases there are small, partially re-melted and frequently vitreous rock fragments along the boundary of the intruding magma mass indicating temporary thermal effects. 5.3 Dynamothermal metamorphism 5.3.1 Classification and processes of the dinamothermal metamorphism mineral facies In the course of regional metamorphism the alteration (recrystallization) of the pre-metamorphic (parent) rock is basically determined by the accompanied changes of temperature and pressure. According to the gradual and progressive increase of pressure and temperature the process of the progressive dynamothermal metamorphism can be divided into four separate stages, namely the anchi-, epi-, meso- and katazones. These zones can be well defined by the mineral associations and the texture of the forming metamorphic rock. Because of the increasing temperature, decarbonisation and dehydration of the minerals are important processes accompanied by structural reorganization of crystal lattices under the increasing pressure. Although dynamothermal metamorphism is determined by pressure and temperature, the geochemical composition (e.g. silicon content) of the pre-metamorphic material also has a determinative role in the formation of metamorphic mineral associations. So the forming metamorphic mineral association, depending mainly on the degree of temperature, pressure and 79
on geochemical components refers directly to the conditions of the metamorphic stage. This is well expressed in the determination of the so-called metamorphic mineral facies, which in the sense of Eskola (1921) comprises all the rocks that have originated under temperature and pressure conditions so similar that a definite chemical composition has resulted in the same set of minerals quite regardless of their mode of crystallization, whether from magma or aqueous solution or gas, and whether by direct crystallization from solution or by gradual change of earlier minerals. Hereinafter we show the stages of the metamorphism partly to show the process and partly to describe the metamorphic rocks (mineral associations) forming in the different zones (figure 36). 5.3.2 Stages of the dynamothermal metamorphism The anchizone comprises metamorphic processes hardly separable from those of diagenesis. It is rather common in the lower part of basin filling sedimentary series with great thickness (e.g. Pannonian series in south Hungary) where the increasing lithostatic pressure together with the increasing geothermal effects can lead to a gradual change from the advanced diagenesis to the initial metamorphism. The minerals are usually the same as in the pre-metamorphic sedimentary rocks, but a progressive change can be observed e.g. in the organization of clay minerals (e.g. increasing illite crystallinity, occurrence of chlorite-montmorillonite mixed layer structures). The forming metamorphic minerals are zeolites (zeolite facies) namely laumontite and heulandite. In the epizone the re-crystallisation takes place under low temperature and often under relatively high shearing stress. So the forming rocks exhibit a foliated texture. In the epimetamorphism the so-called Greenschist Facies appears referring to temperature ranging from 100 to 250 C, pressure is about 5 kbar and the so-called Blueschist Facies referring to lower temperature but higher (10-12 kbar) pressure. The latter frequently takes place at the forearc region of the converging plate margins and because of its high pressure and low temperature conditions it can be regarded as a type of dinamometamorphism.
80
Figure 36 Subdvision of the regional metamorphism according to the degree of the metamorphism and the original (parent) rock
Epizone
temperature: 100-250 0C pressure: 5 kbar
Metamorphic zone Metamorphic facies Rock forming minerals

(after Ramberg)
Mesozone
temperature: 250-500 0C pressure: 5-6 kbar
Katazone
temperature: 500-650 0C pressure: 3-7 kbar
Greenschist facies Blueschist facies

talc, dolomite, magnezite, quartz, albite
Amphibolite facies
biotite, tremolite, amphibole, diopside, plagiochlase, garnet, staurolite
Granulite facies Eclogite facies

garnet, pyroxene, disthene, sillimanite, rutile, ilmenite, omphacite, olivine
Characteristic texture
Orthometamorphism (parent rocks have magmatic origin) Parent rock

Peridotite Basalt Andesite DacyteRhyolite Talc schist Green schist Chlorite schist
Porphyroid
Forming metamorphic rock

Pyroxene hornfels Eclogite Amphibolite
Feldspar gneiss (orthogneiss) Granulite
Mica gneiss
Parametamorphism (parent rocks have sedimentary origin) Parent rock

Sandstone Clayey sandstone Clay Marl Bauxite Limestone
Sericite quartzite
Forming metamorphic rock

Quartzite
Mica quartzite
Granulite Gneiss (paragneiss)
Phyllite
Carbonate phyllite
Mica schist
Carbonate mica schist Smirgel
Marble
81
The dominant minerals are quartz, albite, muscovite and in the greenschist facies kaolinite, chlorite, serpentinite, talc, epidote, actinolite from the silicate group and calcite dolomite and magnesite from carbonates. Accessory minerals can be tourmaline and rutile. The important index mineral of the blueschist facies is the glaucophane (a species of amphiboles). In the course of orthometamorphism from the basic and neutral igneous rocks as pre-metamorphic (parent) rocks, green metamorphic schists are formed such as chlorite schist, talc schist, serpentinites, epidote-albite schist and actinolite schist. In the course of parametamorphism, from pelitic sediments the general metamorphic rock is phyllite, the main rock forming minerals of which are mica structures (sericite), chlorite, quartz, graphite (from the enclosed organic material). Because of the oriented distribution of the mica structures, in the texture of the phyllite the cleavage structure is common frequently with sharp angle to the original bedding. In the mesozone the temperature is somewhat higher but not above 500 C, the pressure is about 5-6 kbar as it is indicated by the formation of the Amphibolite Facies. The foliated texture is also common similarly to the epimetamorphism referring to the important role of the oriented stress. The dominant minerals are amphiboles (hornblende) and mica structures (muscovite and biotite) depending on the silicon content of the geochemical system. Garnets (grossularite, almandine) also has an important indicative role, while in rocks deficient in silica olivine, spinel and corundum may appear. In the way of orthometamorphism from the basic and neutral rocks as pre-metamorphic rocks, amphibolite can be formed as one of the most important products of mesometamorphism. It has anisotropic texture due to the oriented distribution of the amphibole crystals. Plagioclase has also dominant role in the texture of the rock. In the parametamorphism from sedimentary rocks with high silicon content as parent rock, mica schist can be formed. The foliated texture contains oriented mica structures (muscovite and biotite) and the garnet is also an important phase of the association. Quartz and graphite can also appear especially in mica schist formed under lower pressure (2-3 kbar). In the way of metamorphism the stages of meso- and katametamorphism show gradual transition. Gneiss represents the intermediate mineral association between the two stages of the metamorphism with less foliated, occasionally simply oriented texture with
82
higher quartz and feldspar content contrary e.g. to the mica schists. According to their parent rocks ortho- and paragneiss can be distinguished. The katazone represents the stage of metamorphism with the highest temperature between 500-650 C and pressure (3-7 kbar) indicated by the appearance of the Granulite and Eclogite Facies. The pressure is frequently hydrostatic so the foliated texture is usually substituted by simply oriented or totally isotropic ones. The dominant forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, disthene pyroxene, garnet and mica structures. Some kinds of granulites (pyroxenic granulites) represent the highest degree of metamorphism in the way of the orthometamorphism. Their texture is isotropic containing dominantly pyroxenes and plagioclase (andesine). In the orthometamorphism from the pre-metamorphic rocks with low silicon content, eclogite may be formed. Its texture contain dominantly pyroxenes (omphacite) enclosing Mg-garnets (pirope). In the parametamorphism granulite (quartz-feldspar granulite) also has a dominant role. The main mineral rock forming minerals are quartz, orthoclase, plagiochlase, distene and garnet. The texture is anisotropic, occasionally foliated. 5.4 The upper boundary of the metamorphism - ultrametamorphism The final phase of metamorphism takes place at extreme PT conditions and is called ultrametamorphism. It is usually active in the deepest parts of orogene regions (see plate tectonics). When extremely high pressure and temperature is exerted upon a metamorphic rock it will be partly melted so that fluid and solid state will be present together. This partial melting or re-melting of the metamorphic rock is called anatexis. In the course of anatexis the material having a lower melting point, due to the continuous presence of volatiles and alkaline elements will be melted first and those having higher melting point will melt later. Therefore this process results in a so-called metamorphic differentiation. The result of the partial re-melting is the migma (meaning mixed magma), that is the mixture of melted and solid rock fragments. The resolidified part of the migma is the so called neosome (meaning re-born rock) and the original residual migma material is called paleosome. Due to the metamorphic differentiation the different parts of the material of the migma will be segregated. This segregation results in the alternation of lighter and darker bands in the neosome material. The lighter one is called leucosome and the darker one is called melanosome. Leucosome is
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composed of mainly quartz and feldspars while melansome consists of biotite and amphibole. Rocks that are produced by the solidification of the migma are migmatites, the parent material of which is a mixture of re-melted orthometamorphic and parametamorphic rocks. The end of the metamorphism is the complete re-melting of a given rock. This process is called palingenesis. Palingenesis produces palingenous rocks that are the granites. These granites represent life after metamorphism for a rock that might have gone through all of the steps in the rock cycle and when elevated up to the surface can start the whole rock cycle all over again. Selected titles for further reading AUGUSTITHIS, S. S.: Atlas of the Textural Patterns of Metamorphosed (Transformed and Deformed) Rocks and their Genetic Significance. Theophrastus PublicationsS. A., Athens 1985. BARTH T. F. W.: Theoretical Petrology. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York 1962. READ, H. H.: The Granite Controversy. Thomas Murby & Co, London, 1957.
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Chapters from Geology

for Geographers, Geography teachers and Biologists

Edited by Zoltn Pspki

McIntosh, Richard William Pspki, Zoltn PhD Rzsa, Pter PhD

Revised by English text revised by Native reviewer

Ministry of Education World Language Programme

Tempus Public Foundation

CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION (TO GEOLOGY?).....................................................7

2. IGNEOUS ROCKS (PTER RZSA) .........................................................12

3. PLATE TECTONICS (RICHARD WILLIAM MCINTOSH) ..........................32

4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (ZOLTN PSPKI) ........................................45

5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS (ZOLTN PSPKI).......................................77

Surface, uppermost crust

Figure 1 Stages, places and processes of the rock cycle

sill lopolith dyke

Figure 3 Some types of appearance of extrusive rocks

Table 2 Silicate Classification

Figure 5 Classification of silicate structures

Si4 O12 Explanation:

Chain (ino) silicates

Double chain silicates

Sheet (phyllo) silicates

Framework (tecto) silicates

Alk ali fel ds pa rs

Amphiboles Biotite Albite Quartz (Zeolites)

a plutonic rocks Quartz

b volcanic rocks Quartz

foid-dioritic-rock foid-syenitic -rock foidgabbroic-rock phonoliticrock tephritic-rock

rzb urg ite

rth op yro xe nit

Eurasian North American Pacific

Figure 12 Major and small plates of the Earths lithosphere

Pillow lava+ veins

Isotropic gabbro magma

Figure 14 Structure and magmatism of an island arc system

Deep sea trench

nappe system foreland basin molasse sediments

Extrusive Intrusive Composition

Island arc Rift Oceanic crust Orogene Craton

Geodynamic Position and

Rock forming processes

melting of the "crust" (ultrametamorphism)

stylolitic bed surface

According to the shape of the foreset sets

According to the 3D m odel of the stratification

sandy silty clay

fine clayey silty sand sand

silty clayey sand

sandy clayey silt

sandy fine silt

relationship between median and mode

Figure 21 Some important distributions in sedimentology

standard deviation and curtosis

sha llow ma rin e

rounded particles and suspended material together

1 0,8 0,6 0,4