Table of Contents

AUTHORS SYNOPSIS ___________________________________________________ 5 A COMPARATIVE INTRODUCTION ________________________________________ 7

Imagine a river ___________________________________________________________ 7 Consequences of your Actions ______________________________________________ 8

THE ART OF POND FILTRATION __________________________________________ 9

Starting at the Beginning __________________________________________________ 10

DYNAMICS OF A FISH POND ____________________________________________ 12

Nitrifying Bacteria ______________________________________________________________ 12 pH __________________________________________________________________________ 12 Temperature __________________________________________________________________ 13 Oxygen _______________________________________________________________________ 14 Ammonia _____________________________________________________________________ 15 So what now? _________________________________________________________________ 15

Stocking Densities _______________________________________________________ 16 Koi Length to Mass Ratio __________________________________________________ 18

The Effects of Koi Growth on the Pond System _______________________________________ 18

CHAPTER 1: DEFINITIONS ______________________________________________ 19

AS THEY RELATE TO KOI POND FILTRATION ___________________________________ 19

CHAPTER 2: OXYGEN _________________________________________________ 28

Dissolving Oxygen into the Water ___________________________________________ 28 Dissolved Oxygen ________________________________________________________ 28
Factors Affecting Dissolved Oxygen in Koi Ponds _____________________________________ 28 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature _______________________________________________ 29

Chapter 3: SOLIDS - ORGANIC & INORGANIC SOLIDS ________________________ 30

Pollutants ______________________________________________________________ 30 Inorganic Solids _________________________________________________________ 30
Suspended Solids ______________________________________________________________ 30 Dissolved Solids ________________________________________________________________ 31

Organics _______________________________________________________________ 32 Controlling Algae ________________________________________________________ 32

Chapter 4: CIRCULATION ______________________________________________ 33

Water Circulation ________________________________________________________ 33
Importance of Internal Water Circulation ___________________________________________ 33 Effects of Incorrect Circulation ____________________________________________________ 33 Oxygenation and Circulation _____________________________________________________ 34 Generating Circulation __________________________________________________________ 34 By-Passing Filters_______________________________________________________________ 34 Stagnant Water ________________________________________________________________ 35

CHAPTER 5: TURNOVER RATES & FLOW RATES ____________________________ 36

Page 1

Turnover Rate __________________________________________________________ 36

Effects of Turnover Rate on Ambient Ammonia ______________________________________ 37 Turnover Rate and Ambient Ammonia _____________________________________________ 38 Turnover Rate and Removal of Solids ______________________________________________ 38 Turnover Rates and Dissolved Oxygen ______________________________________________ 39

Restrictions and Frictional Losses ___________________________________________ 39

Frictional Losses _______________________________________________________________ 39 Gravity Fed Pipes, Water Volume and Friction Loss ___________________________________ 39 Overcoming Friction Losses ______________________________________________________ 40

Flow Rate ______________________________________________________________ 41

Flow Rate - Basic Principles ______________________________________________________ 41 Flow Rates through Pipes ________________________________________________________ 41

Flow Rate and Mechanical Filters ___________________________________________ 41

Basic Principles ________________________________________________________________ 41 Flow Rate and Restrictions in Mechanical Filters _____________________________________ 42

Flow Rate and Biofilters___________________________________________________ 42

Basic Principles ________________________________________________________________ 42 Summary of Flow Rates _________________________________________________________ 43

Pumps _________________________________________________________________ 43
Pump Capacities _______________________________________________________________ 43 Power consumption ____________________________________________________________ 43

CHAPTER 6: MEDIA ___________________________________________________ 44

Definition ______________________________________________________________ 44 Basic Principles__________________________________________________________ 44 Media _________________________________________________________________ 44
Media Surface Area _____________________________________________________________ 45 Flow Rate and Media ___________________________________________________________ 46 Physical Lay-out of the Media ____________________________________________________ 46 Effects on Flow Rate with Different Media in Different Chambers ________________________ 47 Depth of Filter Media ___________________________________________________________ 47 The Biofilter & Media ___________________________________________________________ 47

Biofilms________________________________________________________________ 48
What are Biofilms? _____________________________________________________________ Where do Biofilms Form? ________________________________________________________ How do Biofilms Form? __________________________________________________________ How Strong are Biofilms? ________________________________________________________ Biofilm and Flow Rate ___________________________________________________________ Biofilm Development ___________________________________________________________ Complexity of Biofilms __________________________________________________________ 48 48 48 49 49 49 50

Organics and Biofilms ____________________________________________________ 50 Slime Cities _____________________________________________________________ 50

CHAPTER 7: FILTRATION _______________________________________________ 52

Filters _________________________________________________________________ 53
Settlement Chamber/Tank _______________________________________________________ 53 Open Media Filters _____________________________________________________________ 53 Screening _____________________________________________________________________ 53 Closed or Pressurised Media Filters ________________________________________________ 53 Sand Filters ___________________________________________________________________ 53 Placing Pressurised Filters in Parallel _______________________________________________ 54

Page 2

Gravity Separation _______________________________________________________ 56

Vortexes _____________________________________________________________________ 56 Multi Cyclones _________________________________________________________________ 57

Flotation _______________________________________________________________ 57 Surface Skimmers _______________________________________________________ 57 Design Parameters for Filters ______________________________________________ 58

CHAPTER 8: BIOFILTERS _______________________________________________ 59

Basic Principles__________________________________________________________ 59
Effects of High Levels of Ammonia _________________________________________________ 59 pH and Ammonia ______________________________________________________________ 60

Biofilters _______________________________________________________________ 60
Nitrifying Bacteria ______________________________________________________________ 60 Heterotrophic Bacteria __________________________________________________________ 61 Starting up Biofilters ____________________________________________________________ 61 Seeding Filters _________________________________________________________________ 62 Open Biofilters (Open media systems) ______________________________________________ 62 Trickle Filters __________________________________________________________________ 62 Bakki Showers _________________________________________________________________ 63 Fluidized Bed Filters ____________________________________________________________ 64 In Pond Filters _________________________________________________________________ 64 Closed Biofilters (close or pressurized systems) ______________________________________ 65 Floating Bead Biofilter __________________________________________________________ 65 Sinking Media Biofilter __________________________________________________________ 65 Combination Biofilters __________________________________________________________ 65

Biofilter Size ____________________________________________________________ 65 Surface Area Projected and Total __________________________________________ 66

Projected or Cross-sectional Area of the Individual Chambers ___________________________ 66 Projected or Cross-sectional Area of the Complete Biofilter ____________________________ 66 Total Area of the filter material or media ___________________________________________ 66 Effects of different media on flow rates ____________________________________________ 66 Contact Time within the Biofilter __________________________________________________ 67 Shutting Down Biofilters _________________________________________________________ 67 Damaging Biofilters _____________________________________________________________ 67

CHAPTER 9: FILTRATION & BIOCONVERSION METHODS _____________________ 68

Alternative Filtration and Bioconversion Methods _____________________________ 68
Ion Exchange - Zeolite ___________________________________________________________ 68 Zeolite and Salt ________________________________________________________________ 68 Zeolite as a Biological Filter Medium _______________________________________________ 69 Activated carbon _______________________________________________________________ 69 UV Lights or UV Sterilizers _______________________________________________________ 69 Vegetable Filters _______________________________________________________________ 70 Streams as Filters ______________________________________________________________ 70 Foam Fractionation _____________________________________________________________ 70

CHAPTER 10: MAINTAINING BIOFILTERS AND FILTERS _______________________ 72

Cleaning Ponds & Filters __________________________________________________ 72
Backwashing Biofilters and Filters _________________________________________________ 73 Primary Design Features for Successfully Cleaning Filters ______________________________ 73 Cleaning and Damage ___________________________________________________________ 73 Air Blowers ___________________________________________________________________ 74 How Often Should Filters Be Cleaned? _____________________________________________ 74

Page 3

Water Changes ________________________________________________________________ 75 Chlorine and Chloramines _______________________________________________________ 75 Fresh Water Caution ____________________________________________________________ 76

CHAPTER 11: EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS & MEDICATIONS ON FILTERS ____________ 77

Effects of Various Chemicals and Medications on Filters & Biofilters _______________ 77
The Koi _______________________________________________________________________ 77 Filters ________________________________________________________________________ 77 Biofilters _____________________________________________________________________ 77 The Pond _____________________________________________________________________ 77

CHAPTER 12: POND-SIDE ANALYSIS OF FILTRATION PROBLEMS _______________ 78

Analysing Pond & Filtration Problems _______________________________________ 78

REFERENCES & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ___________________________________ 79 INDEX _____________________________________________________________ 80

Page 4

AUTHORS SYNOPSIS
"Koi keeping is a peculiar mix of hobby, art, science, and commerce" (Professor Dominique P. Bureau of the University of Guelph) Filtration on Koi ponds can be a somewhat controversial subject often full of emotion. There are, however, basic principles that apply to all variations of the filter systems hobbyists may encounter. There are basic principles to water keeping that apply to all ponds. By adhering to these basic principles we will successfully maintain the healthy water environment our koi need. When it comes to making a plan the ingenuity of koi keepers and koi dealers never ceases to amaze me. Various things have been successfully adapted from other applications for use on Koi ponds. It is often in this adaptation that certain water quality parameters applicable to Koi ponds are overlooked and so some systems do not work properly. Koi Health begins with successful water-keeping and ends with successful water-keeping. Aquatic life has existed for hundreds of millions of years on this planet. Under aquatic conditions that can be considered "normal and healthy, Koi should live a long, healthy life, free from disease. We should therefore, strive to replicate nature in our ponds in terms of a healthy water environment. A healthy pond environment is critical to the long term survival of Koi and it is not that difficult for the average Koi keeper to achieve. Becoming a successful water keeper and then becoming a successful Koi keeper is far easier for the average hobbyist if they have a clear understanding of Koi pond filtration. The terms filter and biofilter will be used to describe the devices that remove solid particles and dissolved impurities (ammonia), respectively, from pond water. A wide variety of filters and biofilters are available to the koi hobbyist. Many of these have been adapted and modified from existing commercially available aquaculture and water processing equipment. Koi hobbyists must look past advertising claims, past personal points of view and past system complexity to get a broad understanding of pond filtration. It is a fact that all filters and biofilters work. It is when the human element transgresses certain natural laws of limitation, that failure of the system results. Bioconversion is a simple and natural process in nature. Nature works its as simple as that. The number of living organisms (Koi stocking densities) that can be successfully accommodated in a limited volume of water (the pond) is determined by the amount of dissolved oxygen and the ability of the filtration system to remove toxic wastes from the water. Our ponds are a closed system and have a limited volume of water. In order to successfully maintain a healthy environment for our Koi, we have to clean and re-cycle the same water.

Page 5

The filter system has to remove the toxic waste (ammonia) from the water as fast as it is produced. The filter must also remove solids and organics (e.g., algae) as fast as they are produced in the pond. We simply have to add oxygen at a faster rate than it is removed. The purified water must return to the pond as fast as possible. This filtration module does not promote a specific biofilter or filter design idea above any other. All filter concepts are discussed as there are many solutions to the problems Koi keepers face. This Module is viewed as a dynamic lecture. New facts and ideas are continually emerging. As new information becomes available it will be incorporated into this module. A perfect pond can be described as one in which the fish are alive and healthy for some time, the pond is truly clear and the pond does not leak. The rest is robust debate at the edge of the pond on how to achieve this.

Chris Neaves - 2010

Page 6

A COMPARATIVE INTRODUCTION
Imagine a river..

There is a constant inflow of fresh water from far away where there is plenty of rain. There are waterfalls tumbling over rocks introducing oxygen into the water. The input = fresh (free of toxic substances) water with a constant input of oxygen.

There are a host of life forms growing in the water from microscopic organisms to macro organisms to larger animals such as fish. There is an abundance of food and although the animal life forms remove oxygen whilst breathing this is continually replaced. Further any excretion of ammonia (for example) is diluted by the influx of fresh water as well as bacterial activity found on the floor and sides of the river. There are a limited number of fish relative to the amount of fresh water. Now imagine you have cut a piece of this river out and placed this bit of paradise in your garden. What are the consequences of your action ?

Page 7

Picture courtesy of National Geographic

Your piece of paradise

Consequences of your Actions

River
Unlimited fesh water Oxygen added continuously Limited number of fish and other organisms Unlimited food source

Pond
Limited fresh water - what is available in the pond Limited oxygen supply Large number of fish No Food source

You have a pond, you add Koi. The life forms in the pond will need oxygen immediately. This in turn leads to metabolic activity. Food will have to be supplied and the by-product of metabolism & food is ammonia. Ammonia is toxic in minute quantities and will have to be removed as soon as possible.

Your piece of paradise + a filter system

You remove impurities and add oxygen by moving the water through pipes to a filtration/bioconversion system and back to the pond. Thats the basics of Koi pond filtration now comes the interesting part getting it right and this is the art of Koi pond filtration.

Page 8

THE ART OF POND FILTRATION

Picture courtesy of National Geographic

Pond filtration is remarkably simple. It is not difficult to imagine the pond, the piping, the filters, the biofilter and returning the water to the pond being compared to the human body. Our lungs introduce air (oxygen) to our system and cells making gaseous exchange possible. The oxygen allows chemical processes to occur in the cells. The liver is a filter removing toxins and impurities from the blood. The kidneys, colon and skin excrete harmful by-products to waste. There is one golden thread that enables all the functions to work the circulation of fluids / blood within the body. These fluids carry a host of vital substances from oxygen to white and red blood cells to hormones to cell waste products such as carbon dioxide to nutrition etc. No matter how large and strong the heart is (or a pump on a pond) it is useless unless the veins and arteries (pipes) are free of restrictions and open for the circulation of blood (water). The blood that carries nutrition and oxygen into the cells also carries waste products away. Within the blood, a host of cells circulate to assist with the immune system, the nutrition and the oxygenation of the body cells. It is an effective circulation system that ensures the health of the organism. It is an effective circulation system that will ensure the health of your pond and ultimately the health of your Koi. A failure of any one of several organs could result in the death of the whole organism. Liver failure will result in the body being unable to filter and remove impurities from the bloodstream. The body will then die. With kidney or bowel failure the same thing - impurities in the body will reach toxic levels within a remarkably short time and the organism will die. A healthy circulation system with strong heart, open veins and open arteries, is the key to a healthy body. The volume of water in the pond is the total living environment for our fish. The pond water is piped (analogous to the blood vessels) to a pump (the heart) and through various filters (equated to the liver, kidneys etc. of the body) for purification and rejuvenation. The pond water is brought into contact with the atmosphere via waterfalls, streams, air stones with air blowers and/or venturies where oxygen is dissolved into the water and unwanted gasses are released or de-gassed into the atmosphere just like the lungs.

Page 9

Failure of any one of these systems will result in the death of the pond. When the pond dies, the fish will die. The purpose of any filtration on a Koi pond is to remove unwanted substances from the water continuously and quickly. Just as removing the sugar and the tea leaves from a cup of tea would need two different approaches, so too in a Koi pond different approaches are needed for different problems. Impurities that are dissolved in the water need chemical removal by bacterial action (bioconversion) or with charcoal or zeolite. Impurities in the form of solids need mechanical removal (filtration). A biofilter is a remarkably simple concept. This involves providing enough area where there is enough space (surface area) for naturally occurring bacteria to grow on and in sufficient numbers. These beneficial bacteria the nitrifying bacteria - do a vital job in the pond by chemically changing toxic fish waste, in the presence of oxygen, to less toxic substances. Its as easy as that. Fascinatingly the biofilter is not only home to nitrifying bacteria but home to countless other varieties of bacteria, fungi and micro organisms. This incredible diversity of microscopic life works in synergy and plays a vital role in the success of your pond. Losses caused by restrictions in unhealthy veins and arteries in the body compromise the circulation and the health of the person. Exactly the same occurs in a pond. Piping that is clogged or piping that is too small or even piping with numerous bends will restrict and reduce the flow rate, no matter how large the pump. These losses can be substantial to the point of compromising the design of the system.

Starting at the Beginning

View the entire pond system with the piping, the pumps, the various aspects of the filtration system and the returns as a circle. Where do we begin within the circle? After all, a circle has no starting point and no end. The entire pond/water/filtration system must be viewed as one environment. Before the fish can be introduced into a pond, before bacterial growth will occur, before life in the water will flourish, there has to be oxygen present. As Koi keepers our responsibility is to introduce oxygen into the system as the starting point. Once oxygen is in the water it must be circulated throughout every part of the system. Just as in the body, the oxygen in the blood supply is circulated to every cell. Should the oxygen supply be cut off from any part of the complete pond system for long enough, that area will die. High oxygen levels in Koi ponds are a key element for good Koi keeping. In order to introduce oxygen into the pond water, the water must flow - it must move. Once the water is flowing through the system and around the pond, oxygen will be introduced with the natural exchange of gasses when the water comes into contact with the atmosphere and the system will become active and alive.

Page 10

The only way oxygen can be dissolved into the water is through contact with the atmosphere. Once the system is active and free of chlorine and chloramines, fish can be introduced. As soon as the fish are introduced they will begin to excrete impurities into the water as a natural part of metabolism. The combination of oxygen and excretion from the fish results in the growth of naturally occurring nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria will grow on all surfaces within the pond. There they begin their job of using the ammonia as a food source and convert the fish impurities to less toxic substances. Bacteria take time to reach large enough numbers to convert all the ammonia to nitrite and, at a later stage, to nitrate. It is as easy as that. It is also a fact that ponds generate enormous amounts of organic matter in the form of algae. Various other pollutants such as leaves, dust and debris, contribute to the build-up of unwanted substances in the pond. The organic matter ends up in the filter system and must be removed regularly to ensure a healthy environment. Organics not removed from the pond biodegrade. This process uses oxygen therefore, the available oxygen levels are reduced and there is competition with our Koi for the critical oxygen. The by-product of rotting organic material is ammonia so the ammonia levels rise. You can have a pond with no Koi, low levels of dissolved oxygen and a high ammonia level! Any area with large amounts of organic material build-up will have layers forming. The deeper layers will be cut off from the passing oxygen in the water and become anaerobic. A by-product of anaerobic bacteria is hydrogen sulphide which is highly toxic to Koi even in minute quantities. The maintenance of a pond system is absolutely critical to the longterm health of the fish. Arm yourself with knowledge and always keep to the KISS principle Keep It Simple Stupid

Page 11

DYNAMICS OF A FISH POND

Water is a very remarkable substance. The extraordinary properties of water have a direct bearing and influence on the daily existence of our fish. A fishs body is composed of more or less 80% water. So it is easy to envisage fish as a volume of water separated from a volume of water (the pond) by a thin membrane (the skin). The most insignificant changes in the pond environment will therefore, have a direct and instantaneous influence on the life of our fish. Each and every one of these Influencing Factors, lets call them IFs, is dynamic. This is very important to remember when dealing with pond situations. Sometimes we can create problems that are not really there by viewing various parameters in isolation. During the course of a 24 hour day, each IF (Influencing Factor) has a natural dynamic change. These dynamic variations can be recorded and a daily pulse or oscillation can be observed. As the seasons change, so do some of the parameters - the most obvious is temperature. A pond or water system has a natural biorhythm of life to which fish have adapted to during the course of their evolution. At any point in time during the day or year, a measurement of one or more of the IFs can be different when compared to another measurement taken at a different time of the day or year. These fluctuations or dynamics should never be viewed in isolation. A single reading with a test kit will present an incomplete view of what is actually going on in your pond. Therefore, you may be panicking and trying to make adjustments for nothing.

Nitrifying Bacteria
The nitrifying bacteria found in the places we encourage them to grow (i.e., the biofilters or any wet surface in our Koi ponds, for that matter) move through a dynamic range of abilities. As they grow in the biofilters and on all the parts of the pond, they become stronger. Their collective ability to convert ammonia to nitrite then nitrate increases as their populations increase, fuelled by an adequate food source and a good supply of oxygen. As temperatures drop in the winter months, (below about 50F / 10C), these bacteria do not die off but become dormant. In periods when their food supply is reduced they also become dormant. When the Koi population is increased and / or the feed to the existing fish population is increased, the ammonia in the water increases. With the increase in the food supply (ammonia) the population of bacteria will increase, provided sufficient surface area (usually in the biofilter) and oxygen are available. As these factors vary, so do the nitrifying bacteria populations. The nitrifying bacteria are dynamic and ever adapting in the pond situation.

pH
In the morning the pH will be lower compared to a test done in the late afternoon. The buffering capacity of the water will play a major role in

Page 12

the fluctuation of pH during the course of a day. The pH you record is unique to your pond. Don't be influenced by "perfect situations". Your pond may be slightly alkaline with a pH of around 7.8 - 8.2. It may be that your particular pond has a pH range of 7.2 - 7.6. Or there may even be greater fluctuations. This is the natural, daily, pH cycle of your pond. I strongly advise against attempting to adjust the pH to a perceived perfect figure of say 7.2. When measuring the pH in the late afternoon, you will inevitably find it is on the high (alkaline) side. The addition of acid to pond water to lower the high pH can be disastrous at this point in time. The acid will lower the pH and so will the natural pond cycle during the night. The result could be - a pH crash. Sudden substantial fluctuations in pH values will stress Koi and possibly kill them. Fish do not tolerate sudden substantial changes in water quality very well. If they do not die outright, the stress they suffer may become a contributing factor to a lowered resistance to pathogens and a possible disease, infestation or infection. Measuring pH should be done in conjunction with measuring alkalinity. The alkalinity will give you an indication as to the buffering capacity of the water against pH variations. The amount of algae in the pond (mostly free floating, single cell algae that makes the pond water green) can have a dramatic effect on pH, raising it to very high levels in the evening after a full day of photosynthesis. The opposite effect is observed by a lowering of the pH in the early morning after a full night of respiration. Not only the Koi but also the toxicity of ammonia as well as the bacteria in the filter are affected by pH. Ammonia toxicity increases as pH increases. The nitrifying bacteria have a pH range that they can survive in. If your pH fluctuates through a narrow range, your water is well buffered. Should there be large fluctuations you may need to buffer the water. The pH of your pond should not rise much above 8.5 at its maximum reading. Koi have adapted the ability to survive in a pH range of 6.5 - 9. However, the fluctuation within this pH range should not be large and the pH change cannot be sudden.

Temperature
On most occasions temperature will be lowest in the morning just before sunrise and the highest at sunset, (unless your pond is built on a nuclear waste dump, which generates its own heat). Temperature is influenced by the amount of sun, the intensity of the sun the pond receives and other factors such as the wind speed during the day or night. Evaporation cools the water. Generally speaking, Koi should not be subjected to more than a 5C (9F) change in water temperature over a 24 hour period and the change should not be sudden. Always adjust the temperature gradually when moving Koi around. An upward movement is tolerated better than a downward movement in temperature. Most ponds will have a 1 - 3C (1.8 - 5.4F) variation in temperature in a 24 hour day / night cycle. Koi are more affected by temperature variations at lower water temperatures. And, you will notice Koi are more affected by a sudden lowering of water temperature than a sudden rising of water temperature.

Page 13

Certain areas in the country can experience a 10 - 15C (18 - 27F) atmospheric drop in temperature in a day when low temperatures are accompanied by high winds. The temperature in a smaller volume pond can drop significantly under these circumstances. The Koi will suffer from stress and disease problems can occur later.

Oxygen
Oxygen is possibly the single most important element in pond water - and the most neglected aspect of Koi keeping. For life to exist in water there must be oxygen dissolved in it. The fish, the bio-filter, organic decomposition, etc., all extract oxygen from the system. Oxygen is introduced into the water through gaseous exchange between the atmosphere and water molecules. Oxygen is introduced into the pond via contact with the atmosphere through design considerations such as streams, waterfalls and apparatuses such as venturies and air blowers. High turnover rates will promote higher oxygen levels. Photosynthesis by algae during the day introduces additional oxygen, but removes it at night. Air under pressure through venturies can cause gas imbalances in the water and need careful consideration as to their placement in the pond. Oxygen levels can fluctuate dramatically during the day and night as well as during periods of high and low temperature. There can be significant oxygen variations in ponds with poor circulation or in ponds which do not move the water away from the bottom of the pond, i.e., the point furthermost from the atmosphere. There is less oxygen in pond water at higher altitudes (6000 ft / 1600 m above sea level) - about 18 - 20% less than at the coast (sea level). There is continual competition in the pond for the limited amount of oxygen available at any given time. The fish, the plants, the micro organisms all need oxygen rich water - all the time. Algae and submerged plants have a dramatic influence on oxygen levels in a pond during a 24 hour day / night cycle. The photosynthesis process during sunlight may rocket oxygen levels to saturation point and beyond. However, a dramatic plunge in oxygen with the reversal of the photosynthesis process (respiration) at night can spell disaster, even to the point of fish suffocating in ponds at dawn. It has been found that if the oxygen levels are 25% below optimum levels first thing in the morning, growth rates are reduced. The turn-over rate will have a direct bearing on oxygen levels as will the stocking densities of fish. The faster the turnover rate the more water will come into contact with the atmosphere and the more gaseous exchange will take place. The more fish there are in the pond, the less oxygen there is in the water as they are all respiring, all the time. Higher water temperatures in summer mean there is less oxygen that can be dissolved into the water. Higher water temperatures result in faster metabolism, which in turn means that the oxygen dissolved in the water is needed in greater quantities by the fish and other life forms when the water is able to hold less dissolved oxygen due to the higher temperature. A shortage of oxygen will be noticed by observing the Koi collection first thing in the morning. If the Koi are moving lethargically and hovering near the surface you may well have an oxygen deficiency. Oxygen shortages have been measured in ponds with fancy pumps and

Page 14

filters - but with a lack of adequately exposing the water molecules to the atmosphere. A shortage of oxygen can also be observed by watching the respiration of the fish. If the fish are respiring heavily, or "piping", they could be, stressed, have a gill problem, the pond water could be low in oxygen or, the fish could be exhausted for some reason.

Ammonia
The levels of ammonia and toxicity of ammonia are never constant. A few hours after feeding the ammonia level will rise as the nitrogen wastes of the fish are excreted. This can actually be measured. A measurement just before feeding should produce the lowest or no ammonia reading (if everything is working). However, an hour or two after feeding a high ammonia level will be recorded as the fish are now excreting their metabolic waste products. Interestingly, a corresponding drop in oxygen levels at this time has also been measured in ponds as the Koi consume more oxygen for the metabolism of the food. The higher the temperature, the faster the metabolic rate and the quicker ammonia will be released into the surrounding water. However, there is another dynamic related to ammonia - the toxicity of ammonia (NH3) is not constant during the course of a single day. Ammonia is found in two forms in the pond. The toxicity of ammonia is pH dependant. Ammonia changes from ammonia to ammonium (NH4+) as pH drops, i.e., it becomes less toxic. As pH rises (naturally during the day) the ammonium (or a percentage of the ammonium) converts back to toxic ammonia. Whilst very high pH, above 9, makes a higher percentage of ammonia more toxic and has certain negative effects on Koi, low pH has other effects on the pond system. The bacteria in the biofilter are oxygen and pH dependent. The nitrifying bacteria that oxidise ammonia to nitrite have an optimum pH range of 7.8 - 8.5. The lower limit for the reasonable growth of nitrifying bacteria is given as a pH of 7.0 - 7.6. The upper limit is a pH of 9.4. Around pH 6.5 nitrifying bacteria virtually cease to function.

So what now?
Into this dynamic pond system we introduce two critical factors - fish and man. How can our Koi possibly survive in an environment that can become 100 - 200 times more alkaline / acidic, have a temperature change of more than 40F (5C), have oxygen levels that can drop and rise dramatically, and have a shifting ammonia / ammonium percentage in a single day? How can our fish possibly survive the bombardment of toxic chemicals that are added to the pond in the name of medications? The average enthusiast does not have the money to spend on equipment to monitor the water continuously. How can they possibly monitor all these IFs (Influencing Factors) continuously and make daily adjustments in order to provide the perfect environment for their Koi? The answer is simple - if your Koi are alive and healthy and growing well you are doing it right. Your Koi are the best test kits you have. It may be a joke amongst Koi collectors that when a new pond is built they always suggest placing a few "testers" into the new pond to "test" the water. A

Page 15

joke yes - but it is an excellent way of testing the water for your new arrivals and new pond system. The ancestors of Koi, the common carp, have been living successfully in freshwater rivers for millions of years. There are ancient fossilised remains of the ancestors of carp. It is a scientific fact that whilst a pH of 7 - 7.5 is advocated as "ideal" for keeping Koi, they will live comfortably in a pH range of 6.5 - 8.5. A temperature range of 22C - 28C (72F to 82F) is ideal for keeping Koi, however, they winter well down to 10C (50F) and, provided the temperature is not below 8C (46F) for too long a period of time, they suffer no adverse affects after winter. Some reports give the lower temperature limit for winter survival as 35F. The critical factor is that these fluctuations must be gradual. Actually, the less often or more gradual the temperature fluctuates, the less stressful the environment will be. Oxygen levels are maintained by circulating the water correctly in the pond and by bringing the water into contact with the atmosphere continuously. The faster the turn-over rate of the whole system, the higher the oxygen level will be in the pond. Ammonia levels can be controlled successfully by providing adequate surface area for bacterial growth. Additional surface area is provided by the media housed in the biofilter. The high oxygen levels provided by high turn-over rates will activate the bacteria and the metabolism of the fish. The natural immune system and osmoregulation of the fishs body has adapted over millions of years to counteract natural fluctuations in the water and attacks from the outside world. Provided the fluctuations are not too great or too sudden, the fish has the ability to adjust and survive the daily, monthly and annual bio-rhythms of the pond.

Stocking Densities
Quick Info
Stocking densities have a direct influence on the overall health of your Koi and the quality of the pond environment. Heavily stocked ponds have a higher chance of disease outbreaks. Heavily stocked ponds are stressful to Koi. The higher the stocking densities the faster you have to remove the impurities and the faster the clean water should be returned to the pond. As Koi grow they take up much more space, consume much more oxygen and add much more ammonia to the system.

Facts You Must Know

Every time a Koi doubles in length it has about 8 times more body mass. This has severe implications on your pond and filtration system. 8 times the body mass = 8 times more oxygen consumed + 8 times more ammonia added to the pond.

Page 16

Higher stocking densities run a greater risk of the collection suffocating in the event of the pump being off for some time.

Every time a single Koi doubles in length

8 times the ammonia added

8 times the body mass

8 times the oxygen removed

Decision Time
After a year or two, if your Koi have doubled in length, it may be decision time

Less Koi

More filtration and a faster turnover rate or possibly larger filters

Page 17

Koi Length to Mass Ratio

Estimated Mass in grams

2000 1500 1000 500 0 10cm 20cm 30cm 40cm 50cm

Length of Koi in cm

The larger the mass of a Koi, the greater the oxygen consumption, the greater the amount of ammonia excreted into the water. Weight increases disproportionably with body length. A doubling in body length does not produce a doubling in mass. Note the 7 - 8 fold mass increase as the length doubles from 20cm to 40cm. Each Koi can double in length in about two years. This would mean a 7 - 8 fold increase in the load on the biofilter and the oxygen demand. - plan ahead -

The Effects of Koi Growth on the Pond System

10 cm Koi
10 x 10cm koi in a pond to begin with

20 cm koi
When these 10 x 10 cm koi have doubled in length to 20 cm there is the equivalent of 80 x 10 cm koi in the pond.

40 cm koi
These same 10 koi grow to 40 cm the koi keeper now has the equivalent of 640 x 10 cm koi in the same pond - with the same filtration etc

Would you have originally stocked your pond with 640 x 10 cm Koi?

Page 18

CHAPTER 1: DEFINITIONS

AS THEY RELATE TO KOI POND FILTRATION

A C T I VA T ED S L U D G E
Process where nutrients are kept suspended in the water by pumping or more commonly aeration. A mixture of free floating bacteria and algae utilise and convert the nutrients through processes such as nitrification and photosynthesis.

A ER O BI C
Living or occurring in the presence of oxygen. For example aerobic bacteria, require oxygen to live. The opposite of aerobic is anaerobic.

A I R L I FT
Air lift is a contained column of bubbles and water used to provide a vertical flow or current. The air lift uses a bubble source, usually some sort of diffuser, to supply bubbles to the bottom of a column which is often a pipe or similar containment device. As the bubbles mix with the water, they create a mix which is less dense than water alone. Gravity then has less effect on the water in the contained column and this water rises higher than the more dense water on the outside of the column. An opening at the top of the column allows the water/air mixture to escape. The head and amount of water that an air lift can pump is a function of the ratio of air to water, the amount of air pumped in, the depth of the diffuser, the ratio of the submerged part of the column to the part of the column that protrudes form the water and the diameter of the pipe.

A M BI E NT A M M O NI A
Ambient ammonia is the background level of ammonia in the pond water and will likely vary over the course of a day. There can never be zero ammonia in the pond as the Koi are continuously excreting ammonia in the pond whilst the biofilter is continuously removing the ammonia from the water.

A M M O NI A
Ammonia is toxic to fish in minute quantities. It is the unionised form of ammonia, (NH3), that is the toxic form, although sometimes the term ammonia is used to express the total ammonia (i.e., unionised and ionised). The amount of ammonia produced by the fish is approximately 0.03 x feed. Therefore for every 1000g of high protein feed that is fed, about 30g of total ammonia is produced. This is excreted by the fish in the urine and from the gills. The ammonia production will vary throughout the day

Page 19

with the 0.03 x feed value being the average. In ponds where koi are fed a few large feedings per day, the maximum ammonia production at any time may be twice this amount with corresponding periods of very low ammonia output.

B A C K F L U S H I N G /B A C K W A S H I N G
Back flushing is the general term used to describe the process where filters are cleaned. It is also called back-washing. It is usually achieved by the flow in the filters being reversed and the water used to flush being discharged to waste.

B A FF L E
A device, such as a plate or screen, installed to alter / reduce the velocity of water.

B I O FI L T E R /BIO-CONVERTER
A biofilter is a specialized or dedicated area of the pond system designed to provide the proper environment for large colonies of beneficial bacterial (nitrifying bacteria, chemolithotrophs and heterotrophs) to grow. These dedicated areas are referred to as biological filters, biofilters or bio-converters.

B I OL O G I C A L F I L T R A T I O N
Biological filtration is the process of converting ammonia, through oxidation or reduction, in the presence of oxygen, to less toxic nitrite and then nitrate. The ammonia is converted to nitrite by a group of bacteria called nitrosomonas. The nitrite is converted to relatively harmless nitrate by a group of bacteria called nitrospira. The level of ammonia in the pond is used as one indicator that biofiltration is taking place. Should the nitrite level be zero, this would be an indication that full bioconversion is taking place. Another type of biological filtration which is sometimes used in aquaculture, especially in high rate re-circulation systems, is denitrification. De-nitrification filters convert nitrate to nitrogen gas. The bacteria responsible for this conversion are anaerobic.

BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by all of the aerobic biological organisms in the entire pond system. This includes the oxygen needs of the fish, the bio-filter and the plants, (at night), as well as the oxygen needed to biodegrade the organic waste such as fish faeces and plant material.

CANISTER

F I L T ER

Enclosed housing usually containing a fine mesh basket, into which filtration or other media can be put. Canister filters are often used to house activated carbon or zeolite. Generally they are small and are designed for low flow rates, although larger units are sometimes custom built.

C A R BO N D I O XI D E
Carbon dioxide is produced as a result of respiration by fish and other aerobic organisms such as plants. The amount of carbon dioxide

Page 20

produced is directly proportionate to the oxygen consumed. For every 1g of oxygen that is consumed, 1.4g of carbon dioxide is produced. Carbon dioxide has the effect of increasing the acidity of the water. It is present in three different forms; CO2 (free carbon dioxide, which is the toxic form), HCO3- (bicarbonate ion), and CO3-- (carbonate ion). The concentration of each is dependent on the pH of the water. Good oxygenation of Koi ponds will control and eliminate carbon dioxide.

C A R R Y I N G C A PA C I T Y
Carrying capacity is the amount (either expressed in weight or number) of Koi that a given system is capable of supporting. (see stocking densities).

C A R T R I D G E F I L T ER S
Cartridge filters are enclosed vessels which house a replaceable filter membrane. The filter membrane is generally of a pleated or a woven material. Cartridge filters are used primarily for the filtration of particles 20 microns and smaller in size, i.e., very fine filtration and not always practical on Koi ponds.

CHAMBER
An area or enclosure where media is housed or settlement takes place.

C H EM I C A L F I L T ER
Zeolite and Activated Carbon are geological materials that will adsorb ammonia and other substances directly from the pond water.

D E -G A S S I NG
A process which removes undesirable gasses or undesirable gas levels, e.g., supersaturated gasses. The main function of a de-gasser is to create a large interface between the water and the atmosphere. Waterfalls, streams or heavy aeration via diffusers increase the interface between the atmosphere and the water. These are the de-gassers of the Koi pond.

D E - NI T R I F I C A T I O N
De-nitrification is the process where bacteria convert nitrate into nitrogen gas. The de-nitrification process is an anaerobic process and requires a carbon source for the bacteria to perform their task properly.

D E NI T R I FY I NG B A C T E R I A
De-nitrifying bacteria are free-living bacteria that convert nitrates to gaseous nitrogen and nitrous oxide. These are anaerobic bacteria. Their cellular respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.

D I S S O L V ED

OXY G EN

Dissolved oxygen is the oxygen gas which is dissolved in water (i.e., oxygen that is attached to the water molecule not that which is present in bubbles).

D I S S O L V ED S O L I D S
Dissolved Solids or Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances in a body of

Page 21

water in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal) suspended form. Many people define Total Dissolved Solids as solids that must be small enough to survive filtration through a sieve the size of two micrometers. The amount of TDS present in the water affects its clarity.

F I L T ER
A physical process (i.e. one not reliant on chemicals or biological organisms) designed to separate/remove solid particles from water.

F I L T ER S

IN

PARALLEL

When the water to the filter chambers is divided into two or more portions and each portion travels through only one of the filter chambers, the filter chambers are said to be in parallel.

F I L T ER S

IN

S E QU E NC E /S E R I ES

When the water moves from the first chamber or container to the second chamber to the third chamber etc., the filters are in sequence or series.

FLOW RATE
Flow rate is critical for the pond as it determines the rate at which excretory products such as faeces, carbon dioxide and ammonia are removed from the pond and brought into the filtration system for purification i.e. removal from the system.

F L O W R A T E & S P EC I F I C F L O W R A T E
Flow rate is the volume of water that flows past a given plane or through a filter system in chamber of a given surface area over a given length of time. It is usually expressed in terms of volume/time, (e.g. Gallons per Minute (GPM) or Litres per Minute (LPM). Specific flow rate is the flow rate divided by the projected area across which the flow takes place and is given in: volume/time/area. If the specific length, units of volume and area are the same, e.g., feet as in cubic feet and square feet or cubic meters or square meters, it can be an expression of velocity, but only if no media is involved (water only).

F OA M F R A C T I O NA T OR
A narrow device with a rising column of air bubbles and a descending volume of water. A foam fractionator is used to remove DOC (dissolved organic carbon or scum) from the pond water.

F R I C T I O N L OS S
Friction loss is the reduction in velocity and pressure of water flowing through a pipe caused by the drag effect from the inner surface of the pipe. The more rough and more profiled (shaped) the surface, the greater the friction loss it imposes. The calculation of friction loss is important, when designing systems, to ensure that a pipe is large enough for sufficient water to flow through it. Friction loss is also sometimes called head-loss or pressure loss, as it has the effect of reducing the amount of head (or pressure) of the water.

Page 22

G A S B U B BL E D I S EA S E
Gas bubble disease is caused when supersaturated gases in the water are absorbed from the water into the body fluids of the fish. Gasses in supersaturated water will try to escape from the water into any medium where the gas saturation level is lower (e.g., into the air, or in the case of gas bubble disease, into the blood and other fluids of the fish). It is most commonly seen in the yolk sacs (of newly hatched fry), gills, eyes and occasionally the fins as these are the areas of the body which have the most gas permeable membranes. The gas then causes bubbles to form inside capillaries and under the skin, restricting the blood flow causing haemorrhages and clots. Fish often show signs of swimming upside down or vertically, sometimes looking as if they are gasping for air at the surface.

H ET ER OT R O PH I C B A C T ER I A
Heterotrophic bacteria are a species of bacteria that digest or break down organic material to obtain their energy. Heterotrophic bacteria grow alongside the nitrifying bacteria in biofilters.

H Y D R A U L I C L OA D
The relationship of flow rate to the available media surface area is called the hydraulic load on the media bed. The first objective of hydraulic load is to encourage the water to move through the filter bed evenly at all points of contact between the media and the water.

H Y D R OG E N S U L PH I D E
Hydrogen sulphide is produced by anaerobic bacteria in anoxic water (water depleted of dissolved oxygen), silt and mud, especially where organic loading is high and in heavily stocked ponds. Hydrogen sulphide exists in two forms in the water, HS- (ionised sulphide ion) and H2S (unionised, hydrogen sulphide). Hydrogen sulphide (the H2S form) is highly toxic to fish. In well oxygenated water, hydrogen sulphide is rapidly oxidised to sulphate. The best way to stop hydrogen sulphide from being formed is to maintain a clean, well oxygenated and mixed system with no layering of the pond water. Most fish species are extremely sensitive to hydrogen sulphide gas. As low a concentration as 0.002 mg/l can have a sub-lethal effect, causing prolonged stress and gill damage. A level of 0.01 - 5.3 mg/l is lethal.

ION

EXC H A NG E

Ion exchange is the exchange of ions from one medium, (the pond water), to another medium, (usually a solid such as zeolite). There are two types of ion exchange material, anionic and cationic. The former will exchange positive ions (as it has negative ions built into its structure) and the latter will exchange negative ions (as it has positive ions built into its structure). The most commonly used ion exchange in aquaculture is with the use of zeolite in which positive ions are held within a silicate lattice.

Page 23

LOGARITHMIC SCALE
A logarithmic scale is one which increases in real terms by a factor of 10, for every increase in the scale of 1. For example a logarithmic scale of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in fact represents values of 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000. An example of a logarithmic scale is the pH scale, where an increase of 1 represents a 10 fold rise in real terms, so a rise of 2.0 in pH (e.g. from 6.0 - 8.0) actually means a 100 fold increase.

M EC H A NI C A L F I L T ER
Mechanical Filters will be referred to as filters. These are areas where suspended and settled solids are collected or trapped for removal from the pond system.

M EC H A NI C A L F I L T R A T I O N
Term used to describe a physical process (i.e., one not reliant on chemicals or biological organisms) to remove solid particles from the water.

M ED I A
Media is any substrate used to support living organisms, (e.g., contained in a bio-filter), and / or any substrate used to filter solid material from the water.

NITRATE
Chemical symbol NO3 - Nitrate is formed as a result of the breakdown of ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. (see nitrification) Nitrate, along with phosphate, form two of the critical elements that all plants require. Nitrate is relatively harmless to koi which can tolerate a nitrate level of up to 200mg/l. However, it is recommended that to maintain pristine water quality, koi keepers should limit the nitrate level in the pond to 20 mg/l. For every 1g of ammonia converted to nitrate, 4.57g of nitrate are produced.

NITRIFICATION
Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia by bacteria into nitrite followed by the oxidation of these nitrites into nitrates.

N I T R I FY I N G B A C T E R I A
Bacterial species found in nature that oxidise ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate. These are chemolithotroph species of bacteria that live in an oxygen rich environment. They utilize mostly inorganic (without carbon) compounds as their energy source, and require carbon dioxide (CO2) for their source of carbon.

NITRITE
Chemical symbol NO2 Nitrite is the first step in the oxidation of ammonia by bacteria to nitrate. (see nitrification) When a biofilter has matured the conversion of ammonia to nitrite and the conversion of nitrite to nitrate occurs before the water exits the filter. There will

Page 24

however be a residual amount of nitrite left in the water that will usually be converted to nitrate once the water re-enters the biological filter on the following re-circulating cycle. The general guide line for a toxic concentration of nitrite is a level above 0.1mg/l.

N I T R O BA C T ER
A nitrobacter is a species of aerobic bacteria that converts nitrite to nitrate in soil. It was originally thought to be one of the critical bacteria in biological filtration. Later work showed nitrospira to be the species that is most responsible for conversion of nitrite to nitrate. (see also biological filtration, nitrification)

N I T R OS PI R A
Nitrospira is the species of aerobic bacteria most responsible for converting nitrite to nitrate in water.

ORGANICS
Organics is the term used when referring to any material that consists of live or dead cells, or any carbon containing material that is capable of being broken down by biological means. It is any material containing carbon that is derived from a life form. Examples algae, leaves, fish faeces.

OZONE
Ozone (O3) is an unstable molecule, a "free radical" of oxygen which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms.

S A ND F I L T E R S
Sand Filters on Koi ponds are an adaptation of pressurised filters for swimming pools. Modification for use on Koi ponds include coarse gravel in place of the very fine sand used in swimming pool applications. The openings in the arms at the bottom are widened slightly to increase flow rates. Sand filters can be used for mechanical as well as biological filtration. Basic pressurised containers can also be adapted for use in fluidised sand bed filters.

S ET T L E D S OL I D S
Settled solids are the non-dissolved pollutants that settle towards the bottom of the pond, tank or chamber. Some examples of settled solids are; heavier particles of dust, sand, water logged organic material and leaves. One of the prime pollutants, in terms of the water quantity in ponds is dead algae. Algae accounts for as much as 60 70% of the organic material found in ponds. However, in some heavily loaded ponds, it may be as high as 90% of the organic material which clogs up the filter system.

S P E ED ( O F

WA T E R F L O W )

See velocity

Page 25

S T OC K I NG D ENS I T Y
The weight or number of Koi held per unit of water volume. The effects of overstocking can be alleviated to some extent by attention to the water quality and also the feeding regimes. There is an accumulative effect of stress on the Koi as stocking densities increase.

S T R A T I FI C A T I ON
Stratification is the separation into different "layers" of water by distinct boundaries. This can relate to thermal layers and/or dissolved oxygen layers. The use of simple aeration devices as well as water movement (circulation) can prevent the occurrence of stratification and guard against its potentially harmful effects.

S U P ER S A T U R A T I O N
The term given to a body of water that contains more than the "natural" amount of a particular gas or gases. The sum of all the gasses dissolved in the water is called the total gas pressure of the water. Under normal conditions the total gas pressure is 100%. Under some conditions however, the gas pressure can increase above 100% (super saturation) and it can then cause problems to fish (such as gas bubble disease). As nitrogen and oxygen form over 99% of the earth's atmosphere, these are the gasses that we are primarily concerned with. Nitrogen can cause fish health problems at anything greater than 100%, whereas oxygen can be safe up to and over 200%. When pressurised, by a pump for example, water can hold more than its capacity under normal atmospheric pressure. This is not a problem unless there is air being sucked into a pipeline, which then readily dissolves. When water leaves a pressurised pipe and enters the pond, it is suddenly returned to normal atmospheric pressure. All the extra gas in the water is now more than the natural amount that the water can hold and the water becomes supersaturated. Oxygen is rarely a problem as the fish have the ability to withstand supersaturated oxygen concentrations of up to 200%. The fish will immediately begin to reduce the amount of oxygen in the water. Nitrogen however can only escape out of the water through contact with the atmosphere, and a reduction from 110% to 100% can take up to several hours.

S U S P E ND E D S OL I D S
These are solids that remain in suspension in moving water. The individual particles are generally invisible to the naked eye. They cannot pass through a sieve of 1 2 micrometers.

T U R BI D I T Y
Turbidity is the cloudiness in pond water. It can be a combination of several suspended organic and inorganic materials.

Page 26

UV L I G H T S
Ultra-Violet Lights are a type of light that has a specific band of wavelengths primarily used for controlling algae. UV lights are often referred to as Ultra-Violet clarifiers by manufacturers in the hobby. Clarifiers, as the name implies, clear the water of algae. This can be accomplished with 20 - 30 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre. Many bacteria die out at 15 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre. If you want to kill off protozoan parasites, you will need 90 thousand microwatt-seconds per square centimetre or more. Most people buy these devices to kill algae, i.e., they are using them as clarifiers.

V EG ET A BL E F I L T E R
A vegetable filter is an area in the pond system, usually away from the Koi, where plants are contained and encouraged to grow. The pond water is run through and over the plants and/or the plants roots in this area (such as a stream bed). Plant filters are primarily used to remove nitrates from the water.

V EL OC I T Y
Velocity is the speed at which a fluid travels. In our case the speed at which the pond water travels through any part of the system. The velocity or speed of the water is less in a bigger tank than it is in a smaller tank (given the same flow rate through the tank).

V EN T U R I
A venturi is a device for adding air under pressure to pond water. As the water passes through a restriction in a pipe, it forms a vacuum at the end of the restriction. A hole bored into the pipe at the point where this vacuum occurs will cause air to be drawn into the flow of water.

V OI D S PA C E
Void space is the open space between the pieces of media in filters.

V OR T E X
A vortex is a mass of water moving in a circular motion, where solid particles are drawn into the centre. The circular movement of the water is dependent on the tangent angle of the water entering the chamber or container.

Page 27

CHAPTER 2: OXYGEN
Dissolving Oxygen into the Water
The only way oxygen can dissolve in water is through contact with the atmosphere. This is accomplished by diffusion between molecules of water in contact with the oxygen in the atmosphere. At the same time as oxygen is entering into the water, carbon dioxide is released or de-gassed into the atmosphere. Some interesting deductions can be made from this fact. a. All the water's molecules should be brought into contact with the atmosphere at some time during a complete circulation cycle. b. The water should ideally be brought into contact with the atmosphere as much as possible (surface area and turnover rates) to assist with the diffusion of oxygen into the water and the release of unwanted gasses into the atmosphere. If the water was drawn exclusively from the surface of the pond and returned to its surface, the oxygen levels in the lower levels of the pond will become critically low. Unless supplemental circulation within the pond is provided (like air stones) the water will take on a "dead" look. This statement is difficult to quantify. Experience will guide Koi enthusiasts to be able to identify water low in oxygen. This is similar to koi judges gaining experience and being able to appreciate different shades of white or what is called lustre when judging koi. In areas of low or no oxygen, anaerobic bacteria will flourish. The settled organics and solids will decompose and produce deadly Hydrogen Sulphide, gradually poisoning the system and fish.

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is critical for the success of the pond and fish. High levels of dissolved oxygen will ensure good growth, health, lustre and colour. The aim is to get and keep dissolved oxygen levels as close to saturation levels as possible.

Factors Affecting Dissolved Oxygen in Koi Ponds

Koi the larger the individual koi and/or the higher the stocking densities the more oxygen is consumed and removed from the water. Decomposing organic matter this removes large amounts of oxygen and will compete with the koi for the amount of oxygen available in the water. Altitude - there is less air pressure at higher altitudes and consequently less oxygen can be dissolved in the pond water. Ponds at altitudes of 1600m or 6000ft have about 20% less oxygen in the water because of less atmospheric pressure.

Page 28

Temperature temperature governs the metabolic rate of life in the pond and temperature also affects the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved into the pond water. The higher the water temperature, the less dissolved oxygen it can hold.

Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature

Temperature plays a major role in the dynamics of a Koi pond. Temperature governs the metabolic and growth rate of the fish and other life forms. Temperature governs the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved into the water. The saturation level of oxygen in water decreases as temperature rises. All forms of life in the pond, from the fish to the bacteria, are constantly removing oxygen from the water. As temperatures increase so does the oxygen consumption. Organic matter such as dead algae and dead bacteria decompose and place an additional strain on the oxygen supply. Algae use a vast amount of oxygen at night when the photosynthesis process is reversed and respiration takes place. See Turnover Rates and Flow Rates in Chapter 5 for suggestions on how to replace oxygen consumed in pond water.

The following chart demonstrates dissolved oxygen levels at different temperatures and different altitudes. Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Graph
14 13 12 11 10
ppm Mg/L Pond water oxygen saturation at sea level Pond water oxygen saturation at 6000ft/1600m Danger levels of low oxygen detrimental to koi health

9 8 7 6 5 4 5C 10C 15C 20C 25C 30C 35C

Temperature in C

Page 29

Chapter 3: SOLIDS - ORGANIC & INORGANIC SOLIDS

The chapter on organics and solids is introduced early in this filtration study material for good reason. Solids in organic and inorganic form are the two main pollutants which cloud the water and prevent us from seeing our Koi. The cloudiness in Koi ponds is called turbidity. If we can identify the sources of organics and solids we can begin to control them and in this way bring some relief to the filtration system early on in the battle for clear water. Filtration starts with the control of organic and inorganic solids.

Pollutants
Pollutants seem to be a catchall word used in Koi keeping for anything that is not wanted in the Koi pond! This can range from fertilizer run-off from the garden, insecticide spray, dust, leaves, grass cuttings, etc. The various pollutants found in Koi ponds are discussed within this document.

Inorganic Solids
Inorganic solids are introduced into the pond water from atmospheric dust, run-off from the garden or overhangs (roofs, bridges and pergolas), the wash-off from trees and the vegetation around the pond as well as by rain. If you have ducks on your Koi pond you have a problem with solids in your water. The ducks swim then walk in the garden and in their food and then swim again bringing large amounts of solids into the pond. Solids can build up and begin to cloud the water. The mechanical filtration part of your filtration system is designed to trap and remove (by flushing the chamber/chambers) solids from the pond.

Suspended Solids
These are solids that remain in suspension in moving water. The individual particles are generally invisible to the naked eye. Suspended solids consist of an inorganic fraction (silts, soil, dust, etc.) and an organic fraction (live and dead algae, zooplankton, bacteria, and detritus). Both inorganic and organic solids contribute to the turbidity or cloudiness of the water. Decomposing organic material consumes large amounts of oxygen and contributes to the bio-fouling of the water. Many suspended solids can be trapped in the filter systems but not all. When the fine suspended particles find a place to settle in pockets or areas of slow moving or stagnant water they become sediments or silts.

Page 30

This sediment can increase in depth over time and the deeper layers will be cut off from the oxygen in the passing water creating anaerobic areas that will produce toxic hydrogen sulphide. Larger solids such as leaves will settle out rapidly on the pond floor or in the bottom drains or in the settlement tanks outside the pond. These organic materials must be removed regularly from the pond system as they are biodegrading, adding to the ammonia load and removing oxygen from the pond water. Suspended solids can be very fine particles of minerals and dead algae cells. Because of their very small size they are difficult to remove from the pond water. Algae cells will not all be trapped in the filters. Most will pass through back to the pond. Bentonite clay can be added to the pond water to increase the flocculation of these fine particles making them easier to filter from the water. Bentonite is sold as Bentonite or montmorillonite clay. The Bentonite comes in two forms calcium Bentonite and sodium bentonite. The sodium Bentonite clumps more vigorously than the calcium Bentonite. Although Bentonite is found in many clumping cat litters and Koi keepers are often tempted to use them in ponds, these are best avoided. Cat litters are in granular form. The granules clump (which is what they are supposed to do!) and can block bottom drains and piping. Using a powered Bentonite is far better in Koi ponds. Manufactures of clumping cat litters often add chemicals to introduce a fragrance to the cat litters. Some cat litters are sprayed with a plastic compound to reduce the dust associated with the clay. Other cat litters have colorants added for commercial appeal. As many of the cat litter additives are not declared, it is best and safest to avoid clay cat litters in Koi ponds. Pots with soil and plants inside the Koi pond will be a target for the Koi. They will love the new roots or plant growth and they will dislodge the soil. This will become a major source of turbidity. There will be solids that will settle and fine suspended silts which are difficult to eliminate from the pond water and can be identified as a brownish colour to the water as opposed to the greenish colour of algae. Water changes are the best way to eliminate soil/silt from the pond. A good mechanical filter can also eliminate this pollution. Suspended solids can also refer to small solid particles which remain in suspension as a colloid or possibly due to the motion of the water. Colloids are very fine particles that are dispersed within the pond water in a manner that prevents them from being filtered easily or settled rapidly.

Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Solids or Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances suspended in a body of water in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal) form. Many people define Total Dissolved Solids as solids that are small enough to survive filtration through a sieve the size of two micrometers. A micrometer, also called a micron, is one thousand times smaller than a

Page 31

millimetre. It is equal to 1/1,000,000th (or one millionth) of meter. Things on this scale usually can't be seen with the naked eye. Most of the dissolved solids are a broad array of chemical contaminants such as calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium and chloride. Other harmful total dissolved solids can be pesticides. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are differentiated from Total Suspended Solids in that the TSS cannot pass through a sieve of two micrometers and yet are indefinitely suspended in solution.

Organics
Organic pollutants take two major forms in Koi ponds plant matter (in the form of algae, leaves, grass clippings, flowers, etc.) and fish faeces. Organics in the form of algae and fish faeces can be the major cause of turbidity and pollution in our ponds that our filters have to contend with. The organic load will vary from pond to pond, from region to region and from season to season. The success of organic pollution control lies in the design AND maintenance of the system. (see page 71) Removing solids is significantly more difficult than bioconversion of ammonia and nitrite. Provision must be made in designing mechanical filters that are large enough to cope and easy enough to clean. A pond that is clear and free of sediments would be a good way to determine if the organics and solids are under control.

Controlling Algae
Algae can be controlled using various chemicals or naturally using barley straw or barley straw extract. Caution should be used when using chemicals to control algae as some have high copper contents. These chemicals will also affect plants in the system and plants in your garden when back washing filters. Suspended algae can also be controlled to some extent with UV lights. Numerous studies have found that barley straw can control algae when used correctly. For the barley straw to work, aerobic conditions are necessary. Therefore, how the barley straw is placed in the system is important. Do not over fill the bags so that the barley straw goes anaerobic and starts to smell. After a time our ponds form a natural eco system. The string algae growing on the sides of the pond tend to predominate, the suspended single cell algae that turns water green recedes and the result is clear water. There are seasonal algae blooms and the water may turn cloudy in spring but clear a month or two later. So do not over react. Over feeding can contribute to excess nutrients ending up in the water that algae can utilise for growth.

Page 32

Chapter 4: CIRCULATION
Water Circulation
Importance of Internal Water Circulation
The greatest effect of water circulation is that it prevents thermal and chemical stratification. (Boyd). Water circulation within the pond plays a vital part in successful Koi keeping. In our Koi ponds water circulation is critical for moving solid and chemical pollutants to the filters and biofilters. The water should circulate gently around the pond as well as vertically either from top to bottom or bottom to top. The internal circulation does not have to be at a velocity that will over exercise and exhaust the Koi. Circulating pond water: Ponds will have concentrations of ammonia and low oxygen levels in areas where the water is still. Circulating or moving pond water establishes a uniform dissolved oxygen profile within the water body. The total dissolved oxygen content of the pond can be increased with circulation. Ammonia is diluted throughout the pond volume. Solids can be directed to drains and removed helping to clear the water and keep the organic load down.

To get a concept of how the water should be circulated within a pond, look at a tropical fish or marine fish aquarium through the side and see how the water moves and circulates.

Effects of Incorrect Circulation

inlet dead areas

outlet

An outlet directly opposite the inlet will create dead areas in the corners. By directing the inlet water along one of the walls of the pond a circular motion can easily be created.
inlet outlet

Area of low oxygen and sediment

Page 33

An inlet at the surface and an outlet at the surface will create a large body of stagnant water at the bottom of the pond as well as temperature stratification.

Oxygenation and Circulation

The only way oxygen can dissolve into water is through contact with the atmosphere. In Koi ponds this can be achieved using different methods. It is logical that the water be drawn from the bottom of the pond via bottoms drains or bottom suction pipe, pumped through the filters or drawn through the filters, then returned to the pond via a water fall or stream. Waterfalls are the most dramatic feature of the Koi pond other than the Koi themselves. If the design dictates, the water can also be pumped into the bottom of a pond and the water can be pushed up-wards and overflow to another pond or overflow chamber or drawn from the top. The breaking up of the water molecules by waterfalls or within the media bed of trickle filters assists with the exchange of gases in the water. Air stones can be used to create vertical movement in the pond as well. The breaking of the air bubbles at the surface and the vertical movement of the water caused by the air lifting the water towards the surface will add to the interface with the atmosphere.

Generating Circulation
Circulation, (moving the water around the pond in a circular motion), can be created by directing the returns from pumps, filter chambers or even by directing the water from a water fall or stream to create circulation. Removing water from the floor of the pond via gravity fed pipes or by suction to the pump generates vertical movement of the pond water.

By-Passing Filters
By-passing filters, for any reason, will present problems of its own and should be avoided. It is very important that all the pond water is fed through the filter system at all times. The "dilution factor" can be significant. Filters that only process a portion of the water circulated because a portion of the water circulated bypasses the filtration system need a re-think in terms of design. The pump may be too large for the filtration system. This is especially true when purchasing preformed filters. Check that the pump output matches the flow rate through the filter that is recommended by the manufacturer. You must also check if this flow rate is appropriate for the pond volume you want to move through the filter system. Water that is never truly clear or ponds where the ammonia levels are continually high are often the result of the polluted water returning to the pond before being filtered bypassing reduces the efficiency of the filtration system.

Page 34

Stagnant Water
Stagnant water or stagnant areas in a pond pose a great health risk for our koi. Stagnant areas are formed when there is a lack of circulation in an area of the pond or filter system and organic sludge build-up which results in oxygen depletion in that area. As the solids and organics build up deeper layers will be formed. The deeper layers will be cut off from the oxygen available in the passing water. Anaerobic bacteria grow in the absence of oxygen and will multiply in these areas of sediment. Anaerobic bacteria produce a highly toxic compound called hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is measured in parts per billion and is toxic to Koi in minute amounts. Hydrogen sulfide is affected by pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen. A pH below 7 will increase the toxicity of hydrogen sulphide. High temperatures will also increase hydrogen sulphide toxicity. High levels of dissolved oxygen will prevent the escape of hydrogen sulphide from the sludge unless it is disturbed. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide can be relatively harmless in winter but can become very toxic in the summer months. Large amounts of hydrogen sulphide can be released when sediments are disturbed on the bottom of ponds, in areas of the filters or during plant maintenance. Hydrogen sulphide is considered to be as toxic as Cyanide. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide will produce high stress levels which can cause organ failure and slow deaths. Symptoms of low levels of H2S (hydrogen sulphide) poisoning are gill damage, skin problems, poor feeding and fish becoming thin. Fish also become more susceptible to common diseases and parasites. Weaker fish will succumb to the high stress levels and die randomly. High levels of H2S poisoning will be seen by a rapid, high number of deaths. Hydrogen sulphide can be detected by the smell of rotten eggs emanating from the pond surface, the sludge itself or in that area. Anaerobic bacteria can convert nitrate back to nitrite and nitrogen gas. Low levels of hydrogen sulphide can be a silent killer of koi in our ponds. A constant lookout must be kept for possible areas where these conditions can gradually poison the pond and the Koi.

Page 35

CHAPTER 5: TURNOVER RATES & FLOW RATES

The movement of water in a Koi pond is described as turnover rate and flow rate. Turnover rate is the number of times the total volume of a pond is circulated through the filtration system in a given time, usually expressed in number of times per hour. Flow rate is the amount of water that flows in a given time through pipes and filters, usually expressed in gallons or litres per hour.

Turnover Rate
Turnover rate is determined by the time it takes to move the pond volume through the filtration system and back to the Koi.

Pond Volume

Pump Capacity

Calculating turnover rates

= Turnover rate
Turnover rate is important as it determines the speed at which various pond pollutants are removed and the speed at which the regenerated water (oxygen rich and pollutant free) is returned to the pond. The turnover rate is determined by pump size, pond volume and is influenced by pipe size, pipe length & various bends that cause frictional loss. Calculating the speed of the turnover rate is influenced by stocking densities and daily feeding quantities (protein levels). Turnover Rates do not reflect how adequate the amount of flow is. Ponds are unique; they have a unique volume, number and size of fish, they vary in the amount of sunlight they are exposed to, temperature variations etc. Therefore, determining the correct turnover rate for a particular pond is unique as well.

Page 36

Turnover rates are often recommended as if a given turnover rate works on all ponds. The turnover rate of a pond can range from once every 15 minutes up to once every 3 hours. Every hour of the day, each day of the year our Koi are adding ammonia and faeces to the water. Single cell Algae can reproduce themselves up to 30 times an hour in the sun. Pollution from the atmosphere is being added. Koi are removing oxygen from the pond water via their efficient gills each and every moment they are alive. Plants remove oxygen from the water at night this includes algae. It stands to logic that the toxic pollutants + fish faeces + the algae have to be removed from the water. It also stands to logic that the oxygen removed by the fish through respiration has to be replaced. A small pond volume, a high feeding rate or even less effective mechanical and biological filtration will all require faster turnover rates. The faster the turnover rate, the better the water quality.

Turnover rate determines rate of renewal

Oxygen added & filtered water returned to pond

Other sources of pollution added to the pond water

Ammonia added to pond water

Koi

Oxygen removed from pond water

One of the ways of demonstrating the effects of turnover rates on a Koi pond is to look at the outcome of the turnover rates on ammonia levels in the pond water.

Effects of Turnover Rate on Ambient Ammonia

The fact is, the actual ammonia level in a fully re-circulating pond can never be zero - even if the filter design is efficient enough to remove 100% of the ammonia, nitrites and nitrates in a single pass through it. There will always be some quantity of ammonia in the pond water by virtue of the fact that the fish are continuously adding ammonia to the water. The biofilter can only remove ammonia from that portion of the pond water that is moving through it at any given time. However, as one portion of the pond water has ammonia removed, the fish in the pond are polluting the balance. The greater the fish load, (stocking density), the higher the ambient ammonia level will be. The design of the filtration system should also take

Page 37

this into account. The biofilter should be designed in such a way that the purified water is returned as quickly to the pond as is practical. From this explanation, it should be obvious that the greater the number of times the pond volume is moved through the filter each day, the lower the ambient (average daily background) ammonia level will be.

Turnover Rate and Ambient Ammonia

In a correctly designed system, the ambient ammonia level, while never actually zero, is simply too low to be measured with most hobbyist test kits. The graph below demonstrates the effect increasing the turnover rate has on ambient ammonia levels in pond water.

% Ammonia vs. Pond Turnovers at Various Filter Efficiency

100% 90%
Percent ammonia in pond water

80% 70% 60%

100% 75% 50%

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0 5 10

Turnovers
25% 12.5%

15

20

25
Cover 2010

There are a number of variables associated with Ambient Ammonia. Stocking Densities (higher stocking densities= more pollutants = more ammonia in the water) Feeding Rates (higher feeding rates = more protein = higher ammonia levels in the water) Temperature (higher temperatures = faster metabolism = more ammonia in the pond water)

Turnover Rate and Removal of Solids

Organic and solid removal is far more difficult to quantify as it can vary greatly from day to day and season to season.

Page 38

A higher turnover rate will have the additional benefit of solids, (organic and inorganic), being removed from the pond water faster. Consequently, the water will be clearer.

Turnover Rates and Dissolved Oxygen

Faster turnover rates will bring the pond water volume into contact with the atmosphere at a faster rate than slow turnover rates. Consequently, the water will be de-gassed to the atmosphere and have the oxygen replenished at a faster rate. Once you have calculated the desired turnover rate of a pond you have to maintain this calculated turnover rate throughout the entire system.

Restrictions and Frictional Losses

Frictional losses and restrictions play a significant part in calculating the actual turnover rate your system can achieve.

Frictional Losses
Friction losses in the Koi ponds will usually occur in the pipe work but can be found in the media and barriers in filter chambers. There are two kinds of friction in koi pond pipes, skin-friction and form friction. Skin Friction o The distance water has to travel o Pipe diameter smaller diameter = more friction o Skin friction - Internal surface finish (smoothness or roughness) Form Friction o Bends such as 90 elbows o Venturies o Filter beds restrictive media o Valves

Gravity Fed Pipes, Water Volume and Friction Loss

The movement of water from the pond to the filters and from filter chamber to filter chamber can be achieved with pipes using gravity. Gravity fed systems are low pressure, (dependant on the weight of the water being moved), so there is a limited amount of water that can be moved when it is gravity fed between chambers and from or back to the pond. It should be noted that in a gravity fed system, a reasonable flow rate must be maintained to prevent sediment from accumulating inside the pipes. Therefore, you can over-do the number of bottom drains. Too many bottom drains = slow velocity of water movement = sediment accumulation in the pipes.

Page 39

Too many bottom drains

= Slow water velocity

= Sediment accumulation

The following table assumes a system friction loss of 15 ft / 4.5 meters of head and drawdown to be about 1 inch / 25mm. pipe diameter 50mm 63mm 110mm gravity fed flow - litres per hour 2800 litres 5,100 litres 20,400 litres gravity fed flow litres per minute 47 litres 85 litres 340 litres

pipe diameter 2 inches 3 inches 4 inches

gravity fed flow - gallons per hour 800 2,200 4,500

gravity fed flow gallons per minute 13 37 75

Flow rate is difficult to calculate accurately as there are many influencing factors. As a general rule of thumb, gravity fed pipes should be three to four times the diameter of pressure fed pipes to get the same amount of water through them.

Overcoming Friction Losses

Some methods of overcoming friction losses in Koi pond systems Using larger diameter piping on the inlet and outlet of the pump. Increasing the number of smaller diameter pipes. Reducing the length of pipe the water has to flow through OR increasing the diameter of the pipe. Reducing the number of bends in the pipe work. Where bends have to be used, the use of two 45 bends as opposed to one 90. Where valves cause friction loss, such as in pressurised filters, more than one filter can be place in parallel. This doubles the surface area of the valves and the media bed through which the water has to move. (see filters in parallel Chapter 7 page 56)

Page 40

Flow Rate
The term flow rate is used to describe the volume of water passing through the filtration system of the pond in a given time. Flow rate is usually used to describe the movement of water through pipes and filters Flow rate refers to the speed or velocity at which the water moves through the piping and filtration system. Water moves when there is a pressure differential. This can be created with a pump or by utilising gravity to move water through different sections of the pond and filter systems on different levels.

Flow Rate - Basic Principles

All of the water should pass through all of the filtration system. Any water by-passing any part of the system will dilute the effect and efficiency of the filtration system. The entire pond volume should pass through the filter system as quickly as is practical and returned to the fish, (i.e., the turn-over rate of the pond volume should be high). Once in the settlement part of the filter, the water should slow down. Slow moving water encourages settlement. However, the flow rate of the entire system must be maintained. Increasing or decreasing the size of the filter chamber will slow down or speed up of the water flow within that chamber. In the biofilter part of the system, the water can flow fairly quickly as the conversion of ammonia to nitrite to nitrate takes place immediately on contact with the nitrifying bacteria. Think of the flow rates through trickle filters. Up flow filters can also have a fast flow rate.

Flow Rates through Pipes

It makes absolutely no difference what the pressure source is, be it head pressure from gravity or pressure generate from a pump, its ONLY the pressure differential that moves the water through the piping. You can get more pressure out of a pump than you can with normal head pressure in a Koi pond. If you are moving water from the pond to a pre-filter or between chambers with a total head loss or height differential of a few centimetres (1 or 2 inches) only about 0.036 to 0.072 psi is created. This tiny pressure drop is the reason we need to use bigger piping when gravity feeding water through a Koi pond system.

Flow Rate and Mechanical Filters

Basic Principles
There are two contradictory facts governing mechanical filtration on Koi ponds. We need to move the water quickly through the system but slow it down in the filters to some extent.

Page 41

Higher turnover rates through mechanical filters will remove solids from the pond at a faster rate. If the turnover rate is faster or equal to that of the production and accumulation of solids, the water will be clear. In many cases this is the difference between murky water and clear water. Mechanical filters can use settlement or barriers to remove and trap solids. If the water moves too fast in the settlement chamber nothing settles out. Settlement chambers have to increase in size to slow the water down. True settlement chambers are impractical on Koi ponds. Chambers can have barriers to assist with the removal of solids. Examples of barriers are sand beds in open chambers, sand beds in pressurised filters, brushes, screens and plastic media of various shapes and sizes.

brushes and screens in a filter chamber

Flow Rate and Restrictions in Mechanical Filters

Mechanical filters, by their nature, restrict the water movement or flow in order to trap the passing organics and solids. Compensation for these restrictions has to be made in order to maintain flow rates. This can be done by: Making mechanical filter chambers larger in cross section surface area. Or, in the case of pressurised filters, using more than one in parallel.

Flow Rate and Biofilters

Basic Principles
The reaction between the nitrifying bacteria and the ammonia occurs in the presence of oxygen and happens instantaneously. Flow rates through different biofilters can and do vary considerably. They all appear to work. It is the relationship between stocking densities, feeding quantities, the size of the biofilter and the turnover rate that is important. If we take a trickle filter as an example: the water flows downwards through the open media as fast as gravity will pull it, a very fast flow rate, yet trickle filters make excellent biofilters. Water passing through the biofilter chamber and media should not be so fast that conversion of impurities is minimal. Very fast flow rates through

Page 42

biofilters can also scrub off some of the excess bacteria growing on the media. Conversely, the flow rate should not be so slow that water that has been purified is sitting in the biofilter chamber reducing the overall efficiently of the system. Mature biofilters with large masses of nitrifying bacteria will be able to convert almost all ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate on a single pass through the filter medium. The turnover rate of the whole pond should be as fast as possible, but the flow rate through the filter/biofilter system should be slow enough that the solids can be removed and efficient nitrification can take place.

Summary of Flow Rates

In general, the faster the turnover rate of the whole system, the faster the pond water will be moved to and through the filter system and therefore, the faster the impurities will be removed and the more oxygen will be dissolved into the water. The faster the turnover rate, the faster the impurities such as ammonia are removed and the healthier the pond water will be. Further, the faster the turnover rate, the faster the various solids are removed, the more clear the water will be.

Pumps
Pumps are the heart of the pond. The pump on a Koi pond must pump or suck the water from the pond, through the pipes, then the filtration system and return it to the pond. External pumps function better than submersible pumps. Submersible pumps clog regularly and need to be removed from the pond to be cleaned. Submersible pumps have the advantage of being very quiet when run. However, they may not be so quiet from the fishs point of view. External pumps can be placed anywhere and disguised in the garden. The placement of Koi pond pumps has as much to do with aesthetics as practicalities. A pump outside a bedroom window is not a good idea. Try to hide the pump but at the same time place it where it is most efficient. Self priming pumps are easier to place than those which need priming.

Pump Capacities
This is covered in another study module. Needless to say, it is important to match the pump capacity to the pond volume i.e., use the correct turnover rate so that your pond will work. It is also important when using pressurised sand filters to match the pump capacity to the size of the pressurised chamber.

Power consumption
This will vary for different pumps and also from country to country. Consult pump suppliers for these figures. Compare power consumption and pump efficiency to determine the best choice for you and your pond.

Page 43

CHAPTER 6: MEDIA
Definition
Media is the term used to describe a substratum of material that provides a large surface area for bacteria to grow on for the purpose of bioconversion as well as a substratum of material used in mechanical filters for trapping various solids.

Basic Principles
Media is used in the biofilter as well as in the filter. The term media applies to both utilisations. Used in a mechanical filter, the media is there primarily to provide a barrier to assists in trapping and removing solids from the passing water. The void space between the pieces of media is less than in a biofilter. In a biofilter the media is used to increase the available surface area for the beneficial bacteria to grow on. The void space in the media should be large enough to allow for even and unrestricted water flow.
Mechanical Filter Media size less than 5 mm Biofilter Media size more than 5 or 6mm

L M e o s r s growing on the biofiltere media. Both There are a host of bacteria

nitrifying bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria (sometimes referred to as V V organic munchers) are utilizingothe surface area provided o the media. by All of these need space. Heterotrophs multiply more quickly and so take i i up more surface area on media than the nitrifying bacteria. Therefore, d d the living space or surface area for nitrifying bacteria must also be taken into account when designing a biofilter. S S

Media

The material we use in the biofilters to provide a surface area for bacterial growth is called the media. The media is the heart of your filtration system. The success or failure of the whole system is dependant, to a large extent, on the media. (size, depth, type of material etc.) A huge variety of materials can be used as biofilter media, or for that matter mechanical filter media. It is critical that the media must be inert and not affect the water quality in any negative way. Always be sure that all materials are non-toxic and will not release chemicals that will be harmful to the fish. It is always a good idea to thoroughly wash the media before as a filter media. Examples of media used in both biofilters and mechanical filters: Stone Gravel

p a c e

p a c e

Page 44

Plastic of any description, shape and size (pre-shaped forms, nylon hair curlers, pot scourers, shade cloth netting, nylon shavings, etc.) Beads make excellent filter media material Lava rock Ceramic in various forms some look like coral, others are simply clay balls.

A media with a rough surface has a larger surface area and makes a more hospitable place for bacterial colonies to become established. Media with a rough surface area can withstand rinsing with less damage to the bacterial biofilm but can retain some detritus. Plastic in various forms has become a very popular media for use in Koi pond filtration. Plastic is convenient and light to work with. One drawback is that it can be very expensive. Another is that the microscopic surface provided by plastic for nitrifying bacteria is often very smooth. A settlement tank or mechanical filtration of some sort to remove the solids before the biofilter is necessary to prevent contamination of the media by debris.

Media Surface Area

The surface area of biofilter media is important. This is the total surface area available in the biofilter for carious bacterial species to grow on. Nitrifying bacteria as well as a host of heterotrophic bacteria grow on the biofilter media. The nitrifiers convert the ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate. The heterotrophs consume the organics that become trapped in the filter media. Obviously media with a rough surface will be more habitable for bacterial growth than media with a smooth surface. The total surface area available for bacterial growth in a biofilter can be increased by increasing the volume of the media. The effectiveness of the bioconverter can be increased in two ways: 1. Volume can be increased by increasing the depth of the media in the chamber, (by adding more media to the chamber you will increase the surface area available for the biomass to grow on). In this case, the flow through rate will remain the same. 2. Efficiency can also be increased by increasing the size of the chamber through which the water is passing. This will spread the media out (making it shallower). The direct consequence of this is that the water flow rate past the bacteria will slow down increasing conversion efficiency by allowing longer contact time with the water. Although media with a large surface area can mean smaller biofilters, (faster flow rate), we must always be conscious that the bacteria competing for space the heterotrophs grow faster and take up more space than the nitrifying bacteria. A compromise must be found between massive surface areas of media, (small biofilters), and the very fast flow rates that will either scrub some of the bacteria off the media or move their food supply past before they can utilise it.

Page 45

Flow Rate and Media

Once the water enters the biofilter or mechanical filter it is essential that the water has an even flow through and past all the media. In other words, the water passes evenly through the media without channelling. Channelling makes the biofilter and mechanical filter less efficient.
Water flow is poor as the water does not move evenly through media bed Water flow is good as the water moves evenly through media bed

Water flow

Potential sediment area which will become anaerobic

W a t e r Grid to suspend media f l o waterwflow will be even

Water flow

In an open trickle filter the as the water is sprayed over the top of media bed and dispersed. The water moves rapidly cascading and trickling evenly through the filter media as a thin film of water. Up flow biofilters must be designed in such a way as to ensure the water moves evenly upward through the media. This can be achieved with a simple design feature by suspending the media off the floor in an up-flow or down-flow chamber, (see diagram above). Packing the media evenly on the grid provides a large surface area for the water to flow through. The open chamber underneath the media makes flushing easier.

Physical Lay-out of the Media

The way the media is packed inside a biofilter chamber can have a significant influence on its efficiency. It is critical that little or no channelling takes place in the media. Any channelling will result in water by-passing a portion of the media and the biofilter becoming less efficient. Having the media suspended off of the floor in a submerged media bed allows an even flow of water through the media. It also assists with the back-flushing of the media. Media beds with channelling will have pockets of solid and organic buildup which will be deprived of the oxygen in the passing water. (see diagram above). Such areas will become anaerobic producing smelly and toxic hydrogen sulphide. Further, channelling will allow a portion of the pond water to return to the pond with the impurities it brought into the filter chamber as well as the toxins produced by the anaerobic conditions within the chamber.

Page 46

Effects on Flow Rate with Different Media in Different Chambers

Different media will have different flow rate characteristics. Smaller media will have smaller void spaces and be more restrictive of the water flow whereas larger media will have larger void spaces for water movement. Chambers with different media sizes can have a greater or lesser tendency to back up or clog due to their different flow characteristics.

Depth of Filter Media

Whilst it is anticipated that a deep filter bed will have less and less oxygen in the levels farthest from the inlet, there is much evidence that this phenomenon is insignificant in most instances. As ammonia and oxygen rich water pass through the media with nitrifying bacterial colonies growing on them, the ammonia will be removed in the presence of the oxygen. Although this is done immediately on contact the bacteria do have a finite ability in this regard. Any residual ammonia flows on to the next colony and to the next, etc., any ammonia or oxygen not used by the bacteria simply passes on to the next part of the system. When the bacteria in the biofilter are saturated with ammonia the excess ammonia passes to the next portion. As soon as they need nutrition (ammonia) they begin the oxidation process again. This is an ongoing and dynamic process in the media bed and should not be viewed as an on off type of situation. The main concern with deep media beds is the build-up of organics and the subsequent difficulty in cleaning (see: Chapter 10 Maintaining Biofilters and Filters). It is anticipated that the mechanical filters will remove most of the solids in the pond water before it reaches the bio filter. In reality, there will always be a small amount of solids passing into and being trapped by the biofilter.

The Biofilter & Media

The bacteria that colonise our biofilters also attach themselves to all surfaces in the pond and form colonies. Because they are permanently attached to a surface, their food and oxygen must be brought to them. They cannot seek their own nourishment. Therefore, the water laden with the food (ammonia) and oxygen must come into contact with the microscopic layer of bacteria (biofilm). Another conclusion that can be drawn from the fact that the bacteria adhere to a surface area is that the water passing by should move continuously. In other words the pump or pumps must run 24 hours a day to bring the necessary nourishment and oxygen into contact with the bacteria. As the water passes the bacterial colonies a chemical reaction occurs and they oxidise the ammonia to nitrite in the presence of oxygen. Other species of bacteria in the colony will oxidise the nitrite to nitrate, also using the oxygen in the passing water. Mature biofilters compete with the fish in the pond for the available oxygen in the pond water to do their job of converting ammonia to less

Page 47

toxic substances. Biofilters require and work better with high levels of oxygen. Koi are healthier in ponds with high levels of oxygen. Therefore, high levels of oxygen should be maintained throughout the system. The biofilter virtually becomes a living entity after it matures. It is home to millions upon millions of bacteria and micro-organisms that are working in our favour by purifying the passing water. Nitrifying bacteria growing in the biofilter co-inhabit the media with a host of other organisms such as heterotrophic bacteria, fungi, etc.

Biofilms
What are Biofilms?
Various bacteria occur naturally in pond water. Several species of bacteria are of utmost importance to re-circulating ponds such as koi ponds. They are the ammonia oxidizing bacteria or nitrifiers. Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosospira, Nitrosolobus and Nitrosovibrio are bacteria associated with the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite. Nitrobacter, Nitrococus and Nitrospira bacteria oxidise nitrite to nitrate. These Nitrifying bacteria require oxygen to oxidise the ammonia. They also use carbon dioxide as their primary inorganic carbon source. Nitrifying bacteria adhere to surfaces all surfaces and eventually form biofilms. These biofilms are very protective and are host to many other microscopic organisms. Individual bacteria are easily killed by antibiotics and chemicals. However, once bacteria cluster and form biofilms they become protected, are very resilient, often change and are virtually indestructible. Biofilms are very hardy and the slime they excrete accounts for the slippery effect on pond surfaces. The biofilms must be looked after at all times as they serve the vital function of eliminating toxins (ammonia) from the pond.

Where do Biofilms Form?

Biofilms from on all aquatic surfaces from the inside of the pipe work to the media we provide in the biofilter. Biofilms develop in areas where there is a food source and an oxygen supply. By channelling the pond water through the biofilter we are creating an area where a food source (ammonia) and oxygen are concentrated in a relatively small area. We bring the food source (the ammonia) to the bacteria and we supply the oxygen needed to perform the chemical conversion.

How do Biofilms Form?

Initially single cells and single bacterium begin to adhere to surfaces. This occurs rapidly after the start up of a pond. At this stage of development the individual bacterium is very vulnerable to chemicals and antibiotics. In the early stages of development the numbers of bacteria are limited and time is needed for the biofilm to mature to its full potential.

Page 48

Courtesy of Peg Dirckx - University of Montana Centre for Biofilm Engineering

How Strong are Biofilms?

Do not be afraid to flush the biofilter and mechanical filter regularly. The biofilm on the media, once established, are very hardy. A good flush to waste from time to time will strip away the organic build up as well as the excess biofilm that has development and will not harm the nitrification process. Antibiotics and chemicals will not destroy the biofilm. Some minor damage may occur to the outer layers of the biofilm but it will recover very quickly.

Biofilm and Flow Rate

Koi keepers sometime worry about high flow rates stripping off the biofilm. As biofilms grow on all the surfaces of the pond, including inside the pipes where the water is moving very quickly, this must not be true. The structure of the biofilm changes with the velocity of the water. Slower moving water produces a fluffier biofilm whereas faster moving water produces a more compact biofilm with the excess biofilm sloughing off.

Biofilm Development
Biofilms can develop in many ways:-

Courtesy of Peg Dirckx - University of Montana Centre for Biofilm Engineering

Page 49

Complexity of Biofilms
Biofilms are very complex structures that we are only just beginning to understand.

Courtesy of Peg Dirckx - University of Montana Centre for Biofilm Engineering

Organics and Biofilms

Living along-side the nitrifiers on the media are heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic bacteria consume organic waste in the pond. These bacteria can double their numbers in a day whereas nitrifying bacteria will take 5 6 days to double in number. Heterotrophic bacteria can and do over-whelm the nitrifying bacteria in ponds with high organic loads.

Slime Cities
Dr. Andy Coghlan in New Scientist, August 31, 1996, gave an excellent description of a biofilm In the past few years, scientists have learned how to observe the inner structures of biofilms or mucilages, which are built and populated by plain, humble bacteria such as E. Coli, salmonella and others. New findings about the genetics and biochemistry of biofilms are reported. The mature, fully functioning biofilm is like a living tissue on the pipe or wall surface. It is a complex, metabolically cooperative community made up of different species each living in a customized micro-niche. Biofilms are even considered to have primitive circulatory systems. "Different species live cheek-by-jowl in slime cities, helping each other to exploit food supplies and to resist antibiotics through neighbourly interactions. Toxic waste produced by one species might be hungrily devoured by its neighbour. And by pooling their biochemical resources to build a communal slime city, several species of bacteria, each armed with different enzymes, can break down food supplies that no single species could digest alone. The biofilms are permeated at all levels by a network of channels through which water, bacterial garbage, nutrients, enzymes, metabolites

Page 50

and oxygen travel to and fro. Gradients of chemicals and ions between microzones provide the power to shunt the substances around the biofilm." (Coghlan 1996) This biofilm structure was described by Andy Coghlan as a Slime City. Dr. Andy Coghlan describes Slime City - "In most cases, the base of the biofilm is a bed of dense, opaque slime 5 to 10 micrometers (197-394 microinch) thick. It is a sticky mix of polysaccharides, other polymeric substances and water, all produced by the bacteria. Soaring 100 to 200 micrometers (3940-7870 microinch) upwards are colonies of bacteria shaped like mushrooms or cones. Above street level comes more slime, this time of a more watery makeup and variable consistency with a network of channels through which water, bacterial garbage, nutrients, enzymes, metabolites and oxygen travel. "Slime City" (Coghlan 1996)

Page 51

CHAPTER 7: FILTRATION

There are three basic methods of removing solids from Koi ponds. Filtration Gravity separation Flotation

As we discover very early in our Koi and pond keeping careers, filtration that clears pond water - is a very important part of koi keeping. Filtration not only helps us to see our koi but keeps the solids and organics from overwhelming the biofilter. Biofilters which have high organic loads do not work well as the space the essential nitrifying bacteria need becomes limited because other types of bacteria (heterotrophic) grow faster and more vigorously. Any part of the filtration system that has a barrier of some sort becomes a mechanical filter that will trap solids. Finer materials used as a media have less void space between the pieces and consequently more solids are trapped in the filter. The set-up of mechanical filters is also very important. There should be no channelling or by-passing of the media. Filtration is the high maintenance area of the pond. Filtration design should take this factor into account and be easy to flush and clean. No matter how complex or how simple the filter and settlement areas are, they must be maintained and flushed regularly. This fact is critical for maintenance of water quality. Many problems with Koi collections can be traced to a lack of pond and filter maintenance and a the consequent deterioration of water quality. The mechanical filters should be placed before the biofilter to ensure the water is as free of solids as possible. This is to prevent the biofilter from clogging and becoming inefficient. All filters can be classified into two categories: Open filters and Closed or pressurised filters.

There are many adaptations and variations in each classification. Each filter has basic principles that apply to all the variations within each group.

Page 52

Filters
Mechanical filters are used primarily for the entrapment of the various solids and organic material found in Koi ponds. They can be incorporated almost anywhere in the filtration system but should be placed before the biofilter.

Settlement Chamber/Tank
Settlement takes place when the velocity or turbulence is greatly reduced. This implies large areas where the water moves very slowly so that settlement of the solids can take place. If you can see any turbulence there will not be any effective settlement. Settlement tanks on koi ponds can be impractical as they need a large space which the majority of Koi keepers do not have.

Open Media Filters

Also called Granular Media Filters (GM Filters) are commonly used on koi ponds. A media is placed in a chamber which traps the passing solids. Virtually any media can be used but the size needs to be small (5 - 6 mm or less) to be effective. Provision to isolate the media chambers for the purpose of back-flushing them regularly must be made.

Screening
Screens or barriers made of a variety of materials are used in koi pond filters. Brushes and sieves are examples of screen filtration. Screens made of plastic piping and slotted into groves in chambers are also used.

Closed or Pressurised Media Filters

Closed mechanical filters are dependent on water pumped from the pond and then through a sealed container. Closed or pressurized filters can be placed anywhere. Examples of closed or pressurised media filters are: Sand Filters (variations of pressurized or swimming pool sand filters). Floating bead filters (also used as mechanical filters). Cartridge filters media is housed in a cartridge. It is generally removed and hosed off for cleaning. Bag filters fine mesh bag can be a long tapered sock stuck into a large diameter pipe.

Sand Filters
Sand filters utilized on swimming pools are often used on Koi ponds for removing solids and also as a bacterial biofilter. Sand filters make very efficient mechanical filters but in many cases have not been used correctly on koi ponds. High rate sand filters are designed for use with chemically treated water. In a chemically treated swimming pool the algae and micro organisms in the water are killed. This results in their cell structure collapses which

Page 53

takes up less space when trapped in the sand bed. Under these circumstances a single sand filter will be adequate for the average swimming pool. In Koi ponds the situation is totally different. Organic substances such as fish faeces, algae and micro organisms are produced continually. Therefore, we have to change the parameters for the use of high rate sand filters on Koi ponds from the way they are used on swimming pools. The most important limiting factor of sand filters on Koi ponds is that they are highly restrictive of flow rates. The fine sand or gravel in the bed, with its limited void space, restricts the flow rate. The multiport valve that is standard equipment on such filters also restricts flow rate. The rapid build up of organics and bacterial slime in the sand bed further restricts flow rate. One of the design parameters in Koi ponds is to maintain turnover rate and not have restrictions in the system. Taking this into account, we have to "redesign" high rate sand filters and how they are use on the Koi pond. A single high rate filter works very well on a small pond, but on a large pond they are effective only for a limited time. The larger the pond volume, the quicker a single sand filter will clog up. This in turn means frequent maintenance by backwashing and reduced flow or turnover rate. Daily backwashing of sand filters can be overcome by having two or more sand filters in parallel.

Placing Pressurised Filters in Parallel

With two or more sand filters in parallel, the water moves through several multiport valves (far less restriction) and then several sand beds (larger surface area) at the same time. The flow rate is greatly increased while the filters are still able to do their job. When the filters are back washed, each filter must be backwashed separately. This gives maximum flushing capacity to each sand bed. Sand filters are sometimes by-passed. If this is done for any longer than a day or so it is absolutely necessary to back-wash the filter to waste before it is used on the pond again. The water and organics that are trapped in the chamber are cut off from the oxygen in the atmosphere and will become anaerobic within a very short time. Anaerobic bacteria are detrimental to Koi and should not be pumped into the pond. Anaerobic conditions can be detected by a very obnoxious smell. As a guide line, to maintain turnover rates and prevent restrictions, use 1 x 24 sand filter per 10,000 litres (2,600 gallons). Zeolite chips (5 mm) have been used in sand filters to replace gravel as a media. Zeolite is lighter than gravel and back washes more easily than gravel.

Page 54

Page 55

Gravity Separation
Solids can be removed from the pond water through gravity separation by spinning the water.

Vortexes
Hydroclones are called vortexes in the Koi industry. These are usually a cylindrical tank with the water entering at a tangent. This causes the water to spin inside the tank or vortex. The solids settle towards the middle and can be removed from the bottom. The vortex action is dependent on the tangent of the incoming water and not the shape of the container. A square filter chamber can be converted into a vortex by moving the inlet to one side to create a circular movement of the water. Brushes are occasionally used inside the vortex tank to capture particles. In order to maintain the vortex circulation and aid in the settlement of solids the brushes should be placed around the perimeter of the tank.

The vortex tanks must be installed so that they can be isolated from the pond as well as from each other so that a complete flush of each tank can take place.

Page 56

Multi Cyclones
A multi cyclone is a device designed to remove very fine particles from swimming pool water and is placed before the sand filter. Koi Keepers have experimented with them and they work very well at removing fine solids from pond water. The fine solids settle into the bottom part of the multi-cyclone and can be discharge to waste by opening the valve. The same water remains in the basin at the bottom and needs to be flushed regularly with a small amount of water to prevent it from becoming anaerobic. There are no filters or parts that need to be cleaned.
Cutaway of a Multi-cyclone

Multi-cyclone on a stand showing gravity settled fine solids

Flotation
Flotation filtration is simply Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) removal with a foam fractionator. The foam or scum that forms sometimes in Koi ponds is difficult and unpredictable to remove. Scum floating on the surface of the pond can be easily removed by overflowing the pond with fresh water. The foam or scum is often seen around waterfalls as the proteins adhere to air bubbles. If your pond suddenly develops foam, begin by looking for dead fish. Dead fish slough an enormous amount of protein into the water. After adding salt the water quality changes and foam often develops. Foam is also generated by decomposing organics. Foam fractionation is more effective in sea water than fresh water as the surface tension is higher in sea water. Foam fractionation removes the very fine particles that adhere to air bubbles.

Surface Skimmers
Surface skimmers are a form of mechanical filtration. A surface skimmer skims the surface of the pond removing dust, leaves and other forms of pond pollution.

Page 57

The pollutants floating on the surface of the pond block our view of the Koi. A surface skimmer will go a long way in assisting the filtration system to make the pond water more clear. In order for a surface skimmer to work it needs to skim the water. This thin layer of water will literally pull the surface pollution into the skimmer using water tension. A pipe or hole in the side of the pond will not work as well as a skimmer. A pipe submerged half way down will draw a top layer of water slowly into the skimmer. The skimming action is dependent on water tension and a thin layer of moving water is needed for it to work. Swimming pool skimmers with a floating gate that self adjusts to the water level can be used on Koi ponds. There are other forms of surface skimmers available that work on an inlet. These are also self adjusting and can be added onto the system after it has been built. Add on surface skimmers can be incorporated easily and are very effective at skimming the surface of the pond.

Design Parameters for Filters

The media used in mechanical filters should be fine enough to trap solids, but not so fine that clogging happens rapidly and the filters become an irritation to maintain on a daily basis. The flow rate in each chamber can be slowed by making the surface area larger, i. e., by spreading the media rather than making it deeper. The size of the media as well as the size of the chamber used will determine the flow rate of the filter. Water will pass through larger media more quickly as the void space is greater. Therefore, having media of different sizes large or small void space will mean different flow characteristic. Larger media should be placed in chambers after smaller media to prevent water back-up. Each Chamber should be designed so that it can be isolated for cleaning. This would mean that from time to time each chamber would have to be isolated from the others and from the pond and then completely drained.

Page 58

CHAPTER 8: BIOFILTERS

Basic Principles
While the function of a filter is to remove solids from the pond water, the primary function of a biofilter is to utilise natural organisms such as bacteria to complete the nitrogen cycle by converting ammonia (symbol NH3 - highly toxic to fish) to nitrite (symbol N02, also toxic to the fish), to nitrate (symbol N03, not toxic to Koi except at very high levels), to free nitrogen and nitrous oxide. This is called the nitrogen cycle. The bacteria completing the nitrogen cycle are generally referred to as the nitrifying bacteria. Ammonia is one of the end products of the metabolism of protein. Koi excrete unionised ammonia via the gills and urine as well as solid faeces. Ammonia is toxic to fish and has to be removed as quickly as possible. As the fish are excreting their bodys metabolic waste by-products throughout the day, the ammonia must be removed all the time by continuously running the pumps and moving the pond water through the filtration system. Ammonia is found in two forms in ponds, ionised and unionised. Ammonium NH4+ (the + denotes it's an ion) is the ionised form and ammonia NH3 is the unionised and toxic form. The concentration of each form of ammonia is governed by pH, temperature and to some extent salinity. The sum of the two forms of ammonia is called total ammonia or simply ammonia. As pH increases and as temperature increases the proportion of the toxic form unionised ammonia - increases. Unionised ammonia is toxic to fish at very low concentrations. As a general guideline for a water temperature of 21C (70 F), most Koi would be expected to tolerate an ammonia level of 1 ppm for a day or so if the pH is 7.0, or even as high as 10.0 ppm if the pH is 6.0. At a pH of 8.0 a very low level of ammonia - just 0.1 ppm can be dangerous. In the view of many fish health professionals, any detectable level of ammonia in a Koi pond is unacceptable

Effects of High Levels of Ammonia

High ammonia levels in the water mean that the fish cannot excrete the ammonia from its body through the gills. The ammonia builds up in the

Page 59

blood, poisoning the fish. Fish can often be observed breathing much quicker or crowding around inlets, where the ammonia concentrations are less and oxygen concentrations highest, in an effort to get rid of the ammonia from their system. Koi keepers use bio-filtration to control ammonia in Koi ponds.

pH and Ammonia
An increase in the pH of a single unit increases the toxicity of ammonia (unionised ammonia) by a factor of 10. It is essentially logarithmic in this regard over the temperature and pH ranges we are involved with in Koi ponds.

Biofilters
Nitrifying bacteria grow where there is a food source and the availability of oxygen. Biofilters are areas where we deliver a food source (ammonia) and oxygen, via pond water, to a compact area with a media for bacteria to grow on. The biofilter virtually becomes a living entity after it matures. It is home to millions upon millions of bacteria and micro organisms that are working in our favour by purifying the passing water. Creating a successful, mature biofilter is the key to good water quality.

Nitrifying Bacteria
The bacterial species responsible for ammonia conversion are referred to as the Nitrifying Bacteria. These bacterial species found in nature are chemolithotrophic autotrophs. They oxidize ammonia and nitrite and require carbon dioxide (CO2) for their source of carbon. The nitrifying bacteria have an optimum pH range of 7.8 - 8.8. Below a pH of about 6.0 they do not function very well. The upper pH limit is 9.4. Nitrifying bacteria thrive in oxygen rich environments. Oxygen is of prime importance and the more oxygen available in the water body to these bacteria the faster they can convert ammonia to nitrite. It is presumed that as the koi population increases so does the nitrifying population. Scientists do not know if this is correct as it is possible that the bacterial population in the biofilter may level off but become more efficient at ammonia conversion. Historically, Nitrosomonas europaea & Nitrobacter were thought to be the bacteria suspected of converting ammonia to nitrite in our biofilters. Studies have proven that a newly discovered species of Nitrosomonas convert ammonia to nitrite and it is actually Nitrospira bacteria doing the conversion of nitrite to nitrate. A microbiologist in the 40's identified Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter as two types of bacteria responsible for nitrification in soil and stated that "probably the same were in the water environments". For the next 20 years or so, his original paper was continually referenced to and new authors stated that "probably" it was Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Then the reference and the terminology "probably" basically disappeared

Page 60

from the articles and it became a known "fact". This fact now seems to be being disproved. Nitrosomonas grow rapidly after start up of the system but Nitrospira is far slower at developing in significant numbers. It will take weeks before Nitrospira become established in any great numbers in biofilters. Nitrifying bacteria prefer a clean surface to adhere to a surface free of solids and organics. Nitrifying bacteria increase in number when the surface is clean and decrease in number when the media clogs. Their oxidation rate is directly tied to the temperature. The lower the temperature the slower the bacteria are functioning.

Heterotrophic Bacteria
Heterotrophic bacteria are the organic sludge degraders, (organic munchers as some koi keepers refer to them), and are responsible for the breakdown of organic material such as fish faeces, dead algae, leaves, grass cuttings, etc. Heterotrophic bacteria get their energy from the intake and digestion of organic substances. Heterotrophic bacteria multiply rapidly when there is a food source (organics) and can double every 20 minutes. They grow much faster than the nitrifying bacteria and can overwhelm and smother them. It is critical for the efficient functioning of a biofilter to keep solids and organics under control. Keep them away from the biofilter and remove them from the pond system. Heterotrophic bacteria are one of the prime producers of ammonia in a pond. They consume large amounts of oxygen whilst biodegrading organics. They can affect water clarity when there are high organic loads and there is an algae bloom. Ponds with high organic loads should be carefully monitored to see if the nitrification process is adequate. The heterotrophic bacteria appear when a food source is available (i.e. algae growth). They tend to disappear when the food source is consumed.

Starting up Biofilters
A new biofilter, no matter how large or complex, is not functioning when it is new. The various bacteria required to convert the impurities from the fish are simply not there. Some bacteria start growing immediately while others take weeks longer to begin their growth. But again, there are not sufficient numbers available when the biofilter is new.

Page 61

A basic time / start up of the nitrogen cycle in a koi pond - Timmons

The start-up period of a new pond can be very tricky. The water is in, the pumps are running, you have spent a great deal of money on new Koi, the food is bought and the fish are fed. Immediately there will be a build up of ammonia. Each time the Koi are fed this level of ammonia will increase. Nothing is yet available in the pond / filter system that will remove this ammonia. Ammonia is not only toxic to Koi at high levels, it is also stressful to Koi at very low levels. Precautions must be taken in the start-up period of a pond. Therefore, it is a good idea to shorten the start-up time of biofilters.

Seeding Filters
One of the easiest methods of kick-starting a biofilter is to seed the media with some media from a reliable, established biofilter. Another method is to place some clean out from a good active biofilter into the inlet of the new filter. Each piece of media in a mature biofilter will have literally millions of bacteria growing on it. By placing some of this mature media, even a few hands full, in the new biofilter, you will seed the new filter media. By seeding the filter you will have placed colonies of the various types of nitrifying bacteria directly into the media. These will spread and multiply rapidly giving a rapid start-up of the biofilter.

Open Biofilters (Open media systems)

Biofilters that are not sealed and do not operate under pressure are termed open biofilters. These can be an up-flow, a down-flow or a horizontal-flow biofilter. In these biofilters the water will flows up-ward, downward or horizontally, respectively, through the media - which is utilized primarily for the growth of nitrifying bacteria - and other beneficial bacteria. Other types of open biofilters

Trickle Filters
A trickle biofilter is - a container / area / locality, where, by the nature of its design, the water flows openly (gravity fed) down-ward as a film over a media.

Page 62

Trickle filters are very efficient filters as they have massive amounts of oxygen available in the open media exposed to the atmosphere and there is a fast flow rate. Trickle filters also act as waterfalls that re-oxygenate the pond water.

A complicated trickle filter

A simple trickle filter

Bakki Showers
Bakki Showers are simply a stacked or layered trickle filter with a very high flow rate. The oxygenation of the water takes place in exactly the same way as a trickle filter. The layers or stacks add to the water turbulence and increase the oxygenation of the water. The media used in Bakki showers is usually light to avoid having to make heavy supporting structures. Man made ceramic that is kiln fired to produce an extremely rough and porous surface is often used.

A Bakki Shower on a commercial pond in Japan

Page 63

A home-made Bakki Shower. Note the outlet at the bottom returns the water at an angle and generates circulation in the pond.

Fluidized Bed Filters

Water flows upwards through the media and the velocity of the water pushes the media particles up into the container. This causes them to rise. As the water velocity increases, the particles rise higher in the column, expand and become more fluidised. Fluidized Bed Filters usually have sand or small plastic particles for a media. The substrate allows bacteria to adhere to it and grow. The constant movement of water and particles in the chamber ensures that there are no dead spots. The velocity of the water is controlled so that as the particles collide, they do so with just enough force to knock off any excessive or dead bacterial floc. Air can also sometimes be used to assist in the fluidising process, especially where water velocities are too low to obtain sufficient fluidising. The use of sand can be problematic. The weight of the sand makes it difficult to achieve an even bed fluidisation and if the water flow stops, the sand packs down, suffocating the bacteria rapidly. Plastic media is easier to fluidise.

In Pond Filters
Biofilters and filters are occasionally incorporated inside the pond. Here, a gravel or stone bed is used on the floor of the pond or in a section of the floor area. A grid of pipes under the media bed is used to suck the water to the pump thus pulling the pond water through the filter bed. These filters/biofilters work in exactly the same way as other biological filters. However, as the media is at the bottom of the pond, all the organics are drawn directly into the bed and clogging will be rapid. The heterotrophic bacteria will grow rapidly because of the build up of organics drawn into the filter bed and they will overwhelm the nitrifying bacteria. In addition, the filter beds at the bottom of pond are very difficult to clean. Once the bed becomes clogged, it has to be cleaned or it will become anaerobic and poison the entire pond. The only way an in-pond filter can be cleaned properly is by draining the water and cleaning the media. Alternatively, the whole media bed can be shovelled out and cleaned with pond water. Although in-pond filters are still in use, they are impractical and are a danger to Koi when they crash.

Page 64

Closed Biofilters (close or pressurized systems)

The majority of the closed or pressurized biofilters are sealed containers where, by the nature of its design, the water flows, under pressure, through media. Many of these are adaptations of swimming pool sand filters as the containers are readily available.

Floating Bead Biofilter

A floating bead biofilter is one in which the water enters the container at either the bottom or near the middle of the unit and rises upward toward the exit. The bead media, (usually plastic), floats in the top of the chamber. A biofilm forms on the floating beads. This film acts in two ways: 1) to nitrify the ammonia and 2) because of its sticky nature, it tends to also act as a mechanical filter to trap solid debris.

Sinking Media Biofilter

This group includes any chamber capable of being pressurized that contains media heavier than water through which the water passes and is made less toxic by the function of the organisms living in and on the media. Examples of sinking media biofilters are: sand filters, sand filter housings with the media changed to one more open like balance (ceramic rock) and chambers with matting media like Japanese matting or Matala mat. Fluidized bed filters can also be operated in a pressurized chamber.

Combination Biofilters
Biofilters that contain both sinking and floating media are found in some designs. In one commercial embodiment, sinking beads are used as a fluidised bed for bioconversion and the floating beads are used as a mechanical filter. One of the unusual things about this combination is that the water enters the bottom of the filter and passes through the biofilter portion first. Because that bed is fluidised, no debris is collected there but rather it passes on through to the second stage of the unit where the floating beads trap the solids.

Biofilter Size
As the ammonia load increases, more bacteria are needed not more time for conversion. Flow rates are directly related to this. Therefore, the amount of functional surface area available to the nitrifying bacteria is of importance. Different media have different surface areas. Whilst small quantities of filter media with very large surface areas can be used, Koi ponds still need biofilters with enough volume of media to accommodate both the nitrifying and heterotrophic bacteria.

Page 65

Surface Area Projected and Total

Projected or Cross-sectional Area of the Individual Chambers
Individual chamber projected or cross-sectional surface area (of a square or rectangular chamber) is the length x the breadth of that chamber for up or down flow conditions.

Projected or Cross-sectional Area of the Complete Biofilter

The projected or cross-sectional surface area of the biofilter is the combined projected surface area of all the individual chambers. Each chamber should have a flow rate through it that is properly determined by its surface area. For a given throughput, the smaller the projected area of the chambers, the faster the water will flow and conversely, the larger the projected area, the slower the water will flow. The specific flow is the flow rate per unit of projected surface area.

Larger surface area = slower flow rates

Smaller surface area = faster flow rates

Total Area of the filter material or media

The surface area of different media can vary greatly. Some ceramics advertise a phenomenal 10,000 m2/m3. Aquarium gravel has around 700 m2/m3. Plastics have between 100 and 1500 m2/m3. Whilst very large surface areas may be attractive, the flow rate through the whole filter system and contact time must still be considered important.

Effects of different media on flow rates

Different media may have to be packed differently in different filter chambers. The shape and the size have a direct influence on the flow rate through the chamber. Having chambers with media that has different size void spaces can lead to problems. Having a fine media in one chamber and a large media in the next chamber will lead to different flow rate characteristics. If the water is pushed through a multi chambered filter system and the second chamber has less void space than the first, back-up and overflowing will be experienced in the first chamber.

Page 66

If the pump is sucking at the end of a multi chambered system and chambers with different media are used, the chamber with the least void space may be pulled dry.

Contact Time within the Biofilter

Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite to nitrate virtually instantaneously on contact. The flow rate through the biofilter is usually slowed down in an attempt to get 100% conversion in one pass through the media by having ALL the water come in contact with the media in a single pass. Balancing this fact the flow rate through the whole pond system should be relatively fast. Increasing the size or number of filter chambers in the system and running multiple chambers in parallel achieve this. It is generally agreed that faster flow rates through biofilters are more beneficial than slow flow rates.

Shutting Down Biofilters

Generally speaking it has been thought that shutting down biofilters for even a short time would be detrimental to the nitrifying bacteria. However, there is evidence this is not the case. Media kept damp if the chamber is drained will survive a long time. If there is allot of organic material in the chamber during a shut down, the void area between the media may become anaerobic. Anaerobic conditions can damage the bacteria in biofilms. Nitrifiers are very patient - when the situation changes to something they don't like, they generate a lot of EPS (exopolymeric substances) for protection and go into a kind of hibernation waiting for the conditions to change for the better. They can wait a long time.

Damaging Biofilters
Bacteria attach themselves to all surfaces and as they multiply and grow they immediately form biofilms within a slime matrix called an extracellular polymeric substance or EPS. Within this protective EPS the bacteria are well protected from chemicals and medications administered to the koi pond. Although biofilms are extremely resistant to chemicals in the pond water, they can suffer damage. Some chemicals added to the pond water can damage the biomass but not destroy it and can shock the nitrifying bacteria. Antibiotics will not only kill the free floating bacteria in the pond, it will kill some of the bacteria in the biofilm as well. However, because the biofilm is not completely destroyed it will recover quickly. The pH of the water affects the nitrifying bacteria. A very low or acidic pH will inhibit the biomass from functioning properly. However, while processing the fish waste, the filter produces acid that tends to lower the pH of the system. If the pH drops below about 6.5 the bacteria stop working and the waste ammonia is unprocessed - this is known as a filter crash. To prevent filter crashes, keep the alkalinity up so the water is buffered against the acid that the biofilter bacteria constantly produce.

Page 67

CHAPTER 9: FILTRATION & BIOCONVERSION METHODS

Alternative Filtration and Bioconversion Methods

Ion Exchange - Zeolite
The most commonly found ion exchange medium in aquaculture is zeolite. Zeolite has positive ions held within a silicate lattice. The ammonia and other negative ions in fish waste are taken up by the zeolite and bound into its structure. Zeolite is a unique substance. There are over 40 natural zeolites and 150 that are artificially made. Zeolite is literally a sieve on a molecular or atomic scale. Zeolite can be used to remove ammonia directly from the water, or as a biological filter medium. Zeolite can reduce water hardness. It can also buffer soft water. Zeolite can remove certain heavy metals from the water. It has the ability to remove odours from the water. Indoor Koi ponds can have a "fishy" smell. Adding zeolite to the filter will eliminate these odours. Zeolite can be used in ponds as an ionexchange medium for ammonia removal. Zeolite also varies considerably in its adsorption capacity. In order to use zeolite for ammonia removal, pond water must be pumped through the zeolite medium at least once every two to three hours which is the same turnover rate for biologic removal. For effective ion exchange by zeolite, continuous and extensive mechanical filtration is necessary. When used to adsorb ammonia, Zeolite can be re-used after re-charging it. This can be done using a saturated salt solution. Zeolite can maintain a high level of effectiveness if recharged correctly but it will eventually lose its effectiveness.

Zeolite and Salt

Contrary to popular belief it is possible to use zeolite in the pond system with salt in the water. Once zeolite has adsorbed ammonia ions it can be recharged by using a SATURATED salt solution. A saturated salt solution will kill your Koi but will force the zeolite to release the ammonia it has adsorbed. You can recharge zeolite by removing it from the pond/filter system and placing it in a saturated salt bath. However, if you have zeolite in your filter system which has adsorbed ammonia and you add a low level of salt to the pond, the zeolite will only

Page 68

release a small amount of ammonia gradually back into the water which will be proportional to the amount of salt added. This small amount of additional ammonia that is released will be taken care of by the nitrifying bacteria in the biofilter once it passes through the filter system. There is a vast difference between the level of salt used in a Koi pond (0.1% - 0.3% [1Kg 3Kg]), the amount that is present in sea water (3% salt [30 35Kg]) and the salt saturation needed to regenerate zeolite for reuse. If you have salt added to the water before you add zeolite, the salt will prevent the zeolite from adsorbing a small amount of ammonia. Again this is directly proportional to the amount of salt added to the pond water. In order to prevent zeolite from adsorbing any ammonia it would have to be placed in a saturated salt solution.

Zeolite as a Biological Filter Medium

Zeolite can also be used as a filter media if it is left in the filter after it is saturated with ammonia. Zeolite can also be used in sand filters as a replacement for gravel. Zeolite is lighter than gravel and therefore is much easier to backwash than gravel. There will be less clogging in filters using zeolite instead of gravel.

Activated carbon
Usually used in granule form. Removes negative ions such as ozone, chlorine and fluorides from the water. Heating to 900oC can recharge it. Very useful when used to filter municipal water where chlorine and other chemicals have been added to the water. It can be expensive and only certain types of activated carbon remove ammonia and chloramines.

UV Lights or UV Sterilizers
UV Lights have been adapted for use on koi ponds for a number of years. They are available to the average Koi Keeper in various designs and various strengths. They work well when controlling the suspended algae that make pond water pea green. A UV light will only affect those organisms passing near it and will not have any effect on those organisms in the pond itself. Ultraviolet light incapacitates microorganisms by deactivating their DNA, making multiplication impossible or killing the organism outright. It does this without significant change to the water chemistry as it only affects organisms that are directly exposed to the UV rays themselves. It is a very safe and clean process, especially compared to medication. UV Lights are used to clarify the water of algae and to some extent reduce waterborne pathogens such as bacteria. In order to kill bacteria UV light would have to be twice as powerful as the UV light used to kill algae. In order to kill protozoan parasites UV light would have to be 4 - 6 times as powerful as the UV light used to kill bacteria.

Page 69

It is not practical for Koi Keepers to try to control parasites with UV lights as parasites multiply in all areas of the pond and on Koi rather than inside a UV tube. The UV light would only sterilize that water passing through it. UV manufacturers provide suggested maximum flow rates for their models. However, there is broad disagreement among manufacturers on precisely how those rates should be calculated. The maximum or optimum suggested flow rate may not be a very useful factor for comparison. A better way of comparing models would be lamp output. UV units are rated in terms of the amount of power they consume, but what really does the job is output power. The output wattage is in the neighborhood of 1/3 of the rating - so a 25watt UV lamp may produce only about 8 watts of UV power. This percentage may vary by brand and model, and some manufacturers appear to be much more willing or able to share this information than others. UV lights have a limited life-span and as they get older their UV power becomes less and less.

Vegetable Filters
Plants in streams and in filter chambers can be utilised to remove certain substances from the water. Although plants do not remove ammonia from the water they do remove some nitrite and nitrate. The roots of plants that dangle in the water, such as water hyacinth, can hold large colonies of both nitrifying and heterotrophic bacteria. Any planted area must be continually maintained to prevent the root system clogging up and cutting off the passing water from lower regions. These regions will be become anaerobic and poison the system

Streams as Filters
Streams can be used as biological filters. The bed of a stream can be laid with gravel or stone. As the water passes over this bed nitrifying bacteria will grow. Streams as filters must be shallow to prevent anaerobic bacteria forming in the deeper regions of the gravel bed. The gravel or stone bed will be a wonderful trap for organic material. In other words this bed can clog up easily over time. Cleaning the stream regularly of organic material is critical to its success.

Foam Fractionation
Sometimes called foam floatation and protein skimming This is a process that removes organic matter and fine solids from water in the form of foam that is generated in a device. A foam fractionator consists of three parts, a vessel (usually a column) through which the water flows either up or down, a bubble source (such as a diffuser or venturi) and a foam collection point. Foam fractionators do not work nearly as well in fresh water as in marine environments. Fresh water implementations are much more difficult to control.

Page 70

The particulates that foam fractionation removes from the water are known as surfactants, and are comprised mainly of organic compounds (proteins). These compounds have one end that is attracted to water molecules (polar) and one end that repels water molecules (dipolar). As the bubbles rise through the column, the molecules collect around the bubble surface with the dipolar ends in contact with the air and the polar ends pointing out into the water. The molecules are therefore adsorbed into the surface of the bubble. Once the bubbles reach the water surface, the particles in the bubble surface prevent it from bursting and as more bubbles collect behind it, foam is formed. This foam rises steadily out of the water as more and more bubbles build up behind. The diameter of the column is gradually restricted at the foam outlet, which increases the velocity of the foam. It is then fed away from the column and sent to waste. The increase in velocity is important as it reduces the amount of time the bubbles have to stay intact before they are removed from the column. The amount of foam produced is a result of the air flow rate, the amount of surfactants in the water, and the time taken for the foam to be removed. Foam fractionators are often used in re-circulating systems to remove some of the fine solids and reduce the load on biological filters. Foam fractionation can be observed on a daily basis in the pond. Ponds with high organic loads or changing water quality often have foam developing at the base of a water fall where the air bubbles attract the DOC or dissolved organic carbons.

Page 71

CHAPTER 10: MAINTAINING BIOFILTERS AND FILTERS

Cleaning Ponds & Filters

Having a koi pond means accepting responsibility. Our responsibility is to keep the water in the pond healthy. If we neglect the pond, the Koi will suffer and we will also suffer. The pond, biofilter and filter systems have to be cleaned regularly - let's make it easy to do! No matter how expensive or how sophisticated a filter system is, the reality is - if it is not properly maintained, the water quality will degenerate to the point where the fish will die. There is no perfect Koi Pond filter. Design the mechanical filter to be put before the biofilter in order to keep the solids and organics away from the biofilter media. The cleaner the biofilter media is kept, the longer the time before you need to clean it. Ponds should be designed in such a way that the solids and organics are removed from the pond, directed through the dischargeboxes/settlement chambers/filter chambers/biofilter (in that order) and returned to the. (see Chapter 4 on Circulation) From this point in the system every section should be designed in such a way that you can isolate each chamber, completely drain each chamber and flush each chamber when necessary. The frequency in which you do this is dictated by the fish stocking densities, solid and organic loading, sunlight and temperature. Never leave filters un-flushed or not cleaned for some time. Whatever you have trapped in there is negatively affecting water quality. Remember biodegrading organics are a major source of ammonia and consume a large amount of precious oxygen whilst still in contact with the passing pond water. So although your water may be crystal clear, the solids and organics trapped in the filters are silently polluting your pond water. Biofilters need to be cleaned from time to time. It is far better and healthier for the system to flush biofilters regularly than to worry about disturbing the nitrifying bacteria. You will be flushing the organics away and therefore keeping the heterotrophic bacteria under control. This in turn increases the space available on the media for use by the nitrifying

Page 72

bacteria. You may flush some of the excess biofilm but you will not damage it. Mechanical filtration will always require more attention than the biological filtration. Therefore, the mechanical filter must be easily accessible and designed for ease of maintenance. Any part of the pond system that has water/sediment standing must be flushed regularly to avoid anaerobic conditions developing. Lack of maintenance on a Koi pond may be the root of many health problems One of the major causes of fish disease problems is lack of pond maintenance by pond keepers. Nature is working 24 hours a day, every day of the year. Algae and fish faeces constitute the bulk of the solid and organic build-up in pond systems. These organic materials will decompose. If it is allowed to build up, the deeper layers will be cut off from the passing water and become anaerobic. Anaerobic bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide this is toxic to fish. Run your hand over a tabletop in the house for example, and every day there is a film of dust. Exactly the same continuous pollution, in various forms, is settling onto and into our ponds. Ponds are literally giant settlement chambers.

Backwashing Biofilters and Filters

The pond keeper has to familiarize himself with the maintenance side of the system components. Many problems in water quality can be ascribed to poor maintenance and often poor design which makes maintenance difficult. Each pond will be slightly different in regards to what needs to be done to keep the water pure and clear. It is absolutely essential to make provision to have some method of cleaning pond filters - easily and thoroughly. Biofilters should need to be cleaned less frequently. The use of pond water to clean the biofilter is recommended to avoid any damage to the biomass by the chemicals often found in tap water.

Primary Design Features for Successfully Cleaning Filters

It is a fact of life that all pond filters will clog to some degree at some time or other. Therefore, design the filter to be easy to maintain. Filter and biofilter chambers should be designed to be isolated from the system, drained completely and flushed. Tanks or chambers that cannot be completely drained and flushed will have a build up of solids over time that will be detrimental to the water quality and the health of our Koi.

Cleaning and Damage

Biological filter media that is removed must be kept moist at all times with pond water. This will keep the bacteria alive. When washing filter media use pond water. This will avoid damage to the bacteria from the chemicals in tap water.

Page 73

The debate on the damage to the biofilm on the biofilter media when it is turned over a few times a year to rinse away the excess solids is often exaggerated. The benefits of having the filter bed clear of organic and solid material far outweighs the damage done by the occasional washing it requires. Most of the bacteria washed away will be the excess and/or dead bacteria. Provided the filter media is kept moist whilst back washing and turning, the damage is minimal. The bacteria remaining on the biofilter media will spread through the entire biofilter media very rapidly once the system is started up again. Koi keepers suggest that pond water not tap water should be used as tap water contains chlorine and other additives that will kill the bacteria it comes into contact with. This will be limited as the bacteria live within protective biofilms.

Air Blowers
An air blower system can be installed when building the filter box or it can be attached to pressurized filters. This is an excellent additional method for efficient, easy cleaning of all types of filters. In the filter chamber a network of perforated pipes rests under the grid that is supporting the filter media. There is an inlet for the blower to be connected to the network of pipes. A Jacuzzi air blower produces a large volume of air and is readily available. The large volume of air is forced into the chamber under the filter media. The air expands as it is pumped into the filter chamber thus bubbling up through the filter bed, dislodging the trapped material. The waste water must then be directed onto the garden or to waste not to the pond. There are ponds that use this method of cleaning biological and mechanical filters each week. Test results indicate that there is no appreciable damage to the biomass. The rewards in terms of water clarity and purity are excellent.

How Often Should Filters Be Cleaned?

Filters should be cleaned as often as is necessary to maintain good clear water quality. Your personal circumstances will dictate the frequency of cleaning the filter. The more frequently solids are removed from the mechanical part of the filtration system, the clearer and more healthy the water will become. The less frequently the biological converter is cleaned or disturbed, the stronger the biomass will become. (This statement is subject to the biofilter being free of solids so do not be afraid to flush the biofilter). Although these two statements are generalities and seem to contradict each other, it is a fact that by regularly cleaning and flushing the chambers and media the fish will be healthier over a longer period of time. Do not be afraid to flush the biofilter and mechanical filters when needed. The biofilm on the media, once established, is very hardy. A good flush to waste from time to time will strip away the organic build up in

Page 74

biofilters and some of the excess biofilm may be removed, but it will not harm the nitrification process.

Water Changes
Irrespective of the size and complexity of the pond filtration system we cannot escape the fact that we have to add fresh water to our ponds. It is necessary to replace the water lost due to evaporation. This is referred to as topping off/up the pond and should not be considered a water change. Water changes are a normal and essential part of Koi keeping. Water changes should be done regularly in ponds as the environment is always deteriorating to some degree - no matter how large or complex the filter system is. Many enthusiasts advocate a 10% water change per week. The author considers this to be a minimum. Regular water changes have advantages: Various by-products of the pond system build-up such as nitrate and phosphate, DOC concentrations, pheromone levels etc. Water changes will dilute their concentrations. Solids (suspended and dissolved) will be removed. Essential trace elements and minerals will be replenished.

Changing water by removing some of the pond volume each week and replacing it with fresh water has many benefits. The pond system will be healthier and the Koi will grow better with regular water changes. Water changes dilute pollutants as well as adding minerals and trace elements which Koi can absorb directly from the water. The chlorine in tap (municipal) water used for water changes must be eliminated if the water change exceeds 20% of the total pond volume. Instead of simply pumping water to waste to effect water changes, consider that the water changes can be done each time you back wash or flush the filter system and then replace the water used in the process. Filters should be flushed regularly. Water can be saved by using the water from cleaning the filters or doing a water change to irrigate the garden. Water changes dilute pollutants such as pheromones. Partial water changes should be done after a chemical treatment for disease or parasite control.

Chlorine and Chloramines

Tap water has chlorine added to it to make drinking water safe. There is enough chlorine in tap water to burn the delicate gills of Koi when large water changes are affected. This will cause the fish to suffocate and die.

Page 75

Water changes above about 20% should have the chlorine eliminated with Sodium Thiosulphate. Use at 5 grams (one level teaspoon) per 1000 litres (264.17 gallons) to bind the chlorine. Some municipalities add chloramines to the tap water. Chloramine is a more stable form of chlorine and is a combination of chlorine and ammonia. It is more dangerous than chlorine as it is more active in the water for a longer period of time. Chloramines can be eliminated with ChlorAm-X. Alternatively, using Sodium Thiosulphate with each water change will eliminate the toxic effects of the chlorine and the chloramines (unlocking the ammonia in the process). This will temporarily increase the ammonia in the pond water. So long as your biofilters are working, and you have a reasonable turnover rate, this additional ammonia will be taken care of.

Fresh Water Caution

Tap water usually has chemicals added to it. Chlorine and chloramines can be deadly to Koi. These chemicals can burn the gills of Koi and suffocation may result. Well or borehole water usually does not contain any oxygen and placing Koi directly into fresh well or borehole water can result in severe stress, even death.

Page 76

CHAPTER 11: EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS & MEDICATIONS ON FILTERS

Effects of Various Chemicals and Medications on Filters & Biofilters

There is no such thing as a Koi medication. The vast majority of the substances we administer to Koi and the vast majority of substances we add to the pond water are poisons administered in limited dosages. These are radical perceptions, yes, however virtually any medication or chemical will disrupt the ecology of the pond to some degree or the other. Some Koi keepers with experience in treating Koi regularly advocate a good dose of bentonite clay after treatment is completed. The bentonite will adsorb the residual chemicals and medications out of the pond water.

The Koi
Koi will be affected by medications and chemical treatments. They take longer to recover than we realise. Give them time to recover.

Filters
Technically speaking, filters will not suffer damage from treatments because their primary function is to trap solids.

Biofilters
Biofilters can suffer some limited damage to the biofilm and the micro organisms growing there. The stronger the medications and the stronger the chemicals used, the more damage will occur. Any substance that kills bacteria will very likely be harmful to the bacteria in the biofilters especially the individual cells in new ponds where the biofilm has not matured into a protective matrix. This would include antibiotics and powerful oxidizing agents such as potassium permanganate.

The Pond
Allow the pond and filter system time to recover after treatments. Monitor the ammonia and other pollutant levels during recovery. Try to treat koi away from the pond in a separate tank if possible.

Page 77

CHAPTER 12: POND-SIDE ANALYSIS OF FILTRATION PROBLEMS

Analysing Pond & Filtration Problems

After studying Koi Keeping in a little more depth we are often called upon to assist others. Further, when problems arise in our own ponds we have to analyse the situation and solve the problem. We can often arrive at a correct diagnosis and solution simply by using our expertise. At the edge of a pond we do not have many scientific instruments or laboratory analysis at our disposal, therefore, we have to use the tools we do have:
OBSERVATION Is an act or instance of viewing or noting a fact or occurrence for some scientific or other special purpose. Observe the Koi collection. Observe everything related to the filtration system, water flow and the health of the koi. DEDUCTION Deduction is the act or process of deducing. Here our Sherlock Holmes skills come into play Is the problem related to disease or the filtration/water quality. Has the problem been introduced via new fish or has the problem developed from stress i.e. a deterioration in water quality.

LOGIC Logic is a process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the premises presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true Build a time line of the events that led to the problem and when the problem occured. Construct a list of pertinent questions for the Koi keeper, even if it is in your head.

EXPERIENCE Experience is the knowledge or practical wisdom gained from what one has observed, encountered, undergone or learned from others Use your experience to make recomendations and offer solutions. Recommend lab analysis if KHV or bacterial diseases or suspected. Always return to basics, the solution is often found in the basics.

SOLUTION Solutions need not be complicated. Tailor the solution to the Koi keepers needs and budget. Give alternative suggestions to Koi keepers to increase their knowledge and understanding.

Page 78

REFERENCES & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Advanced Koi Care - Dr. Nicholas Saint-Erne Aquacultural Engineering - Fredrick Wheaton Aquarist & Pondkeeper - John Dawes Basic Koi Ponds, Filters and Water Quality published by the Associated Koi Clubs of America Book of Water Gardens- John Dawes Community Structure and Co-operation in Biofilms - Edited by David G. Allison, P. Gilbert, H. M. Lappin-Scott and M. Wilson Environmental Stress and Fish Diseases Wedemeyer, Linwood S. Smith Filtration De-Simplified - Gerry Preston Fish Health Management - Prof. G. W. Klontz Manual to Nishikigoi - Dr. Takeo Kuroki Microbial Biofilms - Hilary M. Lappin-Scott, J. William Costerton and James Lynch Microbiology Lancing M. Prescott, John P. Harley and Donald A. Klein Nichirin - The official magazine of Zen Nippon Airinkai - The Japanese Koi Keepers Association Pond Water Chemistry Norm Meck Recirculating Aquaculture Systems, Second Edition M. B. Timmons, J. M. Ebeling, F. W. Weaton, S. T. Summerfelt and B. J. Vinci Rinko - The official magazine of the Japanese Breeders and Dealers Association The Cult of the Koi Takeo The Manual of Fish Health - Dr. Chris Andrews, Dr. Neville Carrington and Adrian Exell The Practical Encyclopedia of Koi Ann Mcdowell The Water Quality Requirements of Fishes Peter Doudoroff Water Quality Criteria for Freshwater Fish John S. Alabaster and R. Lloyd Water Quality Guidelines for Freshwater Aquaculture - Dept. of Water Affairs and Forestry & Dept. Zoology - RAU Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture - C.E. Boyd Water Quality Management for Pond Fish Culture - C.E. Boyd Fred P. Meyer, Gary A.

Page 79

INDEX
activated carbon, 21, 71 activated sludge, 19 aerobic, 19 air blower, 76 air lift, 19 air-bumping filters, 76 algae, 11, 13, 14, 25, 54, 75 algae reproduction rates, 37 controlling algae, 32 ammonia, 8, 11, 12, 15, 19, 37, 41, 43, 60, 61, 63, 66, 70 ambient ammonia, 19, 37 effects on koi, 60 toxicity, 13 anaerobic bacteria, 21, 55 antibiotics, 68 back flushing, 20 bacteria bacteria in the biofilter, 48 bakki showers, 64 bentonite, 31 biofilms, 49 and flow rates, 50 and organics, 51 development, 49 biofilter, 10, 20, 60, 61 floating bead biofilter, 66 frequency of cleaning, 76 in pond biofilters, 65 maintenance, 74 mature biofilters, 49 open biofilters, 63 oxygen requirements, 48 pressurised biofilters, 66 shutting down biofilters, 68 size, 66 starting up biofilters, 62 surface area of the biofilter, 67 trickle biofilters, 63 biological filtration, 20 carbon dioxide, 9, 20, 24, 61 cat litters, 31 chamber surface area, 67 chemolithotrophs, 24, 61 chloramines, 78 Chlor-Am-X, 78 chlorine, 77 circulation, 28, 33 clays, 31 degass, 21 Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC), 58 DOC dissolved organic carbon, 22 filter cleaning filter beds, 76 filter media various filter media materials, 46 filters frequency of cleaning, 76 granular media filters, 54 maintenance, 74 pressurised filters, 54 screens, 54 filtration, 9, 10, 46 three types of mechanical filters, 53 fish faeces, 37, 75 flotation filtration, 58 flow rate, 10, 22, 23, 41, 43, 55, 68, 73 and ammonia levels, 37 through biofilters, 43 through pipes, 41 fluidisation, 65 fluidized bed filters, 65

Page 80

foam, 58 foam fractionators, 72 free nitrogen, 60 fresh water, 7 friction loss, 22, 39 overcoming friction losses, 40 gas bubble disease, 23 gravel, 46, 55, 65, 67, 72 gravity fed pipes, 39 gravity seperation, 57 heavy metals removal from the water, 70 heterotrophic bacteria, 23, 62 heterotrophs, 45, 46 hydraulic load, 23 hydroclones, 57 hydrogen sulphide, 23, 28, 35, 47, 75 Hydrogen Sulphide, 11 ion exchange, 23 Koi length & body mass, 16 lava rock, 46 logarithmic scale, 24 mature filters, 43 mechanical filters, 54 media, 24, 43, 45, 54, 63, 65, 67, 68, 75, 76 and water flow, 47 depth, 48 filter media, 45 lay-out and packing, 47 sinking media, 66 surface area, 49 surface area, 46 total surface area, 46 metabolism, 8, 14, 15, 16 multi cyclone, 58 nitrate, 24, 60 nitrification, 21 nitrifying bacteria, 10, 11, 12, 15, 41, 43, 45, 46, 61, 63, 66, 68

nitrite, 25, 60 nitrobacter, 20, 61 nitrosomonas, 20, 61 nitrospira, 20, 61 nitrous oxide, 21, 60 odours removing odours from the pond, 70 open filters, 53 organics, 11, 25, 28, 30, 32 and biofilms, 51 and turnover rates, 38 oxygen, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 43, 55, 61 and altitude, 28 and altitude, 14 and turnover rates, 28 dissolved oxygen, 21 dissolving oxygen into water, 34 dissolving oxygen into water, 28 saturation levels, 29 ozone, 25 parallel, 22, 68 pH, 12, 13, 15, 16, 61, 69 and ammonia, 61 and Koi, 13 pollutants, 30 pond maintenance, 74 potassium permanganate, 79 pressurised filters, 53 pumps, 43 Salt, 70 sand filters, 54 and restrictions, 55 in parallel, 55 Sand Filters, 25 seeding biofilters, 63 sequence, 22 settled solids, 28 settlement, 54 sodium thiosulphate, 78

Page 81

solids, 30 dissolved solids, 31 removing solids, 42 settled solids, 24, 25 suspended solids, 26, 30 total dissolved solids

turbidity, 26 turn over rate, 41 turnover rate and dissolved oxygen, 39 calculating turnover rates, 36 of the whole pond, 43 turnover rates, 36 UV lights, 27, 32 UV Lights, 71 vegetable filters, 72 venturie, 27 venturies, 9, 14 vortex, 27, 57 water hardness, 70 water changes, 77 water circulation, 33 zeolite, 21, 70 and salt, 70

TDS, 21
specific flow rate, 22 stagnant water, 35 stocking density, 16, 26 stone, 67 stratification, 26 streams, 72 supersaturation, 26 nitrogen, 26 oxygen, 26 surface skimmers, 58 temperature, 12, 13, 15, 16 and dissolved oxygen, 29 trickle filters, 47, 64

Page 82