Definition of Coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called

coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Bituminous coal

Throughout history, coal has been a useful resource for human consumption. It is primarily burned as a fossil fuel for the production of electricity and/or heat, and is also used for industrial purposes such as refining metals. Coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over a long period of time. About 300 million years ago, the earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to natural processes, like flooding, these forests got buried under the soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. For the process to continue, the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidization, usually by mud or acidic water. This traps the carbon in immense peat bogs that are eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature dead vegetation got slowly converted to coal. As coal [3] contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide shallow seas of the Carboniferous period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the Lower Triassic, where coal is rare: presumably a result of the mass extinction which prefaced this era. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants: [4][5] this coal is presumed to have originated from algal residues. Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. Gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those [6] from petroleum and about double the amount from natural gas. Coal is extracted from the ground by mining, either underground byshaft mining through the seams or in open pits.

Types of Coals As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into: Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water Lignite or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation and is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry. Bituminous coal is dense sedimentary rock, black but sometimes dark brown often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use it is sometimes known as sea-coal in [7] the U.S. Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating Anthracite, the highest rank of coal is a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania Graphite, technically the highest rank is difficult to ignite and is not commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

Bituminous coal is soft coal that may vary from low to high volatile content, with calorific values ranging from 10,500 to 14,000 Btu/lb on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. Bituminous coal is prevalent in the eastern United States. Coal rank indicates the degree of coalification that has occurred for a particular coal. Coal is formed by the decomposition of plant matter without free access to air and under the influence of moisture, pressure, and temperature. Over the course of the geologic process

that forms coalcoalificationthe chemical composition of the coal gradually changes to compounds of lower hydrogen content and higher carbon content in aromatic ring structures. As the degree of coalification increases, the percentage of volatile matter decreases and the calorific value increases. The common ranks of coal are anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and brown coal/lignite. Excluded minerals are minerals (inorganic compounds) that may be mined with the coal but are not an intrinsic part of the coal. Included minerals are minerals (inorganic compounds) that are part of the coal particle and matrix. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest-rank solid coal. Lignite typically has a high moisture content and calorific values of less than 8300 Btu/lb on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. U.S. lignites are found in North Dakota, Montana, Texas, and other Gulf Coast states. Subbituminous coal is a black coal with calorific values ranging from 8300 to 10,500 Btu/lb on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. Subbituminous coals are found in the western United States, primarily in Montana, Wyoming, and Alaska, with significant additional deposits in New Mexico and Colorado.

The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is [8] classified as follows:

German English Volatiles Classificatio Designatio % n n

C Carbon %

H Hydrogen %

O Oxygen %

S Sulfur %

Heat conten t kJ/kg

Braunkohle

Lignite

45-65

60-75

6.0-5.8

34-17

0.5-3

<2847 0

Flammkohle

Flame coal 40-45

75-82

6.0-5.8

>9.8

~1

<3287 0

Gasflammkohl Gas flame e coal

35-40

82-85

5.8-5.6

9.8-7.3

~1

<3391 0

Gaskohle

Gas coal

28-35

85-87.5

5.6-5.0

7.3-4.5

~1

<3496 0

Fettkohle

Fat coal

19-28

87.5-89.5 5.0-4.5

4.5-3.2

~1

<3538 0

Esskohle

Forge coal

14-19

89.5-90.5 4.5-4.0

3.2-2.8

~1

<3538 0

Magerkohle

Non baking 10-14 coal

90.5-91.5 4.0-3.75

2.8-3.5

~1

35380

Anthrazit

Anthracite

7-12

>91.5

<3.75

<2.5

~1

<3530 0

Percent by weight

The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the Englishlanguage sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has < 6% volatiles). Cannel coal (sometimes called "candle coal"), is a variety of fine-grained, high-rank coal with significant hydrogen content. It consists primarily of "exinite" macerals, now termed "liptinite". Calorific Value of Coal The energy value of coal, or the fuel content, raj is the amount of potential energy in coal that can be converted into actual heating ability. The value can be calculated and compared with differentgrades of coal or even other materials. Materials of different grades will produce differing amounts of heat for a given mass.

While chemistry provides methods of calculating the heating value of a certain amount of a substance, there is a difference between this theoretical value and its application to real coal. The grade of a sample of coal does not precisely define its chemical composition, so calculating the actual usefulness of coal as a fuel requires determining its proximate and ultimate analysis (see "Chemical Composition" below). [edit]Chemical

composition

Chemical composition of the coal is defined in terms of its proximate and ultimate (elemental) analyses. The parameters of proximate analysis are moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon. Elemental or ultimate analysis encompasses the quantitative determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen within the coal. Additionally, specific physical and mechanical properties of coal and particular carbonization properties The calorific value Q of coal is the heat liberated by its complete combustion with oxygen. Q is a complex function of the elemental composition of the coal. Q can be determined experimentally using calorimeters. Dulong suggests the following approximate formula for Q when the oxygen content is less than 10%: Q 93S, where C is the mass percent of carbon, H is the mass percent of hydrogen, O is the mass percent of oxygen, and S is the mass percent of sulfur in the coal. With these constants, Q is given in kilojoules per kilogram. Coal is a form of fossil fuel Fossil fuel has potential energy and that potential energy it came from the sun Natural gas Oil Contain substantial energy content ( potential energy) All energy came from the SUN The calorific value or heat of combustion or heating value of a sample of fuel is defined as the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the case of a sample of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion cooled to a standard temperature of 298 degree K. It is usually expressed in Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Higher Heating Value (HHV) and Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Lower Calorific Value (LHV). The difference being the latent heat of condensation of the water vapor produced during the combustion process. Gross calorific value assumes all vapor produced during the combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific value assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash, moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent. Energy content of the Indian Coal is expressed in Useful Heating Value (UHV) basis. Indian coal (non-coking) is classified by grades (A-G) defined on the basis of Useful Heat Value (UHV). UHV is an expression derived from ash and moisture contents for non-cocking coals as per the Government of India notification. UHV is defined by the formula:

UHV kcal/kg = (8900-138[percentage of ash content +percentage of moisture content])

In the case of coal having moisture less than 2% and volatile content less than 19%, the UHV shall be the value arrived as above, reduced by 150 kcal/kg for each 1% reduction in volatile content below 19% fraction pro-rata. Both moisture and ash shall be determined after equilibrating at 60% relative humidity and 40C temperature as per relevant clauses of the Indian Standard Specification No. IS:1350-1959. The quality of coal depends upon its rank and grade. The coal rank arranged in an ascending order of carbon contents is Lignite sub-bituminous coal bituminous coal anthracite Indian coal is of mostly sub-bituminous rank, followed by bituminous and lignite (brown coal). The ash content in Indian coal ranges from 35% to 50%. Chemical composition of the coal is defined in terms of its proximate and ultimate (elemental) analysis. The parameters of proximate analysis are moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon. Elemental or Ultimate analysis encompasses the quantitative determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The calorific value Q, of coal is the heat liberated by its complete combustion with oxygen. Q is a complex function of the elemental composition of the coal. Gross Calorific value Q is mostly determined by experimental measurements. A close estimate can be made with the Dulong formula:

Q = (144.4 %[C])+(610.2 %[H])-(65.9 %[O])+(0.39 %[O]2) Q is given in kcal/kg or Btu/lb.

Values of the elements C,H, and O, are calculated on a dry ash-free coal basis. Empirical Relationship of GCV, UHV, and NCV UHV:

Useful heat value = 8900 138(A+M) GCV: Gross Calorific Value = (UHV + 3645 -75.4 M)/1.466NCV: Net Calorific Value = GCV 10.02M
UHV, GCV, NCV in kcal/kg, A is %age Ash; M is %age Moisture. Non-coking Coals produced in all states other than Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland are graded on the basis of Useful heat value(UHV) in kcal/kg from Grade: A (>6200) B (5600-6200) C (4940-5600) D (4200-4940) E (3360-4200) F (2400-3360) G (1300-2400)

Coal from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland are not graded. Coking coal used for steel industry grade-I (ash<15%) and grade-II (ash 15-18%). Further classification for semi-coking, weakly coking coal is done on ash %age and UHV.

The origin of Indian coal is through drift theory, as a result of which the coal matter is intimately mixed with mineral matter causing deterioration in its quality. Coal of most of the other coal producing countries originates through insitu theory in which the possibility of deterioration of the quality is far less during its formation stage. Indian coal due to its origin has some inherent ash content and some extraneous ash content. The inherent ash cannot be taken away because it is embedded in the coal in such a fine manner that you just cannot take it off. Extraneous ash can be taken care of by washing. The wash-ability curve shows that to reduce ash below a certain limit, there is too much of rejects in it and each percentage of ash reduction in the coal will cost lot of money. It is totally dependent on the economics. Due to this particular fact, the wash-ability characteristics of Indian coal the washing becomes, at times, prohibitive, vis--vis cost. Coal is mostly beneficiated before dispatches in most of the countries abroad, which results in consistent quality of the product. In the GCV system of grading of non-coking coal, it is possible to determine the exact value of non-coking coal grades supplied to consumers whereas in the existing UHV system, the heat value cannot be determined directly but computed by using an empirical formula based on ash and moisture content. The band variation in GCV grades of non-coking coal is narrower than the existing variation of heat value in the UHV system. The average GCV of total coal supplied to different sectors including power sectors during the past few years has been of the order of 4900 kcal/kg. This is far below the GCV of imported coal which often exceeds 6000 kcal/kg. Existing system of grading of non-coking coal on the basis of Useful Heat Value (UHV) to Gross Calorific Value (GCV) is under review by government.

Coal Generate Power

Introduction:
The use of electricity has been an essential part of the U.S. economy since the turn of the century. Coal power, an established electricity source that provides vast quantities of inexpensive, reliable power has become more important as supplies of oil and natural gas diminish. In 1995, Coal burning produced about 55% of the electricity

generated in the U.S. In addition, know coal reserves are expected to last for centuries at current rates of usage. Coal power is a rather simple process. In most coal fired power plants, chunks of coal are crushed into fine powder and are fed into a combustion unit where it is burned. Heat from the burning coal is used to generate steam that is used to spin one or more turbines to generate electricity.

History:
Coal has played a major role in electrical production since the first power plants that were built in the United States in the1880's. The earliest power plants used hand fed wood or coal to heat a boiler and produce steam. This steam was used in reciprocating steam engines which turned generators to produce electricity. In 1884, the more efficient high speed steam turbine was developed by British engineer Charles A. Parsons which replaced the use of steam engines to generate electricity. In the 1920s, the pulverized coal firing was developed. This process brought advantages that included a higher combustion temperature, improved thermal efficiency and a lower requirement for excess air for combustion. In the 1940s, the cyclone furnace was developed. This new technology allowed the combustion of poorer grade of coal with less ash production and greater overall efficiency. Presently, coal power is still based on the same methods started over 100 years ago, but improvements in all areas have brought coal power to be the inexpensive power source used so widely today.

Coal Fired Power Generation Technologies: * Pulverized Coal System :

The concept of burning coal that has been pulverized into a fine powder stems from the belief that if the coal is made fine enough, it will burn almost as easily and efficiently as a gas. The feeding rate of coal according to the boiler demand and the amount of air available for drying and transporting the pulverized coal fuel is controlled by computers. Pieces of coal are crushed between balls or cylindrical rollers that move between two tracks or "races." The raw coal is then fed into the pulverizer along with air heated to about 650 degrees F from the boiler. As the coal gets crushed by the rolling action, the hot air dries it and blows the usable fine coal powder out to be used as fuel. The powdered coal from the pulverizer is directly blown to a burner in the boiler. The burner mixes the powdered coal in the air suspension with additional pre-heated combustion air and forces it out of a nozzle similar in action to fuel being atomized by a fuel injector in modern cars. Under operating conditions, there is enough heat in the combustion zone to ignite all the incoming fuel.

* Cyclone Furnaces:
Cyclone furnaces were developed after pulverized coal systems and require less processing of the coal fuel. They can burn poorer grade coals with higher moisture contents and ash contents to 25%. The crushed coal feed is either stored temporarily in bins or transported directly to the cyclone furnace. The furnace is basically a large cylinder jacketed with water pipes that absorb the some of the heat to make steam and protect the burner itself from melting down. A high powered fan blows the heated air and chunks of coal into one end of the cylinder. At the same time additional heated combustion air is injected along the curved surface of the cylinder causing the coal and air mixture to swirl in a centrifugal "cyclone" motion. The whirling of the air and coal enhances the burning properties producing high heat densities (about 4700 to

8300kW/m2) and high combustion temperatures. The hot combustion gases leave the other end of the cylinder and enter the boiler to heat the water filled pipes and produce steam. Like in the pulverized coal burning process, all the fuel that enters the cyclone burns when injected once the furnace is at its operating temperature. Some slag remains on the walls insulating the burner and directing the heat into the boiler while the rest drains through a trench in the bottom to a collection tank where it is solidified and disposed of. This ability to collect ash is the biggest advantage of the cyclone furnace burning process. Only 40% of the ash leaves with the exhaust gases compared with 80% for pulverized coal burning. Cyclone furnaces are not without disadvantages. The coal used must have a relatively low sulfur content in order for most of the ash to melt for collection. In addition, high power fans are required to move the larger coal pieces and air forcefully through the furnace, and more nitrogen oxide pollutants are produced compared with pulverized coal combustion. Finally, the actual burner requires yearly replacement of its liners due to the erosion caused by the high velocity of the coal.

ow is Coal Converted to Electricity?

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity. Coal is first milled to a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more quickly. In these pulverised coal combustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coal is blown into the combustion chamber of a boiler where it is burnt at high temperature (see diagram below). The hot gases and heat energy produced converts water in tubes lining the boiler into steam.

The high pressure steam is passed into a turbine containing thousands of propeller-like blades. The steam pushes these blades causing the turbine shaft to rotate at high speed. A generator is mounted at one end of the turbine shaft and consists of carefully wound wire coils. Electricity is generated when these are rapidly rotated in a strong magnetic field. After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed and returned to the boiler to be heated once again. The electricity generated is transformed into the higher voltages (up to 400,000 volts) used for economic, efficient transmission via power line grids. When it nears the point of consumption, such as our homes, the electricity is transformed down to the safer 100-250 voltage systems used in the domestic market.

Efficiency Improvements
Improvements continue to be made in conventional PCC power station design and new combustion technologies are being developed. These allow more electricity to be produced from less coal - known as improving the thermal efficiency of the power station. Efficiency gains in electricity generation from coal-fired power stations will play a crucial part in reducing CO2 emissions at a global level. Efficiency improvements include the most cost-effective and shortest lead time actions for reducing emissions from coal-fired power generation. This is particularly the case in developing countries where existing power plant efficiencies are generally lower and coal use in electricity generation is increasing. Not only do higher efficiency coal-fired power plants emit less carbon dioxide per megawatt (MW), they are also more suited to retrofitting with CO2 capture systems. Improving the efficiency of pulverised coal-fired power plants has been the focus of considerable efforts by the coal industry. There is huge scope for achieving significant efficiency improvements as the existing fleet of power plants are replaced over the next 1020 years with new, higher efficiency supercritical and ultra-supercritical plants and through the wider use of Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems for power generation.

A one percentage point improvement in the efficiency of a conventional pulverised coal combustion plant results in a 2-3% reduction in CO2 emissions.

What are the pros of coal power?

1. Coal is extremely plentiful, which makes it an economic fuel for industrial nations all over the world. It also means that coal reserves are unlikely to run out any time soon. 2. Unlike natural gas and oil, coal is a fairly inexpensive fuel to burn in power stations, which means lower energy bills for consumers. 3. Coal is also a versatile fuel and can be converted into a gas or liquid form for cleaner burning, which means less environmental pollution. 4. Coal is capable of generating huge amounts of electricity very cheaply. 5. Coal fired power stations can be built anywhere as long as there are transport links to supply the necessary fuel. 6. Coal is easily transported all over the world.

What are the cons of coal power?

1. Whilst the supply of coal is currently perceived to be plentiful, ultimately it is still a nonrenewable fuel source and at some point in the future, accessible coal reserves will start to run out and we will be forced to mine less accessible and more dangerous reserves of coal. As such, environmentalists are keen that we move away from fossil fuels such as coal and start concentrating more on renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar power. 2. One of the biggest disadvantages of coal power is that like other fossil fuels, there is serious air pollution concerns related to coal power. Coal fired power stations are responsible for the release of huge amounts of sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which in turn is a major contributory factor in global warming and acid rain contamination. 3. The emissions from coal fired power stations have also been linked to various long term health problems in those living and working in the vicinity of the power stations. Coal power emissions are thought to be responsible for higher levels of respiratory diseases such as asthma and, more seriously, lung cancer. 4. Coal mining is a dangerous activity and millions of people are killed or affected by ill health every year in the pursuit of coal. 5. Coal mining destroys the local habitat.

When coal is used in electricity generation, the heat is used to create steam, which then is used to power turbine generators. Approximately 40% of the Earth's current electricity production is powered by coal, and the total known deposits recoverable by current technologies are sufficient for at least 300 years' use. Modern coal power plants utilize a variety of techniques to limit the harmfulness of their waste products and improve the efficiency of burning, though these techniques are not widely implemented in some countries, as they add to the capital cost of the power plant. In the past, coal was converted to make coal-gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead. Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel. The process was used in Nazi Germany, and for many years in South Africa - in both cases, because those regimes were politically isolated and unable to purchase crude oil on the open market. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal indicate that domestic US production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel [3], which is well above historical averages - but this may change in future. Store coals
People with coal fires can have coal bunkers that are made from plastic and they are very hardy products indeed. Available in a number of sizes they'll keep coal out of harm's way until you need to stock up on your fireside fuel. Other types of coal bunkers include products that are made from galvanised steel. Capable of withstanding all weather conditions these coal bunkers will last for my many years and they can keep large amounts of coal in a dry environment. Years ago it seemed like every household had a coal fire but there are fewer properties that benefit by solid fuel types of fire. I would recommend the use of a fire screen or guard at all times with a log fire or fires using a fuel that tends to 'spit' .You should always put a fireguard or fire screen in place when leaving the fire unattended (or falling asleep in front of the fire!). I recommend that you have your chimney swept at least once a year if using your fire occasionally or twice if using it on a regular basis. It is possible to undertake this task yourself using sweeps brush heads and rods. A warming coal fire can bring great pleasure during the winter months and if it has items of fireplace accessories it will look more attractive by the minute. Now your fire is alive and roaring you can sit back and enjoy it, why not have a bit of fun and try toasting bread, crumpets, marshmallows on a toasting fork or roasting chestnuts by the fire on a chestnut roaster. The Fire Side Shop is the latest addition to a long established family business, est. 1947. Our business has a widespread reputation for quality goods and service as well as friendly and helpful advice.We

intend to give our on line customers the same high level of customer service that we have been giving to our shop customers for the past 60 years.

Coal Combustion Byproducts

Boiler slag is a molten ash collected at the base of slag tap and cyclone boilers that is quenched with water and shatters into black, angular particles having a smooth glassy appearance.

Bottom ash consists of agglomerated ash particles formed in pulverized coal boilers that are too large to be carried in the flue gases and impinge on the boiler walls or fall through open grates to an ash hopper at the bottom of the boiler. Bottom ash is typically gray to black in color, is quite angular, and has a porous surface structure. FBC materials consist of unburned coal, ash, and spent bed material used for sulfur control. The spent bed material (removed as bottom ash) contains reaction products from the absorption of gaseous sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3). FGD materials are derived from a variety of processes used to control sulfur emissions from boiler stacks. These systems include wet scrubbers, spray dry scrubbers, sorbent injectors, and a combined sulfur oxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) process. Sorbents include lime, limestone, sodium-based compounds, and high-calcium coal fly ash. Fly ash is the coal ash that exits a combustion chamber in the flue gas and is captured by air pollution control equipment such as electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, and wet scrubbers.
Coal Combustion
Currently, close to a billion tons of coal is burned annually to generate electricity in the United States, and as a result, nearly 130 million tons of coal combustion byproducts (CCBs) are produced. One-third of these CCBs are utilized, while the rest are disposed of mainly in landfills. Increasing costs and heightened regulations are making the disposal

of CCBs an undesirable option. Utilization of CCBs as raw materials results in numerous benefits, including:

A decrease in the demand for landfill space. Conservation of natural resources. A cleaner and safer environment. Reduced carbon dioxide emissions. Significant economic savings for end users. A boost in economic development. Reduced overall cost of generating electricity.

The environmental compatibility, abundance, availability, and economy of CCBs translate into benefits for industry. Industries benefit through significant cost savings without sacrificing product quality. In fact, the properties of CCBs are such that, in many applications, they improve the product. In engineering construction materials, coal ash can add value and enhance strength and durability while reducing cost. In agricultural applications, gypsum-rich products can provide plant nutrients and improve the tilth of depleted soils over large areas of the country. In waste stabilization, the cementitious and pozzolanic properties of these products can immobilize hazardous nuclear, organic, and toxic metal wastes for safe and effective environmental disposal. An outlook on the future of coal ash utilization can be found in the July/August 2003 issue ofElectric Perspectives The Outlook for CCP article provides an overview of the coal ash industry and discusses issues and challenges facing coal ash stakeholders.

Baghouse is a facility that removes fly ash from the flue gas by the use of fabric filter bags. Cyclone is the cone-shaped air-cleaning apparatus which operates by centrifugal separation that is used in particle collecting and fine grinding operations. Cyclone firing refers to slagging combustion of coarsely pulverized coal in a cylindrical (cyclone) burner. Some wet-bottom boilers are not cyclone-fired. The primary byproduct is a glassy slag referred to as boiler slag. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) collection of coal combustion fly ash requires the application of an electrostatic charge to the fly ash, which then is collected on grouped plates in a series of hoppers. Fly ash collected in different hoppers may have differing particle size

and chemical composition, depending on the distance of the hopper from the combustor. The ESP ash may also be collected as a composite. Fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) accomplishes coal combustion by mixing the coal with a sorbent such as limestone or other bed material. The fuel and bed material mixture is fluidized during the combustion process to allow complete combustion and removal of sulfur gases. Atmospheric FBC (AFBC) systems may be bubbling (BFBC) or circulating (CFBC). Pressurized FBC (PFBC) is an emerging coal combustion technology. Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) is removal of the sulfur gases from the flue gases, typically using a high-calcium sorbent such as lime or limestone. The three primary types of FGD processes commonly used by utilities are wet scrubbers, dry scrubbers, and sorbent injection. Gasification is the conversion of coal to a combustible gas, volatiles, char, and ash/slag. Byproducts from gasification systems vary widely. pc (pulverized coal) combustion refers to any combustion process that uses very finely ground (pulverized) coal in the process. Slag is the nonmetallic product resulting from the interaction of flux and impurities in the smelting and refining of metals. Slag cyclone is the primary combustion chamber for a cyclone-fired boiler. Ash from the coal melts in the cyclone and is removed as a slag. Stoker firing refers to the combustion of coal on a grate, which may be stationary or moving.
Pulverized Coal Combustion System

Combustion and conversion systems can generally be categorized into either of the following two categories: 1) current commercial technologies or 2) emerging technologies. The CCBs currently

produced and used primarily result from current commercial technologies, and of these, the most common are pulverized coal (pc) combustion, cyclone firing, and stoker firing. The illustration shows a simple schematic diagram for a typical pc combustion system. In this type of system, the coal is prepared by grinding to a very fine consistency for combustion. Typically, 70% of the coal is ground to pass through a mesh screen.

Ash is formed in the combustion chamber while coal combusts. There are several configurations for commonly used pc furnaces, which can impact ash formation, but the primary advantage of pc combustion is the very fine nature of the fly ash produced. In general, pc combustion results in approximately 65%85% fly ash, and the remainder is coarser bottom ash or boiler slag. Bottom ash is a coarse material and falls to the bottom of the combustion system. Fly ash is finer than bottom ash and is carried along the combustion process with flue gas. Particulate collection devices generally capture fly ash before being discharged into the atmosphere. Emerging technologies are being developed to improve cost, efficiency, and environmental compliance. Advanced clean coal

technologies, including atmospheric fluidized-bed combustors (AFBCs), circulating or pressurized fluidized-bed combustors (CFBCs or PFBCs), slagging combustors, and gasification systems, produce ash characteristics that differ significantly from conventional coalfiring technologies.
To understand efficient boiler operation, the combustion process must be understood. Stable combustion conditions requires the right amounts of fuels and oxygen. The combustion products are heat energy, carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, and other gases (excluding oxygen). In theory there is a specific amount of oxygen needed to completely burn a given amount of fuel. In practice, burning conditions are never ideal. Therefore, more air than ideal must be supplied to burn all fuel completely. The amount of air more than the theoretical requirement is referred to as excess air. Power plant boilers normally run about 10 to 20 percent excess air. Natural gas-fired boilers may run as low as 5 percent excess air. Pulverized coal-fired boilers may run with 20 percent excess air. Gas turbines runs very lean with up to 300 percent excess air. Typical values of excess air for some common fuels are shown in the table below:

Fuel

Excess of Air (%) 40 5 - 10 5 - 10 15 - 20 20 - 30 10 to 20 70 to 100

Anthracite Coke oven gas Natural Gas Coal, pulverized Coal, stoker Oil (No. 2 and No. 6) Semi anthracite, hand firing

Fuel

Excess of Air (%) 40 to 70 30 to 60

Semi anthracite, with stoker Semi anthracite, with traveling grate

To determine the excess air at which the combustion system will operate we have to start with the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, known as the perfect or ideal fuel ratio, the stoichiometric combustion. During stoichiometric combustion there is a chemically correct mixing proportion between the air and the fuel. During the stoichiometric combustion process no fuel or air are left over. Process heating equipment almost never runs stoichiometric. Even so-called "on-ratio" combustion, used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces incorporates a modest amount of excess air - 10 to 20% more than needed to burn the fuel completely. If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unburned fuel, soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide are exhausted from the boiler. The results is heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion. To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions, boilers normally operate at an excess air level. This excess air level also provides protection from insufficient oxygen conditions caused by variations in fuel composition and "operating slops" in the fuel-air control system.

Technical and specification for coals Introduction Coal Specifications mean different things to different people. Ask yourself: What am I trying to accomplish with coal specifications? 1. Raise the market price I pay for coal. 2. Ensure I am receiving market based pricing. 3. Make life a joy at the plant, (feet up coal). 4. Avoid all problems at plant. 5. Control major problems at plant

6. Control quality from the mine 7. Control product consistency These and other important business considerations are all influenced by the use of coal specification. This short paper will attempt to cover the main objectives in setting coal specifications. These include which specifications are important. Why there is a difference between bid and contract specs. How to ensure you are enforcing your specifications, and several other important aspects of setting quality parameters. Coal Quality There are many influences that determine coal quality. Depositional environment, geological forces, ground water, mining methodology and care, coal preparation (washing), and storage all influence the coal a power plant ultimately uses. Good sampling and laboratory practices can quantify many quality parameters. An understanding of coal quality and quality impacts on power plant performance can help utilities determine what parameters are most important and cause the most concern. These quality parameters are quantified and set forth in the specification section of coal contracts and purchase orders The electric power industry is rapidly changing due to deregulation. The author was present one hot day in June of this year, when a southeastern utility company was selling electricity for $5,000.00 per megawatt with $85.00 cost. Typical power cost range from the mid teens at night to about $30.00 on a normal day. The free market

place will challenge the power industry in many ways. Fuel is the major cost in electric power. In a regulated industry the cost of fuel was passed on to the customers. Fuels were chosen to minimize problems such as handling, combustion, ash deposits and other operational and maintenance concerns. Tight specifications were used to eliminate or minimize coals that caused problems. These tight specifications raised the price of fuel by minimizing competition. Deregulation is on its way. As the power stations become individual profit centers, plant management must take a more proactive role in fuel selection. When the plant starts to take a more active role in the selection process, it develops improved communication with fuel purchasing as well as a more accurate overall understanding of coal quality. Fuel cost is always a major production cost. Understanding how coal quality impacts plant performance and cost, allows better fuel selection and specification decisions. The plants need to become more aware of the nature of coal and implement creative solutions for problems arising from differing coal quality. The potential of lowering fuel cost is so significant that most utilities will at least explore their options. How well plants take advantage of their knowledge, may determine, whether they will be able to compete in a free market place Coal Specifications There are many types of specifications used to describe coal, these include:

Geological - location, basin, seam, and rank Physical - heating value, size, moisture, ash, HGI, ash fusion temp Chemical sulfur, ash chemistry, ultimate and trace elements The key to the use of these specifications is to understand the relationships these parameters have on the performance and cost of making electricity. This should include the impacts on efficiency, maintenance, load limiters, and forced outage rates. Unfortunately, even the best computer models are limited in their ability to accurately predict the costs associated with different quality coals. The best source of information for this assessment is the plants experience. The knowledge and sophistication level of the plant employees will greatly influence the range of acceptable specifications, and can play a key role in the risk assessment of using of alternative fuels. Specifications are meaningful only if there is a strong correlation with plant performance, cost, load, and or forced outage. If not, why are you using them? The following is a short list of the major components at a power plant that are impacted by coal quality along with several tests used to measure quality parameters: Coal Handling coal size, surface moisture

Pulverization heating value, HGI, moisture, sizeCombustion, NOx volatile matter, HGI, moisture Efficiency moisture, hydrogen Ash deposits ash, heating value, sulfur, ash fusion temps., ash chemistry, iron, calcium, sodium Opacity - ash, heating value, sulfur, sodium, ash chemistry It should be noted that the US does not have a standard to measure the abrasiveness of coal and therefore it is near impossible to predict or correlate grinding equipment wear and tear and errosivness of coals in the laboratory. Specifications are meaningful only if they are enforced. Are you using verifiable quality control systems that protect your interests? Are you confident that the information is accurate a nd meaningful? Do you take action if quality parameters fall outside the spec? Do you differentiate between penalty and rejection specs? Are you consistent with your enforcement? All of these questions should be considered, why have specifications if you dont use them. Quality specifications can define your coal marketplace, in some cases they influence the fuel cost as much as transportation. This leads us to the next section. Bid verse Contract Specifications In the best of circumstances, you tell the world you can burn anything, and then you decide which fuel is the best for you.

You can open up your coal market place by being willing to consider any fuel specification. The key is to have, in place, the expertise to evaluate the impacts that each fuel will have on your operation and costs. This will generally improve the representativeness of the quality specifications offered, as it allows the mining company to describe their coal rather than try to fit into your specifications. Contract specifications are those used to control the quality of a coal once the price has been established. Many contracts now adjust the price of coal to the actual specification that the coal was shipped to. These include adjustments for ash and sulfur in addition to the heating value adjustments. Several contracts have even attempted to provide price adjustments Contract specifications should represent a given purchase situation and may not correlate to original bid specifications. You gain the expertise of quantifying the costs of different coal quality be keeping accurate records and by conducting test burns. Your test burn procedures should be designed to capture the type and quantity of information. Conclusion In conclusion, this short paper has attempted to get you to question where your specifications came from and how they are set. Developing a dialogue between the power plant and fuel purchasing using coal quality information and actual power plant experience is crucial. Understanding coal quality and the quality control process for

the mining industry is valuable. You can make meaningful specifications for your particular situation, but remember that specifications are used in many ways, make them work for you, not against you. There are differences in the use of bid and contract specifications, and you should consider how coal quality specifications impact the cost of doing your business. Thank you for this opportunity to address this subject.