Mechanical Properties of Structural alloys at Cryogenic Temperatures

Nipun P. Raval1, M. K. Gupta2, V.L.Tanna2 and D. S. Sharma1

1

Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India

2

Institute for Plasma Research, Bhat, Gandhinagar 382448, Gujarat, India

Abstract When structural metals/ alloys cooled below room temperature, their mechanical and thermal properties are expected to change. The effect of low temperatures must be considered in selection of materials for cryogenic and space applications. A major requirement of materials for liquefaction equipment and containment and transport of liquefied gases is toughness along with high strength to weight ratio at the boiling temperature of liquid. Usually temperatures of these liquefied gases are below (123 K), called cryogenic temperatures. Alloys of aluminum, copper, nickel steels, stainless steels and high nickel have been used successfully for liquefaction, containment and transport of these liquids. Structural materials selected for cryogenic c omponents o f su perconducting machinery, magnets and transmission systems must be suitable for use at liquid-helium to get superconductivity in them. Furthermore, these components are subjected to high stresses in service, and thus safeguards must be employed to minimize service failures. In order to obtain the required strength and toughness along with a reasonable degree of fabrication ability, certain austenitic stainless steels, aluminum alloys and copper alloys usually are designated for highly stressed components of structures that will be cooled with liquid helium. In this paper, mechanical properties of austenitic steels, aluminum alloys and copper have been discussed. Keywords: Cryo compatible materials, cryogenic application, superconductivity and mechanical properties

1. Introduction
It is essential for any design engineer to be familiar with the properties and behavior of material used in the system. It is not recommended to use carbon steel at cryogenic temperature as they become brittle at this temperature. Many alloys have shown good strength along with ductility at cryogenic application. At low temperature thermal agitation of atoms decreases and it vibrates less vigorously. Due to less vigorous vibration of atoms large amount of stress required to pull dislocations away from their atmosphere of alloying atoms. From this it is accepted that yield strength, ultimate strength, and hardness will increase at low temperature. Hence the elastic moduli will also increase. Various researchers have shown that ratio of fatigue strength to ultimate strength remains constant for most of structural alloys at low temperature, so fatigue strength increase as temperature decreases. A solid-solid transition reduces impact strength considerably and material becomes ductile. Lattice structure play vital role in impact strength, FCC structure shows good resistivity against impact than BCC at cryogenic temperature. The primary objective of this paper is to examine the effect of variation of temperature on material properties of widely used austenitic steel, aluminum alloys and beryllium copper for cryogenic application.

2. Austenitic Stainless Steel

AISI 300-series stainless steels, particularly type 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are widely used in cryogenic application. These steels have best combination of strength, stiffness and toughness at 4K. They retain FCC structure on cooling. Type 301 has been used in the application where extra high strength is required such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks for space application. Type 304 in annealed condition is used for tubing, pipes and valves employed for transfer of cryogens where relatively low strength is required. Type 310 is considered to be more stable at all cryogenic temperature so it is used for higher stability and toughness at cryogenic temperature. Type 316 are less stable than Type 310.Austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels, including nitrogen strengthened grades are most widely used in superconducting magnet systems. The chemical compositions of widely used austenitic steels for liquid helium service contains 18-20% Cr, 10-14% Ni, 1-2% Mn, 0.3 to 3 % Mo, 0.02-0.04% P, 0.003-0.02% S, 0.3-0.6% Si, 0.01-0.2% C and 0.03-0.16% N.

2.1 Tensile Properties of Stainless Steel

The effect of cryogenic temperatures on the tensile properties of the austenitic stainless steels is shown in Table 1.It is observed high ductility of the austenitic stainless steels is retained at cryogenic temperatures. The tensile strength increases largely than yield strength as the temperature decreases. Interstitial elements, such as carbon, are known to have marked effects on the yield strength exhibited at low temperatures. Increase in ultimate strength is due to martensite transform. Martensite transform is due to strain induced. Table1. Tensile property of various austenitic steel [2]
AISI TYPE 304 304 304 304L 304L 304L 310 310 310 Temperature (C) 24 -195.5 -254 24 -195.5 -254 24 -195.5 -254 Yield Strength MPa 227 393 439 193 241 233 310 585 796 Tensile Strength (MPa) 586 1416 1685 586 1340 1516 658 1085 1223 Elongation 60 43 48 60 42 41 60 54 56 Reduction in Area [%] 70 45 43 60 50 57 65 54 61

2.2 Effect of Nitrogen Addition on Austenitic Steels

For the annealed alloys, greatest effect of nitrogen addition is to produce increased yield strength at cryogenic temperature. Nitrogen strengthened austenitic stainless steels are widely used in superconducting magnet systems because the yield strength of 304N is approximately three times greater than the yield strength of 304 at 76K, the ultimate strength are approximately equal and the elongation of the 304N is superior at temperature below 220K. A consistent increase in yield strength with increasing nitrogen content is apparent in Fig1. It appears that austenitic stainless steel can be tailor made for 4K application by adjusting nitrogen concentration to produce desired yield strength.

Fig1.Yield strength at 4 K, 76 K and 295K for annealed austenitic stainless steels vs. weight percentage nitrogen. [2]

2.3 Impact behavior of Stainless steel base metal and weldments at low temperature
At cryogenic temperatures, toughness of steel slightly degraded. Austenitic stainless steel is candidate material for hydrogen energy transportation and storage system. Moreover, austenitic stainless steel is proposed for use as superconducting magnet structure for future fusion energy applications. Since the magnet structure experience large electromagnetic forces and operate under cryogenic environment, the weld metal characteristic particularly at low temperature must be assured. The effect of temperature on impact energy on base metal 304L and 316L and their SMAW and TIG welds are shown in Table3.

Table3 effect of temperature on impact energy (J) on base metal and their weldments [4]
Type 304L 316L A.R 85 63 -50 84 62 Base metal -100 -150 83 83 59 55 -196 82 53 A.R 40 32 -50 30 32 SMAW -100 -150 26 22 33 32 -196 18 23 A.R 72 55 -50 68 54 TIG -100 60 52 -150 56 48 -196 36 42

It has been seen from the table 3 that base metal retain good impact strength at low temperature than its weldments. SMAW and TIG weldments experience much higher amount of impact energy drop at low temperature. However these weldments are sufficiently ductile in cryogenic temperature range.

2.4 Hardness
In fusion experimental reactor, superconducting magnets experience electromagnetic forces. These forces make the magnets deform by its own, so slip occurs between contacting surfaces. Due to repeated slip on the materials frictional heating is generated there. So it is required to study hardness properties for super conducting magnets at cryogenic temperature. Table 4 below shows the result of the temperature dependence of hardness for austenitic stainless steels. The hardness increases with decreasing temperature down to around 77K. However it decreases after having a maximum value, and it increase again until 4.2 K. Temperature at which the hardness began to decrease is called transition temperature. This transition temperature depends on materials; 68K and 73 K for type 304 and type 316L steels, respectively. The hardness at transition temperature was around 2.5 times as high as the hardness 293 K, except for 316L (1.7 times). The hardness decreases by 80% of the peak value below the transition temperature, followed by the increase in hardness up to 4.2K. The value at 4.2 K is almost same as the hardness at the transition temperature or more for all stainless steels. Table 4 Hardness at room to cryogenic temperature [5]
Type 304 316L Hardness at 4K 4884 MPa 3793 MPa Transition Temp K 68 73 Hardness at Trans.Temp 4667 MPa 4097 MPa Hardness at 293 K 1810 MPa 2263 MPa H4.2/H293 2.70 1.68 Htrans/H4.2 0.96 0.93 Htans/H293 2.58 1.86

2.5 Fatigue Properties

It is observed from the different literature surveys that alloy content and temperature have minimal influence on the fatigue crack growth behavior of the 300 series stainless steels.

2.6 Fabrication Characteristics of austenitic stainless steels

The fabricability of austenitic stainless steel is certainly sufficient for fusion magnet system. Fabrication characteristics that should get special attention are welding, casting, machining, forming and forging. Austenitic stainless steel shows good weld ability at cryogenic temperature. The American Welded Society (AWS), designation system which is similar to AISI system for wrought product is generally used to classify stainless steel filled metals. Nitrogen increases yield strength but decreases

toughness of stainless steel weld metals. The austenitic stainless steels are widely used for manufacturing corrosion resistant castings. Annealed austenitic stainless steels are more difficult to machine than carbon steels or aluminum alloys due to their high tensile strength, work hardening rates and low thermal conductivity. These properties cause poor finishes, heat buildup and excessive tool wear. So heavier feeds ,slower speeds, better quality tool bits, more rigid machine and more power is required. Stainless steel has excellent formability. Alloys with more austenitic stability than types 304 and 316 may be needed if severe forming operation required. The austenitic stainless steels can be forged into shapes suitable for many magnet applications. Within family of austenitic stain less steel the forgeability of types 304 and 316 are very high.

3. Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys have been proposed for many structural applications in fusion magnet systems. Their application advantages are low fabrication cost, light weight, non magnetic behavior, stable microstructure, and good retention of strength and toughness at cryogenic temperatures. The main disadvantages are low strength in weldments. For fusion magnet structure the preferred aluminum alloys are 5083, 2219 and 6061.Nominal composition of these aluminum alloys includes 0.2-0.6% Si, 0.16.5% Cu, 0.15-0.7% Mn, 0.02-1.0% Mg, 0.15-0.20% Cr, Maximum 0.25% Zn, Maximum 0.15% Ti, 0-0.18 % Zr, 0-0.1%V Alloy 5038 is generally used in the annealed condition. Alloy 2219 and 6061 are generally used in a heat treated condition. Among these alloys 5083 has highest strength in the welded condition. Alloy 2219 highest strength in normal condition and recommended for bolted construction where space or weight need to be conserved.

3.1 Tensile Properties

The mechanical properties of alloys 5083, 6061 and 2219 at room temperature, liquid nitrogen and liquid helium temperature have been determined by many researchers. The Table 6 summarizes the mechanical properties at room and cryogenic temperature. Table 6 Tensile properties of aluminum alloys [6]
Alloy and temper 5083-0 5083-H321 6061-T651 Orientation L L L T 2219-T851 L T Temp.(K) 297 4 297 4 297 4 297 4 297 4 297 4 Tensile strength (MPa) 322 557 335 591 309 483 309 485 466 659 457 659 Yield strength (MPa) 141 178 235 279 291 379 278 363 371 484 353 481 Elongation (%) 19.5 32 15 29 16.5 25.5 15.2 23 11 15 10.2 13 Reduction of area (%) 26 33 23 33 50 42 42 33 27 26 22 21 NTS/YS 2.65 2.42 1.80 1.82 1.64 1.63 1.68 1.66 1.48 1.48 1.50 1.38

It is observed from the above Table6 that tensile strengths, and to a lesser extent the yield strength are superior at 4K.The ductility values are not significantly changed. Aluminum alloys having a wide range of strength levels are suitable for liquid helium applications. Still higher strength is available in several other alloys including 2014-T651, 2024-T851 and 7005 T5351.

3.2 Toughness
Aluminum alloys generally retain excellent toughness at cryogenic temperatures. The ratio of notched tensile strength to unnotched yield strength give useful measure of toughness at 4K. Ratio substantially greater than one, say 1.5 indicate alloys retain good ability to deform plastically. As seen from Table6, the 5083 and 6061 alloys have notch-yield ratios greater than 1.6 and the higher strength 2219-T851 has notch-yield ratios of about 1.4. Significantly lower ratios(1.0-1.25) occurs in other high strength alloys such as 2014-T651 and 2024-T851 and in most 7000 series alloys where ratio is sometimes below 0.4 at cryogenic temperature. Fracture toughness of 5083-O is 27 MPa, 43.4 MPa, and 48 MPa at 297K, 77K, and 4K respectively.

Fracture toughness of 2219-T87 is 30.8MPa and 35.0MPa at 297K and 77K respectively. For 6061-T651 toughness values are 29.1 and 41.6 MPa at 297K and 77K respectively. Among the alloys listed in above table6 5083-O has substantially greater toughness at low temperature, and its toughness increases as the temperature decreases. Hence 2219 & 6061 has the best combination of strength and fracture toughness both at room and at 77K.

3.3Fatigue
Data on fatigue crack growth in aluminum alloys at subzero temperatures are limited. From available data we can see that fatigue crack growth rate at subzero temperature are lower than those at room temperature at same K levels. Strain cycling fatigue test conducted on 2219-T851 at room temperature ,77K and 4 K indicates grater fatigue life at 4K than at higher temperature. Method of Universal slope gives reasonable prediction of fatigue behavior based on tensile properties at test temperature. The fatigue growth behavior of 5083-O, 2219-T87 at 4K indicates that growth rates at 4K are slower than rates at room temperature.

Fig.4 Fatigue behavior of 2219-T851 aluminum alloy at temperature of 300, 77 and 4K [6]

3.4 Fabrication Characteristics of aluminum alloys

The relative ease of fabricating large aluminum structure is the principal advantage of aluminum over stainless steel. In addition the lower weight of aluminum structures may facilitate assembly and erection of the large magnet structures anticipated for fusion energy system. Alloys 5083, 6061 and to lesser extent 2219 are readily weldable by the gas-metal-arc and gas tungsten arc process. Results of various research shows that annealed alloy retains full strength in welded condition, but cold worked and precipitation hardened alloys are weakened by welding. Aluminum alloy casting can be produced by variety of process and are generally satisfactory for nonstructural application at low temperature. Aluminum alloys, particularly the heat treated grades, have excellent machinability. Machined and bolted assemblies of high strength aluminum alloy can replace more costly welded stain less steel. Aluminum alloys have excellent formability in the annealed or the solution treated condition. Aluminum alloys have the best forgeability of all structural alloys because of their very low strength at forging temperature.

4. Copper Alloys
Copper and copper alloys have FCC crystal structures and retain high degrees of ductility and toughness at subzero temperatures. The major use of copper at cryogenic temperature is for stabilizer components of the windings in superconducting magnets, solenoid and power cables. Nominal compositions of Beryllium copper that is widely used for cryogenic application contains 98.1% Cu and 1.9% Be. Table7 shows the tensile, yield, elongation and toughness properties of beryllium copper. Table7 Tensile, yield, elongation and toughness properties of beryllium copper [7] Tensile Strength(Mpa) Yield Strength(Mpa) Elongation (%) Toughness 1320 @ 297K and 1140 @297 K and 4% @ 297K Charpy V-notch: 7J

Name Beryllium

copper(Alloy 25)

1640 @ 4K

1230 @ 4 K

10% @ 20 K

(R.T to 20K)

Beryllium copper has good tensile properties at cryogenic temperature. Its ductile and toughness properties are lower than stainless steel and aluminum alloys. It is common cryogenic pressure cell material. It is easy to machine. The main disadvantage is its toxic nature due to presence of beryllium.

5. Conclusion
From above study it is clear that conventional materials (Carbon Steel) are not suitable at cryogenic temperature because of ductile to brittle transition at this temperature. Austenitic stainless steel shows good ductile and tensile properties for low temperature applications. Their weldments show considerable reduction in mechanical properties but they are quiet enough for superconductivity and other cryogenic applications. It is very hard to fabricate these steel otherwise they fulfill all the requirements regarding mechanical properties. Aluminum alloys are also widely used materials in cryogenic application due to less weight, cost and ease of fabrication. The main drawback is their moderate strength at low temperature. So care should be taken in using aluminum alloy when strength is priority. Copper alloys are acceptable but generally not competitive with austenitic steel and aluminum alloy.

6. References
[1] C.Geyari, 1976, Design Consideration in the use of stainless steel for vacuum and cryogenic equipment, Vacuum/Volume 26/number 7, pp.287-297. [2]J.Campbell, 1992, Structural alloys at subzero temperatures, ASME Hand book 7th edition, pp.20.25-20.34 [3] D.Read, R.Reed, 1981, Fracture and strength properties of selected austenitic stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures, Cryogenics, pp.415-417 [4] O.Ibrahim, I.Ibrahim, T.Khalifa, 2010, Impact behavior of different stainless steel weldments at low temperatures Engineering Failure Analysis, 17, pp.1069-1076 [5]Y.Yoshino, A.Iwabuchi, R.Onodera, A.Chiba, K.Katagiri, T.Shimizu, 2001, Vickers hardness properties of structural materials for superconducting magnet at cryogenic temperatures, Cryogenics 41, pp.505511 [6] H.Mchenry, R.Reed, 1980, Structural alloys for superconducting magnets in fusion energy systems, Nuclear engineering and Design, 58, pp.219-236 [7] I. Walker, 2005, Consideration on the selection of alloys for use in pressure cells at low temperatures, Cryogenics, 45, pp.87-108